611:
1612:
1871:
1281:...all the companies were clad in iron, and all parts of their bodies were covered with thick plates, so fitted that the stiff-joints conformed with those of their limbs; and the forms of human faces were so skillfully fitted to their heads, that since their entire body was covered with metal, arrows that fell upon them could lodge only where they could see a little through tiny openings opposite the pupil of the eye, or where through the tip of their nose they were able to get a little breath. Of these some, who were armed with pikes, stood so motionless that you would think them held fast by clamps of bronze.
31:
1188:
1684:
cavalrymen, this unit was clearly designed with a single decisive charge in mind as the centre of the unit was composed of mounted archers. These would release volleys of arrows into the enemy as the unit advanced at a trot, with the first four rows of mace-armed
Kataphraktoi then penetrating the enemy formation through the resulting disruption (contrary to popular representations, Byzantine Kataphraktoi did not charge, they advanced at a steady medium-pace trot and were designed to roll over an enemy already softened by the archers).
1490:, Sarmatians, Parthians, and Sassanids presented a grievous problem for the traditionally less mobile, infantry-dependent Roman Empire. Roman writers throughout imperial history made much of the terror of facing cataphracts, let alone receiving their charge. Parthian armies repeatedly clashed with the Roman legions in a series of wars, featuring the heavy usage of cataphracts. Although initially successful, the Romans soon developed ways to crush the charges of heavy horsemen, through use of terrain and maintained discipline.
803:
1372:, for use in the melee that often followed a charge. Some wore armor that was primarily frontal: providing protection for a charge and against missiles yet offering relief from the weight and encumbrance of a full suit. In yet another variation, cataphracts in some field armies were not equipped with shields at all, particularly if they had heavy body armor, as having both hands occupied with a shield and lance left no room to effectively steer the horse. Eastern and Persian cataphracts, particularly those of the
287:
619:
1393:
1851:
299:
1236:) that was flexible enough to give the rider and horse a good degree of motion, but strong enough to resist the immense impact of a thunderous charge into infantry formations. Scale armor was made from overlapping, rounded plates of bronze or iron (most being around one to two millimeters thick), which had two or four holes drilled into the sides, to be threaded with a bronze wire that was then sewn onto an undergarment of leather or animal
1470:
1909:, etc.). According to surviving records, the Western Han Dynasty had 5,330 sets of horse armor at the Donghai Armory. Comprehensive full-body armor for horses made of organic materials such as rawhide may have existed as early as the Qin Dynasty according to archaeological discoveries of stone lamellar armor for horses. Comprehensive armor for horses made of metal might have been used in China as early as the
1345:
926:
1688:
where the first blow did not smash the enemy (no feigned flight or repeated charges were possible due to the formation employed). It is for this reason that
Byzantine military manuals (Praecepta Militaria and the Taktika) advise where possible, for the use of a second wedge of Kataphraktoi which could be hurled at the enemy in the event that they resisted the initial charge.
468:. However, it appears with more frequency in Latin sources than in Greek throughout antiquity. A twofold origin of the Greek term has been proposed: either that it was a humorous reference to the heavily armored cataphracts as men encased in armor who would heat up very quickly much like in an oven; or that it was further derived from the
680:. Although evidence is scant, they are believed to have raised and bred horses for specific purposes, as is evidenced by the large archaeological record of their use of the chariot and several treatises on the training of chariot horses. The one founding prerequisite towards the development of cataphract cavalry in the
1687:
This formation is the only method prescribed for
Kataphraktoi in the Praecepta Militaria of Emperor Nikephoros which was designed as a decisive hammer-blow which would break the enemy. Due to the rigidity of the formation, it was not possible for it to re-form and execute a second charge in instances
1964:
also developed cataphract units to counter those of the Liao, Xia, and Jin, but the shortage of suitable grazing lands and horse pastures in Song territory made the effective breeding and maintenance of Song cavalry far more difficult. This added to the Song's vulnerability to continual raids by the
1691:
Contemporary depictions, however, imply that
Byzantine cataphracts were not as completely armored as the earlier Roman and Sassanid incarnation. The horse armor was noticeably lighter than earlier examples, being made of leather scales or quilted cloth rather than metal at all. Byzantine cataphracts
1315:
as an anti-cavalry weapon. They were roughly four meters in length, with a capped point made of iron, bronze, or even animal bone and usually wielded with both hands. Most had a chain attached to the horse's neck and at the end by a fastening attached to the horse's hind leg, which supported the use
908:
and Saka. While the offensive weapons of these prototype cataphracts were identical to those of the
Assyrians, they differed in that not only the rider but also the head and flanks of the horse were protected by armor. Whether this development was influenced by the Assyrians, as Rubin postulates, or
916:
region, notably at a time when the
Scythians, who relied on light horse archers, were superseded by the Sarmatians. By the 3rd century BC, light cavalry units were used in most eastern armies, but still only "relatively few states in the East or West attempted to imitate the Assyrian and Chorasmian
1683:
These later Roman cataphracts were a much feared force in their heyday. The army of
Emperor Nikephoros II Phokas reconstituted Kataphraktoi during the tenth century and included a complex and highly developed composition of an offensive, blunt-nosed wedge formation. Made up of roughly five hundred
1711:
As with the original cataphracts, the
Leonian/Nikephorian units seemed to have fallen out of favour and use with their handlers, making their last, recorded appearance in battle in 970 and the last record of their existence in 1001, referred to as being posted to garrison duty. If they had indeed
1646:
used by late Roman infantry. These were to be hurled at the enemy lines during or just before a charge, to disorder the defensive formation immediately before the impact of the lances. With or without darts, a cataphract charge would usually be supported by some kind of missile troops (mounted or
1328:
The penetrating power of the cataphract's lance was recognized as being fearful by Roman writers, described as being capable of transfixing two men at once, as well as inflicting deep and mortal wounds even on opposing cavalries' mounts, and were definitely more potent than the regular one-handed
1256:
of the saddle) independently to give a further degree of movement for the horse and to allow the armor to be affixed to the horse reasonably tightly so that it should not loosen too much during movement. Usually but not always, a close-fitting helmet that covered the head and neck was worn by the
2798:. Official state history recorded Li Shimin (Emperor Taizong of Tang) commanding his Black Armor Cavalry Force to break and penetrate Dou Jiande's formation in Battle of Hulao (621 AD). On the ceremony of this triumph, the later emperor led a force of 10000 cataphracts and 30000 armored infantry.
1602:
that
Persian cataphract archers were adept at firing their arrows in very quick succession and saturating enemy positions but with little hitting power, resulting in mostly non-incapacitating limb wounds for the enemy. The Roman cataphracts, on the other hand, released their shots with far more
1451:
to shield themselves from the huge numbers of incoming arrows. This made them fatally susceptible to a massed cataphract charge, since the testudo made the legionaries immobile and incapable of attacking or defending themselves in close combat against the long reach of the
Parthian cataphracts'
1324:
to "fasten" the rider to the horse's body, much like the later knightly saddles of Medieval Europe. These saddles had a cantle at the back of the saddle and two guard clamps that curved across the top of the rider's thighs and fastened to the saddle, thereby enabling the rider to stay properly
1316:
of the lance by transferring the full momentum of a horse's gallop to the thrust of the charge. Though they lacked stirrups, the traditional Roman saddle had four horns with which to secure the rider; enabling a soldier to stay seated upon the full impact. During the Sassanid era, the
1647:
unmounted) placed on either flank of the enemy formation. Some armies formalised this tactic by deploying separate types of cataphract, the conventional, very heavily armored, bowless lancer for the primary charge and a dual purpose, lance-and-bow cataphract for supporting units.
602:). Given that "cataphract" was used for more than a millennium by various cultures, it appears that different types of fully armored cavalry in the armies of different nations were assigned this name by Greek and Roman scholars not familiar with the native terms for such cavalry.
735:, and are believed to have influenced many modern horse breeds. With the growing aggressiveness of cavalry in warfare, protection of the rider and the horse became paramount. This was especially true of peoples who treated cavalry as the basic arm of their military, such as the
1571:, used exclusively by Roman emperors. Ammianus Marcellinus remarked in his memoirs that members of the Pushtigban were able to impale two Roman soldiers on their spears at once with a single furious charge. Persian cataphract archery also seems to have been again revived in
1135:. The Romans deployed both native and mercenary units of cataphracts throughout the Empire, from Asia Minor all the way to Britain, where a contingent of 5,500 Sarmatians (including cataphracts, infantry, and non-combatants) were posted in the 2nd century by Emperor
1404:
While they varied in design and appearance, cataphracts were universally the heavy assault force of most nations that deployed them, acting as "shock troops" to deliver the bulk of an offensive manoeuvre, while being supported by various forms of infantry and
696:. Cataphract cavalry needed immensely strong and endurant horses, and without selectively breeding horses for muscular strength and hardiness, they would have surely not been able to bear the immense loads of armor and a rider during the strain of battle. The
1664:, probably reflecting a revival that paralleled the transformation of the Eastern Roman army from a largely defensive force into a largely offensive force. The cataphracts deployed by the Eastern Roman Empire (most noticeably after the 7th century, when
778:. The successive Persian Empires that followed the Medes after their downfall in 550 BC took these already long-standing military tactics and horse-breeding traditions and infused their centuries of experience and veterancy from conflicts against the
1257:
rider; the Persian variants extended this even further and encased the wearer's entire head in metal, leaving only minute slits for the nose and eyes as openings. Ammianus Marcellinus, a noted Roman historian and general who served in the army of
909:
perhaps the Achaemenid Empire, or whether they occurred spontaneously and entirely unrelated to the advances in heavily armored cavalry made in the Ancient Near East, cannot be discerned by the archaeological records left by these mounted nomads.
