768:
form of screening already suspicious firms for industry traits of a typical cartel price path. A typical path often includes a formation phase in which prices decline, followed by a transition phase in which prices tend to rise, and end with a stationary phase in which price variance remains low. Indicators such as price changes alongside import rates, market concentration, time period of permanent price changes and stability of companies' market shares are used as economic markers to help supplement the search for cartel behaviour. On the contrary, when aiming to create suspicion around potential cartels, a behavioural approach is often used to identify behavioural collusive patterns, to initiate further economic analysis into identifying and prosecuting those involved in the operations. For example, studies have shown that industries are more likely to experience collusion where there are fewer firms, products are homogeneous and there is a stable demand.
810:
642:
study of 20th-century cartels determined that the mean duration of discovered cartels is from 5 to 8 years and overcharged by approximately 32%. This distribution was found to be bimodal, with many cartels breaking up quickly (less than a year), many others lasting between five and ten years, and still some that lasted decades. Within the industries that have operating cartels, the median number of cartel members is 8. Once a cartel is broken, the incentives to form a new cartel return, and the cartel may be re-formed. Publicly known cartels that do not follow this
331:, and marketing quotas. Cartels can be vertical or horizontal but are inherently unstable due to the temptation to defect and falling prices for all members. Additionally, advancements in technology or the emergence of substitutes may undermine cartel pricing power, leading to the breakdown of the cooperation needed to sustain the cartel. Cartels are usually associations in the same sphere of business, and thus an alliance of rivals. Most jurisdictions consider it anti-competitive behavior and have outlawed such practices. Cartel behavior includes
307:
53:
859:. In many countries, the predominant belief is that cartels are contrary to free and fair competition, considered the backbone of political democracy. Maintaining cartels continues to become harder for cartels. Even if international cartels cannot be regulated as a whole by individual nations, their individual activities in domestic markets are affected.
871:
803:
The application of leniency programme penalties varies according to individual countries policies and are proportional to cartel profits and years of infringement. However, typically the first corporation or individual to cooperate will receive the most reduced penalty in comparison to those who come
767:
In practice, detecting and desisting cartels is undertaken through the use of economic analysis and leniency programmes. Economic analysis is implemented to identify any discrepancies in market behaviour between both suspected and unsuspected cartel engaged firms. A structural approach is done in the
762:
Every person who shall monopolize, or attempt to monopolize, or combine or conspire with any other person or persons, to monopolize any part of the trade or commerce among the several States, or with foreign nations, shall be deemed guilty of a felony, and, on conviction thereof, shall be punished by
641:
for members to cheat by selling at below the cartel's agreed price or selling more than the cartel's production quotas. Many cartels that attempt to set product prices are unsuccessful in the long term because of cheating punishment mechanisms such as price wars or financial punishment. An empirical
519:
Cartels have many structures and functions that ideally enable corporations to navigate and control market uncertainties and gain collusive profits within their industry. A typical cartel often requires what competition authorities refer to as a CAU (Contact, Agreement or
Understanding). Typologies
633:
A survey of hundreds of published economic studies and legal decisions of antitrust authorities found that the median price increase achieved by cartels in the last 200 years is about 23 percent. Private international cartels (those with participants from two or more nations) had an average price
2229:
543:(implicit collusion), wherein smaller enterprises individually devise their prices and market shares in response to the same market conditions, without direct communication, resulting in a less competitive outcome. This type of collusion is generally legal and can achieve a monopolistic outcome.
776:
Leniency programmes were first introduced in 1978 in the US, before being successfully reformed in 1993. The underlying principle of a leniency program is to offer discretionary penalty reductions for corporations or individuals who are affiliated with cartel operations, in exchange for their
662:
Drawing upon research on organizational misconduct, scholars in economics, sociology and management have studied the organization of cartels. They have paid attention to the way cartel participants work together to conceal their activities from antitrust authorities. Even more than reaching
527:
Domestic cartels only have members from one country, whereas international cartels have members from more than one country. There have been full-fledged international cartels that have comprised the whole world, such as the international steel cartel of the period between World War I
326:
with each other as well as agreeing not to compete with each other in order to improve their profits and dominate the market. A cartel is an organization formed by producers to limit competition and increase prices by creating artificial shortages through low production quotas,
663:
efficiency, participating firms need to ensure that their collective secret is maintained. “However, the orchestrator, often the vendor with all information, typically remains unnoticed by antitrust authorities, raising questions about the culpability of unaware distributors.”
