50:
30:
767:, which is based on the stock prices of 30 companies, is used to represent the fluctuations of stock prices in general, climate indices are used to represent the essential elements of climate. Climate indices are generally devised with the twin objectives of simplicity and completeness, and each index typically represents the status and timing of the climate factor it represents. By their very nature, indices are simple, and combine many details into a generalized, overall description of the atmosphere or ocean which can be used to characterize the factors which effect the global climate system.
493:
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forecasting as pattern recognition, which remains a useful method of estimating rainfall over data voids such as oceans using knowledge of how satellite imagery relates to precipitation rates over land, as well as the forecasting of precipitation amounts and distribution of the future. A variation of this theme, used for medium range forecasting, is known as
642:
balance, incoming energy as short wave (including visible) electromagnetic radiation to the Earth with outgoing energy as long wave (infrared) electromagnetic radiation from the Earth. Any unbalance results in a change of the average temperature of the Earth. Most climate models include the radiative effects of
298:, typically defined as weather conditions averaged over a period of at least 30 years. Climate concerns the atmospheric condition during an extended to indefinite period of time; weather is the condition of the atmosphere during a relative brief period of time. The main topics of research are the study of
681:
Additionally, they are available with different resolutions ranging from >100 km to 1 km. High resolutions in global climate models are computational very demanding and only few global datasets exists. Examples are ICON or mechanistically downscaled data such as CHELSA (Climatologies at
641:
Climate models use quantitative methods to simulate the interactions of the atmosphere, oceans, land surface, and ice. They are used for a variety of purposes from study of the dynamics of the weather and climate system to projections of future climate. All climate models balance, or very nearly
465:
During the early 20th century, climatology mostly emphasized the description of regional climates. This descriptive climatology was mainly an applied science, giving farmers and other interested people statistics about what the normal weather was and how great chances were of extreme events. To do
934:
A relative difficult method of forecast, the analog technique requires remembering a previous weather event which is expected to be mimicked by an upcoming event. What makes it a difficult technique is that there is rarely a perfect analog for an event of the future. Some refer to this type of
504:
for instance identifies descriptive climatology, scientific climatology and applied climatology as the three subcategories of climatology, a categorization based on the complexity and the purpose of the research. Applied climatologists apply their expertise to different industries such as
872:
systems lasting no more than a few weeks, climatology studies the frequency and trends of those systems. It studies the periodicity of weather events over years to millennia, as well as changes of long-term average weather patterns in relation to atmospheric conditions.
818:. When the incoming energy is greater than the outgoing energy, earth's energy budget is positive and the climate system is warming. If more energy goes out, the energy budget is negative and earth experiences cooling. Climate change also influences the average
809:
patterns that remain for an extended period of time. This duration of time can be as brief as a few decades to as long as millions of years. The climate system receives nearly all of its energy from the sun. The climate system also gives off energy to
379:
The Greeks began the formal study of climate; in fact the word climate is derived from the Greek word klima, meaning "slope", referring to the slope or inclination of the Earth's axis. Arguably the most influential classic text concerning climate was
602:
The collection of a long record of climate variables is essential for the study of climate. Climatology deals with the aggregate data that meteorologists have recorded. Scientists use both direct and indirect observations of the climate, from
566:
The study of contemporary climates incorporates meteorological data accumulated over many years, such as records of rainfall, temperature and atmospheric composition. Knowledge of the atmosphere and its dynamics is also embodied in
746:
producer will require different information (wind) in a classification than someone more interested in agriculture, for whom precipitation and temperature are more important. The most widely used classification, the
939:, when systems in other locations are used to help determine the location of a system within the regime surrounding. One method of using teleconnections are by using climate indices such as ENSO-related phenomena.
1399:
Dipankar, A.; Heinze, Rieke; Moseley, Christopher; Stevens, Bjorn; Zängl, Günther; Brdar, Slavko (2015). "A Large Eddy
Simulation Version of ICON (ICOsahedral Nonhydrostatic): Model Description and Validation".
392:. This work commented on the effect of climate on human health and cultural differences between Asia and Europe. This idea that climate controls which populations excel depending on their climate, or
582:
Climate research is made difficult by the large scale, long time periods, and complex processes which govern climate. Climate is governed by physical principles which can be expressed as
773:(ENSO) is a coupled ocean-atmosphere phenomenon in the Pacific Ocean responsible for much of the global variability of temperature, and has a cycle between two and seven years. The
877:
study both the nature of climates – local, regional or global – and the natural or human-induced factors that cause climates to change. Climatology considers the past and can help
1701:
1084:
1281:
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There are different types of variability: recurring patterns of temperature or other climate variables. They are quantified with different indices. Much in the way the
480:, the concept of climate as changing only very gradually was useful for descriptive climatology. This started to change during the decades that followed, and while the
1040:
542:
Boundary-layer climatology concerns exchanges in water, energy and momentum near surfaces. Further identified subtopics are physical climatology, dynamic climatology,
1365:
579:, which help by integrating different observations and testing how well they match. Modeling is used for understanding past, present and potential future climates.