1942:
it was illegal for private citizens to possess horse armor. Production of horse armor was controlled by the government. However, the use of cataphracts was mentioned in many records and literature. Cataphracts were also used in warfare from the
972:
adopted some cataphracts. Pergamese reliefs show cavalry similarly armed and equipped as Seleucid cataphracts, indicating an adoption. Yet these were probably equipped from trophies taken from the Seleucids, which would suggest limited numbers.
747:: second only to perhaps the bow, horses were held in reverence and importance in these societies as their preferred and mastered medium of warfare, due to an intrinsic link throughout history with the domestication and evolution of the horse.
1035:
due to their poor tactical abilities against disciplined infantry as well as against more mobile, light cavalry. However, the lingering period of exposure to cataphracts at the eastern frontier as well as the growing military pressure of the
1481:
The cataphract charge was very effective due to the disciplined riders and the large numbers of horses deployed. As early as the 1st century BC, especially during the expansionist campaigns of the Parthian and Sassanid dynasties, Eastern
1252:. Specifically, the horse armor was usually sectional (not joined together as a cohesive "suit"), with large plates of scales tied together around the animal's waist, flank, shoulders, neck and head (especially along the
1739:
It is difficult to determine when exactly the cataphract saw his final day. After all, cataphracts and knights fulfilled a roughly similar role on the medieval battlefield, and the armored knight survived well into the
1947:
to the fall of the Tang Dynasty. During the Five Dynasties and 10 Kingdoms era, cataphracts were important units in this civil war. In the same period, cataphracts were also popular among nomadic empires, such as the
1518:
continued the cavalry traditions of the Parthians, fielding units of super-heavy cavalry. This gradually fell out of favour, and a "universal" cavalryman was developed during the later 3rd century, able to fight as a
1240:, worn by the horse. A full set of cataphract armor consisted of approximately 1,300 or so "scales" and could weigh an astonishing 40 kilograms or 88 pounds (not inclusive of the rider's body weight). Less commonly,
610:
1182:
Three examples of the various styles of interweaving and wire threading that were commonly employed in the creation of cataphract scale armor to form a stiffened, "armored shell" with which to protect the
543:
were one and the same type of cavalry, designated differently simply as a result of their divided geographical locations and local linguistic preferences. Cataphract-like cavalry under the command of the
3373:
1913:
period, but the usage wasn't widely adapted as most cavalry formation requires maneuverability. It was not until the early 4th century, however, that cataphracts came into widespread use among with the
1656:, published during the same period, made no mention of cataphracts or their tactical employment. This absence persisted through most of the Thematic period, until the cataphracts reappeared in Emperor
885:(705–681 BC), they eventually became capable both of long-range and hand-to-hand combat, mirroring the development of dual-purpose cataphract archers by the Parthian Empire during the 1st century BC.
3368:
1196:
But no sooner had the first light of day appeared, than the glittering coats of mail, girt with bands of steel, and the gleaming cuirasses, seen from afar, showed that the king's forces were at hand.
3328:
2912:. In this call for surrender, Li Cunxu (Emperor Zhuang of the later Tang) boasted that his soldiers captured 5000 cataphracts of the Later Liang Dynasty victory in the Battle of Baixiang (910 AD).
1977:, successors to the Song, were a continuation of the Mongol Empire, and seem to have all but forgotten the cataphract traditions of their predecessors. The last remaining traces of cataphracts in
877:
was formed and reached its military peak, is believed to have been the first context within which the Assyrian kingdom formed crude regiments of cataphract-like cavalry. Even when armed only with
1791:
As Western European metalwork became increasingly sophisticated, the traditional image of the cataphract's awe-inspiring might and presence quickly evaporated. From the 15th century and onwards,
1708:
and penetrating enemy formations to create gaps, enabling lighter troops to make a breakthrough. Alternatively, they were used to target the head of the enemy force, typically a foreign emperor.
912:
The further evolution of these early forms of heavy cavalry in Western Eurasia is not entirely clear. Heavily armored riders on large horses appear in 4th century BC frescoes in the northern
3398:
3393:
1433:, as only the wealthiest men of noble birth could afford the panoply of the cataphract, not to mention the costs of supporting several war horses and ample amounts of weaponry and armor.
1417:
or generic heavy cavalry, they should not be considered analogous to these forms of cavalry, and instead represent the separate evolution of a very distinct class of heavy cavalry in the
1523:
as well as a cataphract. This was perhaps in response to the harassing, nomadic combat style used by the Sassanids' northern neighbours who frequently raided their borders, such as the
1100:
at Carrhae. This initially unexpected and humiliating defeat for Rome was followed by numerous campaigns over the next two centuries entailing many notable engagements such as: the
1700:(possibly representing a distinct class of cavalry from the cataphract) was brought to the fore in the 10th and 11th centuries of the Byzantine Empire, known in Byzantine Greek as
1988:
used cataphracts as the elite assault force of its armies for much of its history. The Gokturk Khaganates might also have had cataphracts, as the Orkhon inscriptions mentioned
1981:
seems to have faded with the downfall of the Yuan in 1368 and later heavy cavalry never reached the levels of armor and protection for the horses as these earlier cataphracts.
3378:
3108:
Voennaia arkheologiia: Oruzhie i voennoe delo v istoricheskoi i sotsial.noi perspektive (Military Archaeology: Weaponry and Warfare in the Historical and Social Perspective)
1447:
against the Roman heavy infantry. The Parthian horse archers encircled the Roman formation and bombarded it with arrows from all sides, forcing the legionaries to form the
1611:
1120:
being forced to concede peace with Parthia. As a result of this lingering period of exposure to cataphracts, by the 4th century, the Roman Empire had adopted a number of
3363:
1934:
era. Numerous burial seals, military figurines, murals, and official reliefs from this period testify to the great importance of armored cavalry in warfare. The later
2826:. This military report recorded a border battle between Tang and Tibetan Armies in the middle 8th Century. Among the 5000 Tang cavalry troops, 1200 were cataphracts.
1439:
was deemed particularly important for the proper deployment of cataphracts. The Parthian army that defeated the Romans at Carrhae in 53 BC operated primarily as a
3358:
3121:
961:'s kingdom who reigned over conquered Persia and Asia Minor after his death in 323 BC. The Parthians, who wrested control over their native Persia from the last
794:
tribes with the significant role cavalry played not only in warfare but everyday life to form a military reliant almost entirely upon armored horses for battle.
1870:
572:' heavy Greek influence (especially after the 7th century, when Latin ceased to be the official language). Contemporary sources, however, sometimes imply that
1819:, rendered the relatively thin and flexible armor of cataphracts obsolete. Despite these advances, the Byzantine army, often unable to afford newer equipment
1696:
system, providing the Byzantine Empire with a motivated and professional force that could support its own wartime expenditures. The previously mentioned term
1376:, carried bows as well as blunt-force weapons, to soften up enemy formations before an eventual attack, reflecting upon the longstanding Persian tradition of
1823:, was left ill-equipped and forced to rely on its increasingly archaic military technology. The cataphract finally passed into the pages of history with the
2080:. Военная археология: оружие и военное дело в исторической и социальной перспективе. Материалы Международной конференции . St. Petersburg. pp. 131–138.
1728:(1081–1118) established a new military force from the ground up, which was directly responsible for transforming the aging Byzantine Empire from one of the
1462:. The end result was a far smaller force of Parthian cataphracts and horse archers wiping out a Roman army four times their number, due to a combination of
3318:
715:
in 625 BC. It was the Median Empire that left the first written proof of horse breeding around the 7th century BC, being the first to propagate a specific
2883:. The book recorded that the Tang arsenal once distributed 150 Modao glaives and 100 catapharact horse armors to border troops in Yanzhou in 8th century.
2854:. In this official call to arms, the Tang military leader threatened the Nanzhao leaders by stating that he had 4 units of cataphracts, 500 in each unit.
1582:
by the 6th century had become the cataphract, modelled after the very force that had fought them in the east for more than 500 years earlier. During the
1179:
252:
before and during battles, and then to pursue retreating enemies after a victory. The adoption of cataphract-like cavalry formations took hold among the
2186:
1960:
dynasties—the heavy cataphracts of the Xia and Jin were especially effective and were known as "Iron Sparrowhawks" and "Iron Pagodas" respectively. The
1248:(which is similar in appearance but divergent in design, as it has no backing) was substituted for scale armor, while for the most part the rider wore
953:, is very likely the first Western encounter of cataphract cavalry, and to a degree heavy cavalry in general. The cataphract was widely adopted by the
1575:, perhaps as a response (or even a stimulus) to an emerging trend of the late Roman army towards mobility and versatility in their means of warfare.