373:, which was borrowed into English. In English, the word was originally used for a written agreement between warring nations to regulate the treatment and exchange of prisoners from the 1690s onward. From 1899 onwards, the usage of the word became generalized as to mean
723:
Prior to World War II, members of cartels could sign contracts that were enforceable in courts of law except in the United States. Before 1945, cartels were tolerated in Europe and specifically promoted as a business practice in German-speaking countries. In
804:
forward later. The effectiveness of leniency programmes in destabilising and deterring cartels is evidenced by the decreased formation and discovery of cartels in the US since the introduction of the programmes in 1993. Some prosecuted examples include:
649:
Cartels often practice price fixing internationally. When the agreement to control prices is sanctioned by a multilateral treaty or protected by national sovereignty, no antitrust actions may be initiated. OPEC countries partially control the
777:
cooperation with enforcement authorities in helping to identify and penalise other participating members. According to the
Australian Department of Justice, the following 6 conditions must be met for admission into a leniency program:
1399:
John M. Connor. Cartel
Overcharges, p. 249–387 of The Law and Economics of Class Actions, in Vol. 29 of Research in Law and Economics, edited by James Langenfeld (March 2014). Bingley, UK: Emerald House Publishing Ltd.
736:
a combination of producers for the purpose of regulating production and, frequently, prices, and an association by agreement of companies or sections of companies having common interests so as to prevent extreme or unfair
813:
Graph showing the decline in formation and discoveries of cartels in the US following the introduction of leniency programmes in 1993. Following the introduction, cartel formations and discoveries decreased to all time
2286:
The development of cartel+ theory between 1883 and the 1930s – from international diversity to convergence: syndicats industriels, ententes, comptoirs, trusts, pools, combinations, associations, kartells, cartelle,
679:
and in its early stages was developed mainly by German-speaking scholars. These scholars tended to regard cartels as an acceptable part of the economy. At the same time, American lawyers increasingly turned against
426:, associations of craftsmen or merchants of the same trade, have been regarded as cartel-like. Tightly organized sales cartels existed in the mining industry of the late Middle Ages, like the 1301 salt syndicate in
617:
cartels implement common standards for sold or purchased products. If the members of a cartel produce different sorts or grades of a good, conversion factors are applied to calculate the value of the respective
799:
The
Division determines that granting leniency would not be unfair to others, considering the nature of the illegal activity, the confessing corporation's role in it, and when the corporation comes forward.
2165:
1010:
763:
fine not exceeding $ 100 million if a corporation, or, if any other person, $ 1 million, or by imprisonment not exceeding ten years, or by both said punishments, in the discretion of the court.
115:
1872:
1520:
Faulkner, Robert R.; Cheney, Eric R.; Fisher, Gene A.; Baker, Wayne E. (2003). "Crime by
Committee: Conspirators and Company Men in the Illegal Electrical Industry Cartel, 1954–1959".
1843:
2395:
916:
was the name for the consortium of seven transnational oil companies which dominated the global petroleum industry from the 1940s to the 1970s. The contemporary equivalent is
745:, which also prohibits price fixing, market-sharing, output restrictions and other anti-competitive conduct. Section 1 and 2 of the Act outlines the law in regards to cartels,
2490:
790:
The corporation reports the wrongdoing with candor and completeness and provides full, continuing and complete cooperation that advances the
Division in its investigation;
2432:
843:
Today, price fixing by private entities is illegal under the antitrust laws of more than 140 countries. The commodities of prosecuted international cartels include
1143:
452:(liberal) economic conditions dominated Europe and North America in the 18th and 19th centuries. Around 1870, cartels first appeared in industries formerly under
380:
The use of the
English word cartel to describe an economic group rather than international agreements was derived much later in the 1800s from the German
950:
784:
The
Division, at the time the corporation comes in, does not yet have evidence against the company that is likely to result in a sustainable conviction;
624:, also called "forced cartels", are established or maintained by external pressure. Voluntary cartels are formed by the free will of their participants.
634:
increase of 28 percent, whereas domestic cartels averaged 18 percent. Less than 10 percent of all cartels in the sample failed to raise market prices.
688:, which impeded the formation and activities of cartels, was passed in the United States in 1890. The American viewpoint, supported by activists like
400:
There's no more one-sided perspective than the one saying that such rate-cartels are "monopoly cartels" or cartels for the "exploitation of carriers".
293:
898:
Quinine to control production rates and pricing, operating in the early 20th century with two incarnations. During the early years of its operation,
499:. Between the late 19th century and around 1945, the United States was ambivalent about cartels and trusts. There were periods of both opposition to
2485:
1612:
Baker, Wayne E.; Faulkner, Robert R. (1993). "The Social
Organization of Conspiracy: Illegal Networks in the Heavy Electrical Equipment Industry".
787:
The corporation, upon its discovery of the illegal activity being reported, took prompt and effective action to terminate its part in the activity;
927:, an industry organization of cheese producers, functioned as a cartel through the extent of its control on cheese production in the 20th century.
2376:
Studien zur
Geschichte kapitalistischer Organizationsformen. Monopole, Kartelle und Aktiengesellschaften im Mittelalter und zu Beginn der Neuzeit
1861:
392:
efforts. The first time the word was referred to describe a kind of restriction of competition was by the Austro-Hungarian political scientist
809:
2441:
2139:
1723:
1698:
1119:
756:
or otherwise, or conspiracy, in restraint of trade or commerce among the several States, or with foreign nations, is declared to be illegal.
909:
existed among British manufacturers of vacuum tubes to regulate the pricing, electrode structure, and part numbering system for its members.
524:
Selling or buying cartels unite against the cartel's customers or suppliers, respectively. The former type is more frequent than the latter.
456:
conditions. Although cartels existed in all economically developed countries, the core area of cartel activities was in central Europe. The
2425:
374:
2669:
1959:
1832:
1330:
John M. Connor and Dan Werner. Variation in Bid-Rigging Cartels' Overcharges: SSRN Working Paper No. 3273988. (October 27, 2018).
589:: bidders for a tender agree on a bid price. They then do not bid in unison, or share the return from the winning bid among themselves.
729:
311:
1748:
1276:
887:
was established by lighting manufacturers in the early 20th century to control the pricing and lifespan of incandescent light bulbs.
262:
834:
Sodium gluconate: Defendants in the lysine case informed authorities of collusive behaviours between corporations in this industry.
427:
2244:. In: Geoffrey Jones; Jonathan Zeitlin (ed.): The Oxford handbook of business history. Oxford: Univ. Press, 2007, p. 268–293.
862:
Unlike other cartels, export cartels are legal in virtually all jurisdictions, despite their harmful effects on affected markets.
793:
The confession of wrongdoing is truly a corporate act, as opposed to isolated confessions of individual executives or officials;
596:
cartels share knowledge about technology or science within themselves while they limit the information from outside individuals.
2418:
511:
led to a worldwide cartel ban, where cartels continue to be obstructed in an increasing number of countries and circumstances.
781:
The corporation is the first one to come forward and qualify for leniency with respect to the illegal activity being reported;
100:
2679:
2475:
817:
878:(ATF) explicitly states in its 1923 manual that its goal is to "discourage unhealthy competition" in the printing industry.
913:
742:
685:
286:
205:
920:, an international organization of petroleum producing nations that sets production targets and prices among its members.
465:
2586:
2664:
2465:
2093:
1449:
and Valerie Y. Suslow. "What Determines Cartel Success?" Journal of Economic Literature 64 (March 2006): 43–95
1229:
Holm Arno Leonhardt: The development of cartel theory between 1883 and the 1930s. Hildesheim 2018. p. 18.
134:
69:
2321:
Martyniszyn, Marek, "Export Cartels: Is it Legal to Target Your Neighbour? Analysis in Light of Recent Case Law",
464:
were nicknamed the "lands of the cartels". Cartels were also widespread in the United States during the period of
2638:
2261:
1595:
906:
676:
574:
Territorial cartels distribute districts of the market to be used only by individual participants, which act as
279:
978:
895:
480:
35:
539:
for a commodity above the competitive price level. The loosest form of a price cartel can be recognized in
2533:
2497:
2364:
2354:
1293:
968:
875:
821:
696:, eventually prevailed when governmental policy in Washington could have a larger impact in World War II.