2075:
837:
region were also significant to the development of cataphract-like cavalry during the 1st millennium BC. Reliefs discovered in the ancient ruins of
363:("covered, protected"), which is interpreted along the lines of "fully armored" or "closed from all sides". The term first appears substantively in
3289:
1744:
of Europe. The Byzantine army maintained units of heavily armored cavalrymen up until its final years, mostly in the form of Western European
3221:
Warfare in the Classical World: An Illustrated Encyclopedia of Weapons, Warriors, and Warfare in the Ancient Civilisations of Greece and Rome
2436:
2106:
1073:, who created a highly mobile force in response to the multiple threats along the northern and eastern frontier. However, as late as 272 AD,
506:
use the term "cataphract" in their military treatises to describe any type of cavalry with either partial or full horse and rider armor. The
2556:
2146:, "The Coming of the Greeks: Indo-European Conquests in the Aegean and the Near East.", Princeton University Press, Chariot Warfare. p. 61.
2526:
1510:, literally meaning "riders") during the era of the Sassanid army and remained a formidable force from the 3rd to 7th centuries until the
1088:
The Romans fought a prolonged and indecisive campaign in the East against the Parthians beginning in 53 BC, commencing with the defeat of
3283:
1341:
showing Persian kings doing battle in a fashion not dissimilar to later depictions of jousts and mounted combat from the Medieval era.
3353:
3348:
3343:
3338:
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Mielczarek, M. (1993) Cataphracti and Clibanari. Studies on the Heavy Armoured Cavalry of the Ancient World. Lodz: Oficyna Naukowa MS.
3106:
Nikonorov, Valerii P. (1998). "Cataphracti, Catafractarii and Clibanarii: Another Look at the old problem of their Identifications".
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frontier led to a gradual integration of cataphracts into the Roman army. Thus, although cavalrymen with armor were deployed in the
400:, writing in the fourth century, described armor of any sort as "cataphracts" – which at the time of writing would have been either
529:
There is, therefore, some doubt as to what exactly cataphracts were in late antiquity, and whether or not they were distinct from
950:
766:'s vast expanse across Central Asia, which was the native homeland of the early, north-eastern Iranian ethnic groups such as the
3097:
Nikonorov, Valerii P. (1985b). "The Development of Horse Defensive Equipment in the Antique Epoch". In Kruglikova, I. T. (ed.).
1984:
Other East Asian cultures were also known to have used cataphracts during a similar time period to the Chinese. Meanwhile, the
1931:
1828:
1704:, which appeared to be a throwback to the super-heavy cavalry of earlier antiquity. These cataphracts specialised in forming a
30:
1016:
158:
83:
Historically, the cataphract was a very heavily armored horseman, with both the rider and mount almost completely covered in
1551:
attempted to reinstate the super-heavy cataphracts of previous Persian dynasties to counter the formation of the new, Roman
2155:
Perevalov, S. M. (translated by M. E. Sharpe) (Spring 2002). "The Sarmatian Lance and the Sarmatian Horse-Riding Posture".
980:. Cataphracts had varying levels of success against Roman military tactics more so at the Battle of Carrhae and less so at
1650:
References to Eastern Roman cataphracts seemed to have disappeared in the late 6th century, as the manual of war known as
685:
3040:
3002:
2923:
2894:
2865:
2837:
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2780:
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1840:
1140:
888:
Archaeological excavations also indicate that, by the 6th century BC, similar experimentation had taken place among the
314:
1957:
1285:
The primary weapon of practically all cataphract forces throughout history was the lance. Cataphract lances (known in
965:
Kingdom in the East in 147 BC, were also noted for their reliance upon cataphracts as well as horse archers in battle.
731:
as the mount of nobility. These warhorses, sometimes referred to as "Nisean chargers", were highly sought after by the
1893:
dating between the 7th to 10th centuries BC—however, this armor did not cover the entire horse and was likely made of
1736:. However, even in this case, it seems that the cataphract was eventually superseded by other types of heavy cavalry.
1167:
849:
composed of metal scales, presumably deployed to provide the Assyrians with a tactical advantage over the unprotected
503:
813:
The evolution of the heavily armored horseman was not isolated to one focal point during a specific era (such as the
232:, as well as numerous defeats at the hands of Iranian cataphracts across the steppes of Eurasia, most notably in the
2657:: all four horses are armoured by thin metal plates. Horses need to be light as well as easily steered and trained."
3274:
Antigüedad y cristianismo: Monografías históricas sobre la Antigüedad tardía, Nº 16, pages 397-418.ISSN 0214-7165.
642:
1927:
1773:
1511:
549:
106:
Cataphracts served as the elite cavalry force for most empires and nations that fielded them, primarily used for
630:
The reliance on cavalry as a means of warfare in general lies with the ancient Indo-European inhabitants of the
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2058:
1317:
1105:
1101:
1024:
997:
977:
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368:
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of nobility (as only those of noble birth or caste could become cavalry warriors), now spread throughout the
3157:
Rubin, Berthold (1955), "Die Entstehung der Kataphraktenreiterei im Lichte der chorezmischen Ausgrabungen",
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Battle scenes showing combat between Parthian and Sassanian cataphracts on horses with barding using lances.
1989:
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in its existence into a major economic and military power, akin to its existence during the golden age of
1652:
1560:
1057:
981:
174:
34:
1004:, whose long-range weapons proved very effective, defeated the uphill-storming Parthian armored cavalry.
707:
kingdoms and statehoods were to a large degree the ancestors of the north-eastern Iranian tribes and the
2972:
1713:
1426:
866:
672:
from around 1000 BC to 800 BC. Two of these tribes are attested based upon archaeological evidence: the
1498:
3303:
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intensified to the West, sweeping military reforms were again re-established. During the 4th century,
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1861:
1201:
559:
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José J. Vicente Sánchez (1999). Los regimientos de catafractos y clibanarios en la tardo antigüedad.
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for use as heavy cavalry. The Nisean would become renowned in the Ancient World and particularly in
618:
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2077:
Cataphracti, Catafractarii and Clibanarii: Another Look at the old problem of their Identifications
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1944:
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An Arab-Syrian Gentleman and Warrior in the Period of the Crusades: Memoirs of Usamah Ibn-Munquidh
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Helmut Nickel, Tamga and Runes, Magic Numbers and Magic Symbols, The Metropolitan Art Museum 1973
2016: – Period of the Byzantine Empire that created a new army that served from 1081 AD – 1204 AD
1725:
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989:
942:
862:
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194:
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1772:, and other Eurasian peoples emulated Byzantine military equipment. During medieval times, the
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divisions and were akin in their deployment and military role to their Roman counterparts, the
274:(died 268) arguably contributed much to the institution of Roman cataphract contingents in the
3233:
2717:
2600:
2568:
2552:
2432:
2284:
2192:
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2001:
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Some cataphracts fielded by the later Roman Empire were also equipped with heavy, lead-weight
1603:
power, able to launch arrows with lethal kinetic energy behind them, albeit at a slower pace.
1463:
1448:
1344:
1312:
1151:
1032:
1020:
787:
779:
681:
638:
499:
484:
458:, meaning "camp oven" or "metallic furnace"; the word has also been tentatively linked to the
403:
233:
170:
150:
3211:(y III). La caballería pesada del ejército romano-bizantino, de Justiniano a Alejo Comneno",
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A stone-etched relief depicting a Parthian cataphract fighting against a lion. Housed in the
578:
were in fact a heavier type of cavalryman, or formed special-purpose units (such as the late
562:
had no exclusive term ascribed to them, with both the Latin variant and the Greek innovation
240:. Traditionally, Roman cavalry was neither heavily-armored nor decisive in effect; the Roman
3323:
3138:
3049:
3011:
2981:
1985:
1729:
1568:
1515:
1163:
881:, these early horsemen were effective mounted cavalrymen, but when provided with bows under
724:
693:
190:
127:
119:
107:
298:
27:
Type of heavy cavalry originating in Persia and used throughout Eurasia and Northern Africa
2592:
2551:"The Sarmatians 600 BC - AD 450", Brzezinski & Mielczarek, Oxford: Osprey Publishing,
2530:
1887:
Horses covered with scale armor are alluded to in the ancient Chinese book of poetry, the
1657:
1579:
1520:
1474:
1454:
1373:
1369:
1349:
1338:
1233:
1209:
1136:
1082:
1065:(117–138 AD), who created the first, regular unit of auxiliary, mailed cavalry called the
954:
850:
830:
814:
759:
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665:
661:
431:
275:
253:
178:
166:
162:
146:
96:
88:
77:
69:
65:
38:
1827:
on 29 May 1453, when the last nation to refer to its cavalrymen as cataphracts fell (see
1803:
seemed to fall out of favour with Eastern noble cavalrymen as elaborate and robust plate
1692:
of the 10th century were drawn from the ranks of the middle-class landowners through the
688:
techniques and the necessary grazing pastures for raising horses, was the development of
228:
seems to have been a response to the Eastern campaigns of the Parthians and Sasanians in
3086:
1469:
1277:, described the sight of a contingent of massed Persian cataphracts in the 4th century:
3129:
Perevalov, S. M. (2002), "The Sarmatian Lance and the Sarmatian Horse-Riding Posture",
2090:
2013:
1919:
1910:
1796:
1781:
1721:
1717:
1635:
1572:
1556:
1410:
1381:
1286:
1258:
1245:
1222:
1001:
938:
930:
740:
732:
728:
689:
511:
459:
393:
381:
218:
206:
198:
2132:
Cataphracti and Clibanarii. Studies on the Heavy Armoured Cavalry of the Ancient World
1466:, which pinned the enemy down, wore them out and left them vulnerable to a deathblow.