179:
1716:
Strategies to Achieve a Binding International Agreement on Regulating Cartels: Overcoming Doha Standstill
2612:
1931:
709:
267:
1679:
Holm Arno Leonhardt: The development of cartel theory between 1883 and the 1930s. Hildesheim 2018.
2521:
753:
500:
496:
222:
217:
105:
2290:
2628:
2470:
2296:
2281:
2271:
1446:
828:
508:
339:. Cartels are distinguished from other forms of collusion or anti-competitive organization such as
2527:
2185:
2051:
2012:
1629:
1587:
1382:
1137:
924:
681:
550:
241:
163:
2304:
1038:
388:. It was first used between German railway companies in 1846 to describe tariff- and technical
306:
2576:
2480:
2399:
2340:
2135:
2043:
2004:
1923:
1919:
1744:
1719:
1694:
1579:
1537:
1374:
1313:
1272:
1125:
1115:
988:
953:, a government-sanctioned private organization that regulates the production and marketing of
693:
621:
431:
227:
212:
95:
83:
2674:
2562:
2177:
2166:"Export Cartels: Is it Legal to Target your Neighbour? Analysis in Light of Recent Case Law"
2132:
Controlling International Technology Transfer: Issues, Perspectives, and Policy Implications
2069:
1996:
1660:
1621:
1571:
1529:
1477:
1427:
1419:
1364:
1356:
1305:
713:
600:
492:
469:
405:
393:
340:
335:, bid rigging, and reductions in output. The doctrine in economics that analyzes cartels is
236:
190:
186:
88:
2507:
2369:
Cartels or competition? The economics of international controls by business and government
2311:
1944:
983:
705:
614:
554:
540:
461:
389:
195:
174:
120:
44:
442:
and Naples. Both unions had common sales organizations for overall production called the
704:
Because cartels are likely to have an impact on market positions, they are subjected to
2570:
2234:
1557:"Rules, Communication, and Collusion: Narrative Evidence from the Sugar Institute Case"
1533:
1410:
Levenstein, Margaret C.; Suslow, Valerie Y. (2006). "What determined cartel success?".
943:
891:
884:
720:
is not considered a cartel but can be sanctioned through other abuses of its monopoly.
689:
643:
143:
125:
732:
noted the testimony of individuals who cited that a cartel, in its versatile form, is
2658:
2545:
2189:
1591:
672:
507:, the United States strictly turned away from cartels. After 1945, American-promoted
457:
449:
370:
336:
232:
200:
1478:"Research Guides: Oil and Gas Industry: A Research Guide: Organizations and Cartels"
1081:
1649:"Law and economics vs. formal legal approach in criminal prosecution of the cartel"
935:
651:
582:
532:
504:
484:
361:, which means a "leaf of paper" or "placard", and is itself derived from the Latin
332:
246:
159:
110:
2230:
Private international cartels. Effectiveness, welfare, and anti-cartel enforcement
2203:
52:
1033:
Margaret C. Levenstein and Valerie Y. Suslow, "What determines cartel success?."
2607:
2591:
2460:
1813:
973:
954:
848:
586:
483:, particularly in Europe and Japan. In the 1930s, authoritarian regimes such as
476:
453:
439:
423:
328:
169:
31:
2405:
1889:
1788:
1764:
1665:
1648:
1423:
1360:
1309:
2581:
1814:"Cartel Pricing Dynamics with Cost Variability and Endogenous Buyer Detection"
1502:
1331:
824:
alerted authorities of the existence of the cartel within the Lysine industry.
575:
2047:
2008:
1583:
1541:
1378:
1317:
1129:
1057:
2643:
2276:
Kartelltheorie und Internationale Beziehungen. Theoriegeschichtliche Studien
1240:
Kartelltheorie und Internationale Beziehungen. Theoriegeschichtliche Studien
1218:
Kartelltheorie und Internationale Beziehungen. Theoriegeschichtliche Studien
1205:
Kartelltheorie und Internationale Beziehungen. Theoriegeschichtliche Studien
1175:
Kartelltheorie und Internationale Beziehungen. Theoriegeschichtliche Studien
638:
637:
In general, cartel agreements are economically unstable in that there is an
564:
559:
546:
Quota cartels distribute proportional shares of the market to their members.
488:
357:
148:
78:
1915:
1111:
Kartelltheorie und Internationale Beziehungen theoriegeschichtliche Studien
2181:
1960:"ACCC immunity & cooperation policy for cartel conduct - October 2019"
1878:
from the original on 2022-10-09 – via European University Institute.
1460:
Private International Cartels: A Concise Introduction: SSRN Working Paper.
1109:
2551:
2539:
2410:
2000:
1765:"15 U.S. Code § 1 - Trusts, etc., in restraint of trade illegal; penalty"
1575:
1432:
1369:
1294:"Implicit collusion in non-exclusive contracting under adverse selection"
931:
852:
796:
Where possible, the corporation makes restitution to injured parties; and
717:
608:
74:
2266:
Die Kartelle. Ein Beitrag zur Frage der Organization der Volkswirtschaft
2055:
2031:
2016:
1984:
1386:
1344:
2515:
2455:
2333:
1833:"Cartel Damages to the Economy: An Assessment for Developing Countries"
1633:
1556:
1269:
Regulating Competition: Cartel registers in the twentieth-century world
899:
870:
856:
604:
323:
17:
1741:
The political economy of the Sherman Act: The first one hundred years
844:
593:
1625:
314:, Germany (at times the best known cartel in the world), around 1910
1463:
869:
808:
536:
435:
419:
305:
939:
917:
2414:
2130:
Sagafi-Nejad, Tagi; Moxon, Richard; Perlmutter, Howard (2017).
1958:
Commission, Australian Competition and Consumer (2019-09-04).
30:
This article is about economic cartels. For drug cartels, see
2291:
Einloggen | Hildesheimer Beiträge zu Theologie und Geschichte
741:
The first legislation against cartels to be enforced was the
1256:. Ontario 2001: 269–274 – via Oxford Univ. Pres, 2007.
51:
934:
manufacturers operated a market-rigging cartel, including
27:
Mutually beneficial collusion among competing corporations
2299:
and Valerie Y. Suslow. "What Determines Cartel Success?"
1916:"Foreign State's Entanglement in Anticompetitive Conduct"
1789:"15 U.S. Code § 2 - Monopolizing trade a felony; penalty"
827:
Stainless steel: Buyers of the product complained to the
1188:
Bemerkungen zur historischen Entwicklung von Kartellen.
520:
have emerged to distinguish distinct forms of cartels:
2070:"Competition - Cartels - Cases - European Commission"
675:. It was pioneered in 1883 by the Austrian economist
2032:"Lysine: A Case Study in International Price-Fixing"
1849:
from the original on June 27, 2022 – via CEPR.
1818:
The Johns Hopkins University,Department of Economics
1343:
Levenstein, Margaret C.; Suslow, Valerie Y. (2006).
2621:
2600:
2561:
2506:
2448:
1103:
1101:
2491:List of industry trade groups in the United States
902:was the only viable medical treatment for malaria.
322:is a group of independent market participants who
2094:"Case search - Competition - European Commission"
1869:Office of Fair Trading, Economic Discussion Paper
946:, which were fined by the European Union in 2007.
475:The creation of cartels increased globally after
2383:Antitrust and the Formation of the Postwar World
1298:Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization
734:
671:The scientific analysis of cartels is based on
398:
1964:Australian Competition and Consumer Commission
930:Between 1995 and 2004, several of the largest
2426:
1812:Harrington, Joseph E. Jr.; Chen, Joe (2002).
1058:"cartel | Search Online Etymology Dictionary"
287:
8:
1820:– via Economics Working Paper Archive.
1693:. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. p. 63.
1252:Jeffrey, R. "Cartels, Concerns and Trusts".
1985:"Strategic Leniency and Cartel Enforcement"
1555:Genesove, David; Mullin, Wallace P (2001).
1267:Fellman, Susanna; Shanahan, Martin (2015).