1333:
wielding them told of occasions when it was capable of bursting through two layers of
133:
Peoples and states deploying cataphracts at some point in their history included: the
3312:
3150:
3069:
3031:
2670:
1966:
1780:
of Sarmatian cataphracts belonging to the tribe of Royal Sarmatians, was used by the
1536:
1440:
1400:, dubbed "Golden Man". The overlapping golden scales are typical of cataphract armor.
1377:
1270:
1093:
946:
878:
842:
763:
712:
704:
411:
291:
245:
225:
214:
210:
61:
244:
corps comprised mainly lightly-armored horsemen bearing spears and swords and using
2970:
Bivar, A. D. H. (1972), "Cavalry Equipment and Tactics on the Euphrates Frontier",
2143:
1974:
1949:
1939:
1926:, which led to the readoption of cataphracts en masse by Chinese armies during the
1716:, a period of thorough financial, territorial and military reform that changed the
1705:
1673:
1552:
1528:
1444:
1436:
1397:
1334:
1213:
1205:
993:
826:
818:
807:
720:
669:
631:
623:
589:
182:
1668:
ceased to be the official language of the empire) were exclusively referred to as
925:
700:
is generally believed to have been the focal point for where this first occurred.
1413:
and unmounted). While their roles in military history often seem to overlap with
614:
The spread of Iranic peoples in Eurasia during the Iron Age highlighted in green.
2619:
2615:
1970:
1961:
1953:
1906:
1894:
1877:
1800:
1733:
1595:
1583:
1241:
1237:
1132:
1121:
882:
846:
845:
during the 13th century BC) are the earliest known depictions of riders wearing
716:
469:
237:
84:
42:
3196:. La caballería pesada del ejército romano, de Severo Alejandro a Justiniano",
3181:. La caballería pesada del ejército romano, de Vespasiano a Severo Alejandro",
2674:
1969:
for over two decades, which eventually vanquished them in 1279 at the hands of
1061:) by the Roman Empire comes in the 2nd century AD, during the reign of Emperor
3142:
1935:
1857:
1792:
1749:
1712:
disappeared, then it is possible that they were revived once again during the
1665:
1477:; Sasanian era silver plate with gold coating, Azerbaijan Museum, Tabriz, Iran
1249:
1155:
1048:
901:
767:
657:
582:
532:
479:
427:
310:
249:
138:
92:
58:
46:
1559:
of the late Roman Empire. The elite of the Persian cataphracts, known as the
2429:
Roman Heavy Cavalry (1): Cataphractarii & Clibanarii, 1st Century BC–5th
1978:
1816:
1765:
1616:
1599:
1587:
1487:
1418:
1330:
1147:
1129:
1097:
1070:
913:
854:
822:
783:
697:
569:
507:
257:
134:
3298:
384:, as armored cavalrymen of any sort that were traditionally referred to as
17:
1166:
continued to maintain a very active corps of cataphracts long after their
1923:
1808:
1643:
1591:
1159:
1117:
1074:
1052:
1037:
1028:
1008:
985:
962:
897:
893:
834:
677:
440:
is a Latin word for "mail-clad riders", itself a derivative of the Greek
397:
271:
229:
202:
111:
1543:
and relied almost solely upon horse archers for combat. However, as the
2993:
1915:
1804:
1769:
1532:
1414:
1406:
1307:
1078:
1062:
708:
673:
646:
634:
387:
268:
241:
123:
73:
3290:
Image of Sarmatian armored horse detail on the Trajan's column project
3061:
3023:
1396:
The cataphract-style parade armor of a Saka (Scythian) royal from the
1221:
Cataphracts were almost universally clad in some form of scale armor (
976:
The Romans came to know cataphracts during their frequent wars in the
750:
These early riding traditions, which were strongly tied to the ruling
2710:
2639:
2007:
1898:
1876:
A Chinese ceramic figurine of a cataphract horse and rider, from the
1812:
1493:
1430:
1361:
1321:
1266:
1044:
1040:
1012:
858:
838:
791:
521:
495:
447:
346:
340:
334:
328:
306:
2985:
2542:
J. Birkenmeier in "The Development of the Komnenian Army: 1081-1180"
1085:, proving the continuing importance of mobility on the battlefield.
1055:, VI, 25, 3), the first recorded deployment and use of cataphracts (
949:, an uprising against Persian rule in Asia Minor which preluded the
114:
formations. Chronicled by many historians from the earliest days of
3053:
3015:
420:, Roman soldier and historian of the fourth century, mentions the "
3038:
Eadie, John W. (1967), "The Development of Roman Mailed Cavalry",
2389:
Eadie, John W. (1967). "The Development of Roman Mailed Cavalry".
1777:
1761:
1753:
1503:
1468:
1459:
1391:
1365:
1343:
1294:
1186:
1069:. A key architect in the process was evidently the Roman emperor
924:
905:
801:
775:
771:
751:
617:
609:
364:
297:
285:
186:
142:
100:
29:
2514:, Philip K. Hitti (trans.) (New Jersey: Princeton), 1978. p. 69.
2427:
D'Amato, Raffaele; Negin, Andrey Evgenevich (20 November 2018).
1672:, due to the Empire's strong Greek influence, as opposed to the
1628:
1483:
1353:
1262:
302:
154:
1807:
arrived from the West; this, in combination with the advent of
3000:
Campbell, Brian (1987), "Teach Yourself How to Be a General",
1524:
1329:
spear used by most other cavalries of the period. Accounts of
1860:
figurine of a cataphract horse and rider, created during the
817:), but rather developed simultaneously in different parts of
515:
453:
441:
358:
352:
322:
1116:
in 217 AD, which resulted in a slight Parthian victory, and
3076:
Nikonorov, Valerii P. (1985a). "The Parthian Cataphracts".
2431:. Elite. Vol. 225. Osprey Publishing. pp. 11–12.
430:" (implying that clibanarii is a foreign term, not used in
649:. Some of these nomadic tribes and wandering pastoralists
2010: – Type of light or heavy cavalry armed with a lance
1720:
of previous ages, which is referred to separately as the
1421:
that had certain connotations of prestige, nobility, and
1015:
considered cataphracts with horse armor to be typical of
568:
being used in historical sources, largely because of the
380:
There appears to be some confusion about the term in the
2281:
Armies of the Macedonian and Punic Wars 359 BC to 146 BC
1077:'s army, completely composed of light cavalry, defeated
2018:
Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets
1473:
Two heavily armored noblemen dueling on horseback with
1360:
Cataphracts would often be equipped with an additional
762:
from around 600 BC and onwards due to contact with the
548:, where Latin was the official tongue, always bore the
526:), which would translate as "fully iron-clad knights".
3374:
Military units and formations of the Hellenistic world
2346:
2344:
1992:
general Kul-Tegin exchanged armored horses in battle.
1425:
attached to them. In many armies, this reflected upon
945:
of the 5th century BC with the Achaemenid Empire. The
743:. To a larger extent, the same can be said of all the
426:" – the "cataphract cavalry which they regularly call
396:
later became exclusively designated as "cataphracts".
3369:
Military units and formations of the Byzantine Empire
3078:
Chetvertaia vsesoiuznaia shkola molodykh vostokovedov
2319:
2317:
2315:
2167:
2165:
2040:
2038:
1555:, the dedicated, front-line legionaries who were the
1325:
seated, especially during violent contact in battle.
377:", meaning "the armored, whom they call cataphract".
3329:
Cavalry units and formations of the Sassanian Empire
1496:
cataphracts were a contiguous division known as the
463:
309:
cataphract armour with neck-guard. 1st century BCE.
3286:—Roman, Parthian and Sasanid military organisation.
3085:Smith, William; et al. (1890). "Cataphracti".
1146:This tradition was later paralleled by the rise of
1031:, they were still held in rather low esteem in the
968:Besides the Seleucids it is possible that also the
664:migrated from the steppes of Central Asia into the
452:), meaning "camp oven bearers" from the Greek word
256:during the late 3rd and 4th centuries. The Emperor
3299:Third century AD graffito of Parthian Cataphractus
3093:The text of this book is now in the public domain.
2302:
2300:
1619:cataphracts fleeing from Roman cavalry during the
3399:Types of cavalry unit in the army of ancient Rome
3394:Military units and formations of the Tang dynasty
2361:
2359:
45:for the horse. The rider is covered by extensive
1607:Later history and usage in the early Middle Ages
1191:Breakdown of a fully armoured Chinese cataphract
537:. Some historians theorise that cataphracts and
423:cataphracti equites (quos clibanarios dictitant)
2714:Collected Commentaries on the Classic of Poetry
2643:Collected Commentaries on the Classic of Poetry
1897:, not metal as traditionally believed (e.g. by
1208:historian and soldier, describing the sight of
1194:
558:. The cataphract-like cavalry stationed in the
2796:Old Book of Tang 舊唐書 Vol.2 Emperor Taizong 太宗上
122:, they may have influenced the later European
2939:Tongdian 通典 Vol.4 Border defense·Tibet 邊防典·吐蕃
1938:continued the use of cataphracts. During the
821:(especially among the peoples inhabiting the
491:, which translates into "neck-guard wearer".