752:Every contract, combination in the form of
581:Submission cartels control offers given to
384:, which also has its origins in the French
2433:
2419:
2411:
2361:. New York: Twentieth Century Fund (1946).
2118:Global Price Fixing: 2nd Paperback Edition
1501:Huppmann, Daniel; Holz, Franziska (2015).
1436:– via American Economic Association.
1142:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
1114:. Michael Gehler. Hildesheim. p. 14.
951:Federation of Quebec Maple Syrup Producers
503:and relative tolerance of cartels. During
418:Cartels have existed since ancient times.
294:
280:
40:
2249:Antitrust and global capitalism 1930–2004
2134:. New York: Pergamon Press. p. 180.
1860:Grout, Paul; Sonderegger, Silvia (2005).
1664:
1431:
1368:
255:Enforcement authorities and organizations
2486:List of food industry trade associations
2371:. New York: Twentieth Century Fund 1948.
1691:Competition Policy in the European Union
1242:. Hildesheim 2013, p. 251–292.
365:meaning "card". The Italian word became
1254:The Oxford Handbook of Business History
1001:
254:
133:
61:
43:
1940:
1929:
1220:, Hildesheim 2013, S. 83–84.
1207:, Hildesheim 2013, S. 80–87.
1135:
667:Cartel theory versus antitrust concept
549:Common sales cartels sell their joint
2323:Journal of International Economic Law
2170:Journal of International Economic Law
1840:Toulouse School of Economics and CEPR
1689:Cini, Michelle; McGowan, Lee (2009).
553:through a central selling agency (in
7:
2328:Osborne, Dale K. "Cartel problems."
2154:Fellman & Shanahan, p. 224.
1052:
1050:
1048:
1046:
712:. Very similar regulations apply to
708:, which is executed by governmental
1177:, Hildesheim 2013, p. 79.
2573:(Greater China and Southeast Asia)
2204:"Record EU fine for lift 'cartel'"
1647:Shastitko, A; Dozmarov, K (2020).
1534:10.1111/j.1745-9125.2003.tb00996.x
1271:. London: Routledge. p. 224.
730:Supreme Court of the United States
479:. They became the leading form of
312:Rhenish-Westphalian Coal Syndicate
25:
1793:LII / Legal Information Institute
1769:LII / Legal Information Institute
1345:"What Determines Cartel Success?"
1164:, Darmstadt 1972, S. 1.
646:include, by some accounts, OPEC.
263:International Competition Network
2351:, Vol. 32 (1942), pp. 1–22.
2345:The extent and bases of monopoly
1718:. Berlin: Springer. p. 13.
1601:from the original on 2022-10-09.
1194:Köln 1963, p. 124–127.
726:U.S. v. National Lead Co. et al.
1162:Theorie und Praxis der Kartelle
894:existed among producers of the
874:The printing equipment company
716:. A single entity that holds a
495:used cartels to organize their
396:, who wrote on tariff cartels:
375:any intergovernmental agreement
2476:Inter-professional association
2301:Journal of Economic Literature
2256:The International Steel Cartel
1412:Journal of Economic Literature
1349:Journal of Economic Literature
1035:Journal of economic literature
268:List of competition regulators
1:
1503:"What about the OPEC Cartel?"
1192:Kartelle in der Wirklichkeit.
684:, including all cartels. The
444:Societas Communis Vendicionis
2349:The American economic review
2316:Cartels, Concerns and Trusts
2303:64 (March 2006): 43–95.
1989:The American Economic Review
1739:Sullivan, E. Thomas (1991).
1614:American Sociological Review
1292:Han, Seungjin (2014-03-01).
822:Archer Daniels Midland (ADM)
355:comes from the Italian word
2402:(archived 4 September 2006)
2164:Martyniszyn, Marek (2012).
1914:Martyniszyn, Marek (2017).
1743:. Oxford University Press.
1108:Leonhardt, Holm A. (2013).
438:cartel of 1470 between the
2696:
2670:Anti-competitive practices
1983:Miller, Nathan H. (2009).
1666:10.38050/2712-7508-2020-13
1653:BRICS Journal of Economics
1424:10.1257/002205106776162681
1361:10.1257/002205106776162681
1310:10.1016/j.jebo.2013.12.013
563:). They are also known as
446:('Common Sales Society').
135:Anti-competitive practices
101:Herfindahl–Hirschman index
70:History of competition law
29:
1009:api_import (2024-02-22).
907:British Valve Association
700:Legislation and penalties
2396:Price-Fixing Overcharges
2330:American Economic Review
2289:. Hildesheim 2018.
2258:, Chapel Hill 1943.
2116:Connor, John M. (2008):
2030:Connor, John M. (1998).
1564:American Economic Review
1190:In: Ludwig Kastl (Ed.):
1158:Kartelle in Deutschland.
1156:Hans-Heinrich Barnikel:
829:European Commission (EC)
599:Condition cartels unify
531:Price cartels engage in
2466:Employers' organization
2325:15 (1) (2012): 181–222.
2297:Levenstein, Margaret C.
2278:, Hildesheim 2013.
2262:Kleinwächter, Friedrich
2120:. Heidelberg: Springer.
1447:Levenstein, Margaret C.
979:Industrial organisation
820:Cartel: An employee of
377:between rival nations.
36:Cartel (disambiguation)
2498:Cooperative federation
2442:Business organizations
2367:and Myron W. Watkins:
2357:and Myron W. Watkins:
2332:66.5 (1976): 835-844.
2268:, Innsbruck 1883.
1939:Cite journal requires
1082:"Definition of CARTEL"
969:Cartel seat (monument)
879:
876:American Type Founders
815:
765:
739:
710:competition regulators
677:Friedrich Kleinwächter
411:
315:
180:Occupational licensing
56:
34:. For other uses, see
2680:Imperfect competition
2613:Consumer organization
2251:, New York 2006.
2233:. Purdue University.
1462:(November 12, 2014).
873:
855:electrodes, and bulk
812:
747:
497:corporatist economies
309:
55:
2318:, Ontario 2001
2282:Leonhardt, Holm Arno
2272:Leonhardt, Holm Arno
2237:, Indiana 2003.
2001:10.1257/aer.99.3.750
1862:"Predicting Cartels"
1576:10.1257/aer.91.3.379
535:, normally to raise
501:market concentration
310:Headquarters of the
223:Occupational closure
218:Dividing territories
206:Essential facilities
106:Market concentration
2629:Business networking
2601:Oppositional groups
2471:Chamber of commerce
2365:Stocking, George W.
2355:Stocking, George W.
2287:Unternehmerverbände
2182:10.1093/jiel/jgs003
1476:Burclaff, Natalie.
1238:Holm A. Leonhardt:
1216:Holm A. Leonhardt:
1203:Holm A. Leonhardt:
1173:Holm A. Leonhardt:
1160:In: Ders. (Hrsg.):
1037:44.1 (2006): 43-95
1011:"What is a cartel?"
831:about price spikes.
772:Leniency programmes
569:syndicat industriel
481:market organization
2341:Stigler, George J.
2240:Fear, Jeffrey R.:
1890:"Leniency Program"
1714:Lee, John (2016).
925:Swiss Cheese Union
896:anti-malarial drug
880:
816:
682:trade restrictions
622:Compulsory cartels
491:, and Spain under
316:
242:Regulatory capture
57:
2665:Commercial crimes
2652:
2651:
2639:Company registers
2577:Business alliance
2481:Trade association
2400:Purdue University
2381:Wells, Wyatt C.:
2374:Strieder, Jakob:
2359:Cartels in Action
2247:Freyer, Tony A.:
2227:Connor, John M.:
2141:978-0-08-027180-4
1918:. Rochester, NY.
1725:978-981-10-2755-0
1700:978-0-230-00675-1
1121:978-3-487-14840-3
989:Corporate synergy
714:corporate mergers
694:Harley M. Kilgore
607:and delivery, or
601:contractual terms
509:market liberalism
505:World War II
341:corporate mergers
304:
303:
233:Misuse of patents
228:Predatory pricing
213:Exclusive dealing
96:Barriers to entry
84:Coercive monopoly
16:(Redirected from
2687:
2563:Business network
2508:Corporate groups
2435:
2428:
2421:
2412:
2385:, New York 2002.