290:Close combat between soldiers in cataphract.
8:
3304:The historical works of Ammianus Marcellinus
3099:Zheleznyi vek Kavkaza, Srednei Azii i Sibiri
2074:Nikonorov, Valerii P. (2–5 September 1998).
110:to break through opposing heavy cavalry and
3088:A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities
2524:"Equestrian battle reliefs from Firuozabad"
2477:Driel-Murray, C. van; Connolly, P. (1991).
841:(the ancient Assyrian city founded by king
594:
579:
573:
563:
553:
538:
530:
421:
409:
401:
385:
372:
224:In Europe, the fashion for heavily armored
3379:Military units and formations of antiquity
3120:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
2095:Romano-Byzantine Armies, 4th–9th Centuries
1067:ala I Gallorum et Pannoniorum catafractata
2350:
2323:
1563:, were sourced from the very best of the
1124:of mercenary cataphract cavalry (see the
941:first encountered cataphracts during the
739:, including the Medes and the successive
3131:Anthropology & Archeology of Eurasia
2653:,四馬皆以淺薄之金為甲。欲其輕而易於馬之旋習也。" translation: "
2335:
2157:Anthropology & Archeology of Eurasia
1610:
1177:
853:of their nomadic enemies, primarily the
798:Spread to Central Asia and the Near East
41:cataphract, complete with a full set of
3364:Military history of the Parthian Empire
2393:, Vol. 57, No. 1/2 (1967), pp. 161–173.
2034:
1356:showing Cataphracts dueling with lances
641:, who were one of the first peoples to
351:) is composed of the Greek root words,
3113:
2915:
2886:
2857:
2829:
2801:
2772:
2744:
1680:, which subsequently fell out of use.
1331:later period Middle Eastern cavalrymen
1112:and finally culminating in the bloody
996:in 69 BC. In 38 BC, the Roman general
622:Sculpture of a Sasanian cataphract in
3359:Military history of the Mongol Empire
2414:
2402:
2377:
2365:
2306:
2266:
2254:
2242:
2230:
2218:
1578:In an ironic twist, the elite of the
873:(745–727 BC) period, under which the
645:and pioneered the development of the
7:
2824:Quan Tang Wen (全唐文) Vol. 352 河西破蕃賊露布
2451:Ammianus Marcellinus, (353 AD)
1380:and its use in battle by successive
1337:. There are also reliefs in Iran at
1216:in Asia Minor, circa fourth century.
552:variant of the original Greek name,
3246:Sassanian Elite Cavalry, AD 224–642
3110:. St. Petersburg. pp. 131–138.
2910:Quan Tang Wen (全唐文) Vol.103 曉諭梁將王檀書
2173:Sassanian Elite Cavalry, AD 224–642
374:loricatos, quos cataphractos vocant
3319:Ancient Greek military terminology
2852:Quan Tang Wen (全唐文) Vol. 827 責南詔蠻書
2728:, four forses covered by armours."
2188:Sassanian elite cavalry AD 224–642
2060:KHALCHAYAN – Encyclopaedia Iranica
917:experiments with mailed cavalry".
25:
3255:The Savaran: The Original Knights
3230:Late Roman Cavalryman, 236–565 AD
2567:"The Sarmatians", T. Sulimirski,
2046:The Savaran: The Original Knights
494:Roman chroniclers and historians
321:The origin of the word is Greek.
3101:. Moscow: Nauka. pp. 30–35.
2004: – Use of equines in combat
1869:
1849:
1748:mercenaries, while neighbouring
1724:after the 12th century. Emperor
1051:as early as the 2nd century BC (
957:, the Hellenistic successors of
951:First Persian invasion of Greece
3257:. University of Oklahoma Press.
3223:. New York: St. Martin's Press.
3080:. T. I. Moscow. pp. 65–67.
2881:Cefu Yuangui 冊府元龜 Vol.1 帝王部·修武備
2464:Ammianus Marcellinus, (353 AD)
2048:. University of Oklahoma Press.
1932:Northern and Southern Dynasties
1829:Decline of the Byzantine Empire
1512:collapse of the Sassanid Empire
1449:Testudo or "tortoise" formation
1110:Mark Antony's Parthian Campaign
703:The previously mentioned early
267:) and his general and putative
262:
921:Hellenistic and Roman adoption
1:
2655:thinly armoured horse-quartet
2628:thinly-armoured horse-quartet
2597:Notes on Turquois in the East
2191:. Oxford: Osprey. p. 4.
1154:and the establishment of the
1000:, by making extensive use of
650:
2391:The Journal of Roman Studies
1841:Horses in East Asian warfare
1486:cataphracts employed by the
1141:End of Roman rule in Britain
522:
448:
347:
341:
335:
329:
315:Museum of Arts of Uzbekistan
3264:Roman Antiquities, Book XXV
3219:Warry, John Gibson (1980).
2025: – Polish coat of arms
1320:developed ever more secure
1150:in Christian Europe in the
126:, through contact with the
95:, and typically wielding a
3415:
3284:Cataphracts and Siegecraft
2952:"The Kültegin inscription"
2879:Wang 王, Qinruo 欽若 (1013).
2699:The armoured horse-quartet
2695:The armoured horse-quartet
2691:The armoured horse-quartet
2130:Mielczarek, Mariusz (1993)
1838:
1232:, equivalent to the Roman
1027:armies, but, according to
723:, which originated in the
516:
483:), itself composed of the
454:
442:
359:
353:
323:
3354:Military history of Korea
3349:Military history of Japan
3344:Military history of China
3339:Late Roman military units
3228:Macdowall, Simon (1995).
3203:Soria Molina, D. (2013) "
3188:Soria Molina, D. (2012) "
3169:Soria Molina, D. (2011) "
3143:10.2753/aae1061-195940047
2599:, Volume 13, Issues 1–2,
2497:Shahbazi, A. Sh. (2009).
2283:. Lulu.com. p. 237.
1301:) appeared much like the
1226:
1168:Western counterparts fell
592:, first mentioned in the
103:) as his primary weapon.
3041:Journal of Roman Studies
3003:Journal of Roman Studies
2922:: CS1 maint: location (
2893:: CS1 maint: location (
2864:: CS1 maint: location (
2836:: CS1 maint: location (
2808:: CS1 maint: location (
2779:: CS1 maint: location (
2751:: CS1 maint: location (
2479:The Roman cavalry saddle
1835:Cataphracts in East Asia
1539:, all of which favoured
1443:team of cataphracts and
1212:cataphracts approaching
1174:Appearance and equipment
1158:particularly during the
1102:Battle of Cilician Gates
998:Publius Ventidius Bassus
588:, a Roman equivalent of
369:Lucius Cornelius Sisenna
3262:Marcellinus, Ammianus.
3253:Nell, Grant S. (1995).
3244:Farrokh, Kaveh (2005).
3200:, 15, pp. 117–163.
2741:. Vol.16 擅興, Code 243 .
2455:, Book XXV pp. 477
2185:Farrokh, Kaveh (2005).
2171:Farrokh, Kaveh (2005).
1269:and fought against the
1090:Marcus Licinius Crassus
1011:, the Greek geographer
745:Ancient Iranian peoples
626:, Iran, 4th century CE.
464:
3185:, 14, pp. 69–122.
2726:armoured horse-quartet
2626:孔羣" translation: "The
2044:Nell, Grant S. (1995)
1825:Fall of Constantinople
1653:Strategikon of Maurice
1631:
1590:wars initiated in the
1561:Pushtigban Body Guards
1478:
1401:
1388:Tactics and deployment
1357:
1283:
1219:
1192:
1184:
1058:equites cataphractarii
934:
810:
711:, who would found the
684:, apart from advanced
627:
615:
595:
580:
574:
564:
554:
539:
531:
422:
410:
402:
386:
373:
318:
295:
265: 253–268 AD
50:
35:Historical reenactment
2973:Dumbarton Oaks Papers
2689:陶陶..." translation: "
2630:are very harmonious".
2510:Usamah Ibn-Munquidh,
2279:Head, Duncan (2016).
2097:. Osprey Publishing.
1928:Jin dynasty (266–420)
1714:Komnenian restoration
1614:
1472:
1427:social stratification
1395:
1348:Equestrian relief at
1347:
1279:
1190:
1181:
1092:(close benefactor of
928:
805:
643:domesticate the horse
621:
613:
367:, in the writings of
357:, a preposition, and
301:
289:
33:
3248:. Osprey Publishing.
2701:jaunted with joy..."
2380:, p. 276, fn. 2
2175:. Osprey Publishing.
1862:Northern Wei Dynasty
1202:Ammianus Marcellinus
863:North Arabian tribes
825:) as well as within
713:first Iranian Empire
560:Eastern Roman Empire
546:Western Roman Empire
523:pansidearoos ippotas
462:word for a warrior,
418:Ammianus Marcellinus
128:Eastern Roman Empire
3294:McMaster University
2937:Du 杜, You 佑 (801).