2312:Liefmann, Robert
2215:
2214:
2212:
2211:
2200:
2194:
2193:
2161:
2155:
2152:
2146:
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2104:
2090:
2084:
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2020:
1980:
1974:
1973:
1971:
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1955:
1949:
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1927:
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1561:
1552:
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1517:
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1498:
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1489:
1488:
1473:
1467:
1458:Connor, John M.
1456:
1450:
1444:
1438:
1437:
1435:
1407:
1401:
1397:
1391:
1390:
1372:
1340:
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1289:
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1249:
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1236:
1230:
1227:
1221:
1214:
1208:
1201:
1195:
1186:Nino Herlitzka:
1184:
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1171:
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1141:
1133:
1105:
1096:
1095:
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1071:
1069:
1068:
1054:
1041:
1031:
1025:
1024:
1022:
1021:
1006:
743:Sherman Act 1890
477:World War I
422:in the European
409:
406:Lorenz von Stein
394:Lorenz von Stein
296:
289:
282:
187:Product bundling
89:Natural monopoly
41:
21:
2695:
2694:
2690:
2689:
2688:
2686:
2685:
2684:
2655:
2654:
2653:
2648:
2617:
2596:
2557:
2502:
2444:
2439:
2392:
2378:. MĂĽnchen 1925.
2254:Hexner, Ervin,
2224:
2219:
2218:
2209:
2207:
2202:
2201:
2197:
2163:
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1977:
1968:
1966:
1957:
1956:
1952:
1938:
1928:
1913:
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1908:
1899:
1897:
1894:www.justice.gov
1888:
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1626:10.2307/2095954
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1172:
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1107:
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1099:
1090:
1088:
1086:Merriam-Webster
1080:
1079:
1075:
1066:
1064:
1056:
1055:
1044:
1032:
1028:
1019:
1017:
1008:
1007:
1003:
998:
993:
984:Corporate group
964:
868:
841:
774:
706:competition law
702:
669:
660:
631:
615:Standardization
603:– the modes of
592:Technology and
541:tacit collusion
517:
468:and industrial
462:Austria-Hungary
416:
410:
404:
390:standardization
349:
300:
196:Refusal to deal
175:Tacit collusion
121:Relevant market
45:Competition law
39:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
2693:
2691:
2683:
2682:
2677:
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2647:
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2610:
2604:
2602:
2598:
2597:
2595:
2594:
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2584:
2579:
2574:
2571:Bamboo network
2567:
2565:
2559:
2558:
2556:
2555:
2549:
2543:
2537:
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2519:
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2452:
2450:
2446:
2445:
2440:
2438:
2437:
2430:
2423:
2415:
2409:
2408:
2406:BBC on cartels
2403:
2391:
2390:External links
2388:
2387:
2386:
2379:
2372:
2362:
2352:
2337:
2336:
2326:
2319:
2308:
2307:
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2245:
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2235:West Lafayette
2223:
2220:
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2195:
2156:
2147:
2140:
2122:
2109:
2085:
2061:
2022:
1995:(3): 750–768.
1975:
1950:
1941:|journal=
1906:
1881:
1852:
1831:IVALDI, Marc.
1823:
1804:
1780:
1756:
1749:
1731:
1724:
1706:
1699:
1681:
1672:
1639:
1604:
1570:(3): 379–398.
1547:
1528:(2): 511–554.
1512:
1493:
1482:guides.loc.gov
1468:
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1400:June 2017
1392:
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888:
885:Phoebus cartel
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690:Thurman Arnold
668:
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644:business cycle
630:
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619:
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583:public tenders
579:
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62:Basic concepts
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2536:(Anglosphere)
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450:Laissez-faire
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2534:Conglomerate
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2255:
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2228:
2222:Bibliography
2208:. Retrieved
2206:. 2007-02-21
2198:
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2159:
2150:
2131:
2125:
2117:
2112:
2101:. Retrieved
2098:ec.europa.eu
2097:
2088:
2077:. Retrieved
2074:ec.europa.eu
2073:
2064:
2042:(3): 13–19.
2039:
2035:
2025:
1992:
1988:
1978:
1967:. Retrieved
1963:
1953:
1932:cite journal
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1522:Criminology
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749:Section 1:
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587:bid rigging
585:. They use
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329:stockpiling
170:Bid rigging
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