2794:Liu 劉, Xu 昫 (945).
2767:Tang Liu Dian (唐六典)
2693:strutted strong...
2063:. p. Figure 1.
2023:Ostoja coat of arms
1880:(550–577 AD) period
1786:Ostoja coat of arms
1549:Shapur II of Persia
1541:hit and run tactics
1275:Julian the Apostate
970:Kingdom of Pergamon
959:Alexander the Great
900:basin, such as the
875:Neo-Assyrian Empire
871:Tiglath-Pileser III
517:πανσιδήρους ἱππότας
68:and was fielded in
64:that originated in
2724:也。" translation: "
2620:Little War-Chariot
2529:2016-10-03 at the
2468:, Boox XXV pp. 481
2257:, pp. 269–270
1945:Anlushan Rebellion
1726:Alexios I Komnenos
1632:
1598:, it was noted by
1545:Roman-Persian wars
1479:
1402:
1358:
1311:used by the famed
1303:Hellenistic armies
1193:
1185:
1126:Notitia Dignitatum
1021:Caucasian Albanian
990:Tigranes the Great
943:Greco-Persian Wars
935:
847:plated-mail shirts
811:
690:selective breeding
628:
616:
597:Notitia Dignitatum
319:
296:
294:, 1st century BCE.
51:
3234:Osprey Publishing
2720:. quote: "駟介,四馬而被
2697:pranced proud...
2667:Classic of Poetry
2612:Classic of Poetry
2466:Roman Antiquities
2453:Roman Antiquities
2438:978-1-4728-3004-3
2107:978-1-8553-2224-0
2002:Horses in warfare
1903:Séraphin Couvreur
1623:circa 101 AD, at
1535:, Scythians, and
1464:fire and movement
1152:Early Middle Ages
1114:Battle of Nisibis
1096:) and his 35,000
1033:Hellenistic world
790:, Scythians, and
780:Greek city-states
741:Persian dynasties
682:Ancient Near East
404:lorica segmentata
394:Republican period
382:late Roman period
236:(53 BC) in upper
234:Battle of Carrhae
16:(Redirected from
3406:
3267:
3258:
3249:
3237:
3224:
3166:
3153:
3125:
3119:
3111:
3102:
3092:
3081:
3072:
3048:(1/2): 161–173,
3034:
2996:
2958:
2949:
2943:
2942:
2934:
2928:
2927:
2921:
2913:
2908:Li 李, Cunxu 存勖.
2905:
2899:
2898:
2892:
2884:
2876:
2870:
2869:
2863:
2855:
2848:
2842:
2841:
2835:
2827:
2820:
2814:
2813:
2807:
2799:
2791:
2785:
2784:
2778:
2770:
2763:
2757:
2756:
2750:
2742:
2735:
2729:
2708:
2702:
2664:
2658:
2637:
2631:
2609:
2603:
2590:
2584:
2581:
2575:
2565:
2559:
2549:
2543:
2540:
2534:
2521:
2515:
2508:
2502:
2495:
2489:
2475:
2469:
2462:
2456:
2449:
2443:
2442:
2424:
2418:
2417:, pp. 170f.
2412:
2406:
2400:
2394:
2387:
2381:
2375:
2369:
2363:
2354:
2353:, pp. 10ff.
2348:
2339:
2333:
2327:
2321:
2310:
2309:, pp. 163f.
2304:
2295:
2294:
2276:
2270:
2264:
2258:
2252:
2246:
2240:
2234:
2228:
2222:
2221:, pp. 161f.
2216:
2210:
2209:
2207:
2205:
2182:
2176:
2169:
2160:
2153:
2147:
2141:
2135:
2128:
2122:
2115:
2109:
2088:
2082:
2081:
2071:
2065:
2064:
2055:
2049:
2042:
2019:
1873:
1853:
1742:early modern era
1662:Sylloge Taktikon
1569:Praetorian Guard
1516:Sassanid dynasty
1514:. Initially the
1318:Persian military
1228:
1217:
1118:Emperor Macrinus
978:Hellenistic East
756:Eurasian steppes
737:Ancient Persians
725:Zagros Mountains
694:animal husbandry
655:
652:
600:
587:
577:
567:
557:
542:
536:
525:
519:
518:
467:
457:
456:
451:
445:
444:
425:
415:
407:
391:
376:
362:
361:
356:
355:
350:
344:
338:
332:
326:
325:
266:
264:
120:High Middle Ages
21:
3414:
3413:
3409:
3408:
3407:
3405:
3404:
3403:
3389:Iranian warfare
3334:Ancient Armenia
3309:
3308:
3280:
3261:
3252:
3243:
3227:
3218:
3213:Aquila Legionis
3198:Aquila Legionis
3183:Aquila Legionis
3156:
3128:
3112:
3105:
3096:
3091:(3rd ed.).
3084:
3075:
3037:
2999:
2986:10.2307/1291323
2969:
2966:
2961:
2954:lines 33-34 at
2950:
2946:
2936:
2935:
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2914:
2907:
2906:
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2885:
2878:
2877:
2873:
2856:
2850:
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2828:
2822:
2821:
2817:
2800:
2793:
2792:
2788:
2771:
2765:
2764:
2760:
2743:
2739:Tang Code(唐律疏議)
2737:
2736:
2732:
2709:
2705:
2665:
2661:
2638:
2634:
2610:
2606:
2593:Berthold Laufer
2591:
2587:
2582:
2578:
2566:
2562:
2550:
2546:
2541:
2537:
2531:Wayback Machine
2522:
2518:
2509:
2505:
2496:
2492:
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2203:
2201:
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2184:
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2163:
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2142:
2138:
2129:
2125:
2116:
2112:
2089:
2085:
2073:
2072:
2068:
2057:
2056:
2052:
2043:
2036:
2032:
2017:
1998:
1885:
1884:
1883:
1882:
1881:
1874:
1866:
1865:
1854:
1843:
1837:
1730:weakest periods
1706:wedge formation
1625:Trajan's Column
1615:A depiction of
1609:
1580:East Roman army
1423:esprit de corps
1390:
1382:Persian Empires
1374:Sassanid Empire
1313:Greek phalanxes
1234:Lorica squamata
1218:
1200:
1176:
1137:Marcus Aurelius
1128:), such as the
1083:Battle of Immae
1007:At the time of
955:Seleucid Empire
923:
892:inhabiting the
890:Iranian peoples
851:mounted archers
815:Iranian plateau
800:
760:Iranian plateau
719:, known as the
666:Iranian Plateau
653:
639:early antiquity
608:
606:Iranian origins
489:griva-pana-bara
432:Classical Latin
284:
276:Late Roman army
261:
254:late Roman army
89:Lamellar armour
78:Northern Africa
70:ancient warfare
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
3412:
3410:
3402:
3401:
3396:
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3366:
3361:
3356:
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3346:
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3336:
3331:
3326:
3321:
3311:
3310:
3307:
3306:
3301:
3296:
3287:
3279:
3278:External links
3276:
3272:
3271:
3268:
3266:. p. 481.
3259:
3250:
3241:
3238:
3225:
3216:
3201:
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3167:
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3094:
3082:
3073:
3054:10.2307/299352
3035:
3016:10.2307/300572
2997:
2965:
2962:
2960:
2959:
2944:
2929:
2900:
2871:
2843:
2815:
2786:
2769:. Vol.22. 右尚署.
2758:
2730:
2703:
2659:
2632:
2604:
2585:
2576:
2560:
2544:
2535:
2516:
2503:
2499:Sassanian Army
2490:
2470:
2457:
2444:
2437:
2419:
2407:
2395:
2382:
2370:
2355:
2351:Perevalov 2002
2340:
2328:
2324:Perevalov 2002
2311:
2296:
2289:
2271:
2259:
2247:
2235:
2223:
2211:
2197:
2177:
2161:
2148:
2136:
2123:
2117:Leo Diaconis,
2110:
2091:Nicolle, David
2083:
2066:
2050:
2033:
2031:
2028:
2027:
2026:
2020:
2014:Komnenian army
2011:
2005:
1997:
1994:
1990:Latter Göktürk
1986:Tibetan Empire
1920:Inner Mongolia
1911:Three Kingdoms
1875:
1868:
1867:
1855:
1848:
1847:
1846:
1845:
1844:
1839:Main article:
1836:
1833:
1809:early firearms
1797:lamellar armor
1782:Clan of Ostoja
1722:Komnenian army
1718:Byzantine army
1678:Cataphractarii
1642:, akin to the
1608:
1605:
1573:late antiquity
1557:heavy infantry
1521:mounted archer
1389:
1386:
1293:("oar") or in
1259:Constantius II
1246:lamellar armor
1214:Roman infantry
1198:
1175:
1172:
1164:Eastern Romans
1106:Mount Gindarus
931:British Museum
922:
919:
799:
796:
729:Ancient Persia
654: 2000 BC
607:
604:
555:cataphractarii
283:
280:
175:Greco-Bactrian
57:was a form of
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3411:
3400:
3397:
3395:
3392:
3390:
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3377:
3375:
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3342:
3340:
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3335:
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3327:
3325:
3322:
3320:
3317:
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3302:
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3269:
3265:
3260:
3256:
3251:
3247:
3242:
3239:
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3231:
3226:
3222:
3217:
3215:, 16, 75-123.
3214:
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3079:
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3063:
3059:
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3047:
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3017:
3013:
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3005:
3004:
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2991:
2987:
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2957:
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2948:
2945:
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2933:
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2925:
2919:
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2904:
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2896:
2890:
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2875:
2872:
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2861:
2853:
2847:
2844:
2839:
2833:
2825:
2819:
2816:
2811:
2805:
2797:
2790:
2787:
2782:
2776:
2768:
2762:
2759:
2754:
2748:
2740:
2734:
2731:
2727:
2723:
2719:
2716:, "volume 4"
2715:
2712:
2707:
2704:
2700:
2696:
2692:
2688:
2684:
2680:
2676:
2672:
2668:
2663:
2660:
2656:
2652:
2648:
2645:, "volume 3"
2644:
2641:
2636:
2633:
2629:
2625:
2621:
2617:
2613:
2608:
2605:
2602:
2598:
2594:
2589:
2586:
2580:
2577:
2574:
2573:9780500020715
2570:
2564:
2561:
2558:
2557:1 84176 485 X
2554:
2548:
2545:
2539:
2536:
2532:
2528:
2525:
2520:
2517:
2513:
2507:
2504:
2500:
2494:
2491:
2487:
2484:
2480:
2474:
2471:
2467:
2461:
2458:
2454:
2448:
2445:
2440:
2434:
2430:
2423:
2420:
2416:
2411:
2408:
2405:, p. 168
2404:
2399:
2396:
2392:
2386:
2383:
2379:
2374:
2371:
2368:, p. 166
2367:
2362:
2360:
2356:
2352:
2347:
2345:
2341:
2337:
2336:Campbell 1987
2332:
2329:
2325:
2320:
2318:
2316:
2312:
2308:
2303:
2301:
2297:
2292:
2290:9781326256562
2286:
2282:
2275:
2272:
2269:, p. 163
2268:
2263:
2260:
2256:
2251:
2248:
2245:, p. 162
2244:
2239:
2236:
2233:, p. 266
2232:
2227:
2224:
2220:
2215:
2212:
2200:
2198:9781841767130
2194:
2190:
2189:
2181:
2178:
2174:
2168:
2166:
2162:
2159:41 (4): 7–21.
2158:
2152:
2149:
2145:
2140:
2137:
2133:
2127:
2124:
2121:4.3, 5.2, 8.9
2120:
2114:
2111:
2108:
2104:
2103:1-8553-2224-2
2100:
2096:
2092:
2087:
2084:
2079:
2078:
2070:
2067:
2062:
2061:
2054:
2051:
2047:
2041:
2039:
2035:
2029:
2024:
2021:
2015:
2012:
2009:
2006:
2003:
2000:
1999:
1995:
1993:
1991:
1987:
1982:
1980:
1976:
1972:
1968:
1967:Mongol Empire
1963:
1959:
1955:
1951:
1946:
1941:
1937:
1933:
1929:
1925:
1921:
1917:
1912:
1908:
1904:
1900:
1896:
1892:
1891:
1879:
1872:
1863:
1859:
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1842:
1834:
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1779:
1775:
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1763:
1759:
1755:
1751:
1747:
1743:
1737:
1735:
1731:
1727:
1723:
1719:
1715:
1709:
1707:
1703:
1702:Klibanophoros
1699:
1695:
1689:
1685:
1681:
1679:
1675:
1671:
1667:
1663:
1659:
1655:
1654:
1648:
1645:
1641:
1640:Martiobarbuli
1637:
1630:
1626:
1622:
1618:
1613:
1606:
1604:
1601:
1597:
1593:
1589:
1585:
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1576:
1574:
1570:
1566:
1562:
1558:
1554:
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1526:
1522:
1517:
1513:
1509:
1505:
1501:
1500:
1495:
1491:
1489:
1485:
1476:
1471:
1467:
1465:
1461:
1457:
1456:
1450:
1446:
1445:horse archers
1442:
1441:combined arms
1438:
1434:
1432:
1428:
1424:
1420:
1416:
1412:
1408:
1399:
1394:
1387:
1385:
1383:
1379:
1378:horse archery
1375:
1371:
1367:
1363:
1355:
1351:
1346:
1342:
1340:
1336:
1332:
1326:
1323:
1319:
1314:
1310:
1309:
1304:
1300:
1296:
1292:
1288:
1282:
1278:
1276:
1272:
1271:Sassanid army
1268:
1264:
1260:
1255:
1251:
1247:
1243:
1239:
1235:
1231:
1224:
1215:
1211:
1207:
1203:
1197:
1189:
1180:
1173:
1171:
1169:
1165:
1161:
1157:
1153:
1149:
1144:
1142:
1138:
1134:
1131:
1127:
1123:
1119:
1115:
1111:
1107:
1103:
1099:
1095:
1094:Julius Caesar
1091:
1086:
1084:
1080:
1076:
1072:
1068:
1064:
1060:
1059:
1054:
1050:
1046:
1042:
1039:
1034:
1030:
1026:
1022:
1018:
1014:
1010:
1005:
1003:
999:
995:
991:
987:
983:
979:
974:
971:
966:
964:
960:
956:
952:
948:
947:Ionian Revolt
944:
940:
932:
927:
920:
918:
915:
910:
907:
903:
899:
895:
891:
886:
884:
880:
876:
872:
868:
864:
860:
856:
852:
848:
844:
843:Shalmaneser I
840:
836:
832:
828:
824:
820:
816:
809:
804:
797:
795:
793:
792:North Arabian
789:
785:
781:
777:
773:
770:, Scythians,
769:
765:
764:Median Empire
761:
757:
753:
748:
746:
742:
738:
734:
730:
726:
722:
718:
714:
710:
706:
701:
699:
695:
691:
687:
683:
679:
675:
671:
667:
663:
659:
648:
644:
640:
636:
633:
632:Central Asian
625:
620:
612:
605:
603:
601:
599:
598:
591:
590:horse archers
586:
584:
576:
571:
566:
561:
556:
551:
547:
541:
535:
534:
527:
524:
513:
509:
505:
504:Asclepiodotus
501:
497:
492:
490:
486:
482:
481:
475:
471:
466:
461:
450:
449:klibanophoroi
439:
435:
433:
429:
424:
419:
414:
413:
412:lorica hamata
406:
405:
399:
395:
390:
389:
383:
378:
375:
370:
366:
349:
343:
337:
331:
316:
312:
308:
304:
300:
293:
292:Orlat plaques
288:
281:
279:
277:
273:
270:
259:
255:
251:
247:
246:light cavalry
243:
239:
235:
231:
227:
226:Roman cavalry
222:
220:
216:
212:
208:
204:
200:
196:
192:
188:
184:
180:
176:
172:
168:
164:
160:
156:
152:
148:
144:
140:
136:
131:
129:
125:
121:
118:up until the
117:
113:
109:
104:
102:
98:
94:
90:
86:
81:
79:
75:
71:
67:
63:
62:heavy cavalry
60:
56:
48:
44:
40:
36:
32:
19:
3273:
3263:
3254:
3245:
3229:
3220:
3212:
3208:
3204:
3197:
3193:
3189:
3182:
3178:
3174:
3170:
3162:
3158:
3134:
3130:
3107:
3098:
3087:
3077:
3045:
3039:
3007:
3001:
2977:
2971:
2955:
2947:
2938:
2932:
2909:
2903:
2880:
2874:
2851:
2846:
2823:
2818:
2795:
2789:
2766:
2761:
2738:
2733:
2725:
2721:
2713:
2706:
2698:
2694:
2690:
2686:
2682:
2678:
2666:
2662:
2654:
2650:
2647:p. 68 of 163
2642:
2635:
2627:
2623:
2611:
2607:
2596:
2588:
2579:
2563:
2547:
2538:
2519:
2511:
2506:
2498:
2493:
2488:, pp. 33–50.
2485:
2482:
2478:
2473:
2465:
2460:
2452:
2447:
2428:
2422:
2410:
2398:
2390:
2385:
2373:
2338:, p. 25
2331:
2326:, p. 10
2280:
2274:
2262:
2250:
2238:
2226:
2214:
2202:. Retrieved
2187:
2180:
2172:
2156:
2151:
2144:Robert Drews
2139:
2131:
2126:
2118:
2113:
2094:
2086:
2076:
2069:
2059:
2053:
2045:
1983:
1975:Yuan dynasty
1888:
1886:
1864:(386–534 AD)
1820:
1790:
1774:Draco banner
1745:
1738:
1710:
1701:
1697:
1693:
1690:
1686:
1682:
1677:
1670:Kataphraktoi
1669:
1661:
1651:
1649:
1639:
1633:
1577:
1564:
1553:Comitatenses
1529:Hephthalites
1507:
1497:
1492:
1480:
1458:, a type of
1453:
1437:Fire support
1435:
1431:caste system
1422:
1403:
1398:Issyk kurgan
1359:
1327:
1306:
1298:
1290:
1284:
1280:
1229:
1220:
1195:
1162:, while the
1145:
1122:vexillations
1087:
1066:
1056:
1006:
994:Tigranocerta
975:
967:
936:
911:
887:
827:Greater Iran
819:Central Asia
812:
808:Northern Yan
749:
705:Indo-Iranian
702:
686:metalworking
670:Greater Iran
629:
624:Taq-e Bostan
593:
528:
512:Leo Diaconis
493:
488:
477:
473:
443:κλιβανοφόροι
437:
436:
379:
342:cataphractos
336:cataphraktos
330:kataphraktos
320:
223:
132:
105:
82:
54:
52:
39:Sasanian-era
3205:Cataphracti
3190:Cataphracti
3175:cataphracti
3137:(4): 7–21,
2980:: 271–291,
2718:p. 8 of 163
2675:Men of Qing
1971:Kublai Khan
1962:Song Empire
1954:Western Xia
1940:Tang Empire
1907:James Legge
1878:Northern Qi
1801:scale armor
1784:and become
1766:Lithuanians
1734:Justinian I
1621:Dacian wars
1596:Justinian I
1254:breastplate
1242:plated mail
1170:in 476 AD.
1133:Auxiliaries
1098:legionaries
896:region and
883:Sennacherib
867:Babylonians
784:Babylonians
717:horse breed
514:calls them
470:Old Persian
348:katafraktos
324:Κατάφρακτος
248:tactics to
238:Mesopotamia
151:Achaemenids
85:Scale armor
72:throughout
47:mail armour
43:scale armor
18:Cataphracti
3384:Sarmatians
3313:Categories
3209:clibanarii
3194:clibanarii
3179:clibanarii
2956:Türk Bitig
2677:" quote: "
2649:. quote: "
2622:" quote: "
2601:p. 306-307
2415:Eadie 1967
2403:Eadie 1967
2378:Rubin 1955
2366:Eadie 1967
2307:Eadie 1967
2267:Eadie 1967
2255:Rubin 1955
2243:Eadie 1967
2231:Rubin 1955
2219:Eadie 1967
2204:20 January
2030:References
1936:Sui Empire
1918:tribes of
1858:terracotta
1856:A Chinese
1793:chain mail
1698:Clibanarii
1666:Late Latin
1364:such as a
1335:chain mail
1250:chain mail
1156:knighthood
1049:Roman army
982:the battle
902:Massagetae
806:Chanfron,
768:Massagetae
658:Bronze-Age
585:Clibanarii
583:Sagittarii
575:clibanarii
570:Byzantines
565:clibanarii
540:clibanarii
533:clibanarii
510:historian
480:grivpanvar
474:*griwbanar
438:Clibanarii
428:clibanarii
311:Khalchayan
191:Byzantines
139:Sarmatians
93:chain mail
55:cataphract
3165:: 264–283
3151:161826066
3116:cite book
3070:163396768
3032:162374857
3010:: 13–29,
2918:cite book
2889:cite book
2860:cite book
2832:cite book
2804:cite book
2775:cite book
2747:cite book
2669:"Airs of
2614:"Airs of
2483:Britannia
2119:Historiae
1979:East Asia
1965:emerging
1817:gunpowder
1805:cuirasses
1746:Latinikon
1674:Romanized
1617:Sarmatian
1600:Procopius
1488:Scythians
1419:Near East
1350:Firuzabad
1339:Firuzabad
1230:Folidotos
1227:φολιδωτός
1148:feudalism
1130:Sarmatian
1071:Gallienus
1038:Sarmatian
914:Black Sea
855:Aramaeans
823:Silk Road
788:Assyrians
698:Near East
662:Iranians,
550:Latinized
508:Byzantine
282:Etymology
258:Gallienus
195:Georgians
179:Sassanids
163:Seleucids
159:Armenians
147:Parthians
135:Scythians
116:antiquity
3171:Contarii
3159:Historia
2595:(1913),
2527:Archived
1996:See also
1924:Liaoning
1890:Shi Jing
1821:en masse
1644:plumbata
1592:Caucasus
1362:side-arm
1308:sarissae
1199:—
1160:Crusades
1075:Aurelian
1053:Polybios
1029:Plutarch
1017:Armenian
1009:Augustus
1002:slingers
986:Lucullus
963:Seleucid
898:Aral Sea
894:Khwarezm
865:and the
835:Khwarezm
833:and the
678:Kassites
676:and the
581:Equites
455:κλίβανος
398:Vegetius
317:, nb 40.
272:Aureolus
250:skirmish
230:Anatolia
207:Jurchens
112:infantry
3324:Cavalry
2994:1291323
2964:Sources
2134:, p. 14
2093:(1992)
1916:Xianbei
1770:Khazars
1750:Bulgars
1638:called
1584:Iberian
1565:Savaran
1537:Kushans
1533:Xiongnu
1504:Persian
1499:Savaran
1494:Persian
1484:Iranian
1415:lancers
1411:mounted
1407:archers
1322:saddles
1210:Persian
1204:, late
1081:at the
1079:Zenobia
1063:Hadrian
1043:on the
1041:lancers
1025:Persian
831:Assyria
709:Medians
674:Mitanni
660:), the
647:chariot
635:steppes
485:Iranian
465:grivpan
460:Persian
392:in the
388:Equites
360:φρακτός
269:usurper
242:equites
219:Songhai
215:Tanguts
211:Mongols
203:Koreans
199:Chinese
167:Attalid
124:knights
108:charges
74:Eurasia
59:armored
3149:
3068:
3062:299352
3060:
3030:
3024:300572
3022:
2992:
2711:Zhu Xi
2685:麃麃...
2681:旁旁...
2640:Zhu Xi
2571:
2555:
2435:
2287:
2195:
2101:
2008:Lancer
1973:. The
1956:, and
1899:Zhu Xi
1815:, and
1813:cannon
1799:, and
1658:Leo VI
1508:سواران
1475:kontos
1455:Kontos
1409:(both
1299:Contus
1291:Kontos
1273:under
1267:Persia
1183:horse.
1045:Danube
1023:, and
1013:Strabo
939:Greeks
869:. The
859:Mushki
839:Nimrud
774:, and
733:Greeks
721:Nisean
500:Aelian
496:Arrian
487:roots
307:Kangju
183:Romans
171:Pontus
97:kontos
66:Persia
3147:S2CID
3066:S2CID
3058:JSTOR
3028:S2CID
3020:JSTOR
2990:JSTOR
2671:Zheng
1778:Tamga
1762:Alans
1758:Avars
1754:Serbs
1694:theme
1676:term
1636:darts
1588:Lazic
1460:lance
1429:or a
1366:sword
1297:as a
1295:Latin
1289:as a
1287:Greek
1223:Greek
1206:Roman
1139:(see
992:near
988:with
906:Dahae
879:pikes
776:Dahae
772:Sakas
752:caste
472:word
365:Latin
345:, or
187:Goths
155:Sakas
143:Alans
101:lance
91:over
37:of a
3122:link
2924:link
2895:link
2866:link
2838:link
2810:link
2781:link
2753:link
2569:ISBN
2553:ISBN
2433:ISBN
2285:ISBN
2206:2014
2193:ISBN
2099:ISBN
1950:Liao
1930:and
1922:and
1895:hide
1776:and
1629:Rome
1586:and
1525:Huns
1370:mace
1354:Iran
1265:and
1263:Gaul
1238:hide
937:The
758:and
692:and
668:and
502:and
476:(or
354:κατά
303:Saka
217:and
76:and
3292:at
3139:doi
3050:doi
3012:doi
2982:doi
2616:Qin
1958:Jin
1831:).
1660:'s
1627:in
1594:by
1368:or
1261:in
1244:or
1143:).
984:of
637:in
434:).
408:or
371:: "
87:or
3315::
3232:.
3207:y
3192:y
3177:y
3173:,
3161:,
3145:,
3135:41
3133:,
3118:}}
3114:{{
3064:,
3056:,
3046:57
3044:,
3026:,
3018:,
3008:77
3006:,
2988:,
2978:26
2976:,
2920:}}
2916:{{
2891:}}
2887:{{
2862:}}
2858:{{
2834:}}
2830:{{
2806:}}
2802:{{
2777:}}
2773:{{
2749:}}
2745:{{
2687:駟介
2683:駟介
2679:駟介
2673::
2651:俴駟
2624:俴駟
2618::
2486:22
2481:.
2358:^
2343:^
2314:^
2299:^
2164:^
2105:,
2037:^
1952:,
1905:,
1901:,
1811:,
1795:,
1788:.
1768:,
1764:,
1760:,
1756:,
1752:,
1531:,
1527:,
1506::
1384:.
1352:,
1305:'
1225::
1108:,
1104:,
1019:,
904:,
861:,
857:,
829:.
786:,
782:,
651:c.
498:,
416:.
339:,
333:,
313:.
278:.
263:r.
221:.
213:,
209:,
205:,
201:,
197:,
193:,
189:,
185:,
181:,
177:,
173:,
169:,
165:,
161:,
157:,
153:,
149:,
145:,
141:,
137:,
130:.
80:.
53:A
3236:.
3163:4
3141::
3124:)
3052::
3014::
2984::
2941:.
2926:)
2897:)
2868:)
2840:)
2812:)
2783:)
2755:)
2722:甲
2501:.
2441:.
2293:.
2208:.
1502:(
933:.
656:(
520:(
478:*
446:(
327:(
305:/
260:(
99:(
49:.
20:)
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