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1589:
989:
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Map of the average temperature over 30 years. Data sets formed from the long-term average of historical weather parameters are sometimes called a "climatology".
1904:
619:. As measuring technology changes over time, records of data often cannot be compared directly. As cities are generally warmer than the areas surrounding,
1193:
2100:
710:
show little variation of temperature over a year. Another major variable of climate is continentality: the distance to major water bodies such as
1839:
Waters of the World: The Story of the
Scientists Who Unraveled the Mysteries of Our Oceans, Atmosphere, and Ice Sheets and Made the Planet Whole
500:
Various subtopics of climatology study different aspects of climate. There are different categorizations of the sub-topics of climatology. The
49:
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1818:
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over long time scales is sometimes termed hydroclimatology, in particular when studying the effects of climate change on the water cycle.
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342:
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Various factors affect the average state of the atmosphere at a particular location. For instance, midlatitudes will have a pronounced
1698:
1627:
1468:
Karger, D.N.; Lange, S.; Hari, C.; Reyer, C.P.O.; Zimmermann, N.E. (2021). "CHELSA-W5E5 v1.0: W5E5 v1.0 downscaled with CHELSA v2.0".
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242:
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The Royal
Netherlands Meteorological Institute's Climate Explorer graphs climatological relationships of spatial and temporal data.
1500:
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are used for a variety of purposes from studying the dynamics of the weather and climate system to predictions of future climate.
1897:
1419:
Karger, D.N.; Conrad, O.; Böhner, J.; Kawohl, T.; Kreft, H.; Soria-Auza, R.W.; Zimmermann, N.E.; Linder, P.; Kessler, M. (2017).
790:
748:
33:
29:
751:, was developed during the late nineteenth century and is based on vegetation. It uses monthly data concerning temperature and
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started earlier, climate change only became one of the main topics of study for climatologists during the 1970s and afterward.
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586:. These equations are coupled and nonlinear, so that approximate solutions are obtained by using numerical methods to create
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81:
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can be interpreted in terms of knowledge of longer-term phenomena of climate, for instance climatic cycles such as the
2044:
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allowed for systematic recordkeeping, that began as early as 1640–1642 in
England. Early climate researchers include
814:. The balance of incoming and outgoing energy, and the passage of the energy through the climate system, determines
984:
889:
774:
714:. Oceans act as a moderating factor, so that land close to it has typically less difference of temperature between
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is the study of climate as related to human history and is thus concerned mainly with the last few thousand years.
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20:
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but this is generally accepted as an approximation to processes that are otherwise too complicated to analyze.
836:. Increasing temperature is only one aspect of modern climate change, which also includes observed changes of
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A simple radiant heat transfer model that treats the Earth as a single point and averages outgoing energy.
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402:(1031–1095) inferred that climates naturally shifted over an enormous span of time, after observing
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Amer. Inst. of
Physics account of the history of the discipline of climatology in the 20th century
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2016:
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912:), interactions between the atmosphere and the oceans and land surface (particularly vegetation,
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The Role of
Teleconnections & Ensemble Forecasting in Extended- to Medium-Range Forecasting.
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over a period of typically 30 years. While scientists knew of past climate change such as the
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1955:
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436:, who published a map of the trade winds in 1686 after a voyage to the southern hemisphere.
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discretise and solve the full equations for mass and energy transfer and radiant exchange.
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Scientific study of climate, defined as weather conditions averaged over a period of time
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and summer than areas further from it. The atmosphere interacts with other parts of the
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is the attempt to reconstruct and understand past climates by examining records such as
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Classification is an important method of simplifying complicated processes. Different
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1992:
1987:
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can create changes in the
Pacific Ocean and lower atmosphere on decadal time scales.
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Other
Forecasting Methods: climatology, analogue and numerical weather prediction.
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The main methods employed by climatologists are the analysis of observations and
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province), a dry-climate area unsuitable at that time for the growth of bamboo.
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is a mode of variability that is mainly contained to the lower atmosphere, the
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This can be expanded vertically (radiative-convective models), or horizontally.
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uses these same records to help determine hurricane frequency over millennia.
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Pattern
Recognition Techniques Applied to the NASA-ACTS Order-Wire Problem.
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410:
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Heymann, Matthias (2010). "The evolution of climate ideas and knowledge".
1968:
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1982:
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and cloudiness. Warmer temperatures are causing further changes of the
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654:, as well as a more rapid increase of temperature at higher latitudes.
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is also capable of creating its own variability, most importantly the
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1328:"How do weather observations become climate data? | NOAA Climate.gov"
715:
703:
406:
19:"Climate Research" redirects here. For the journal of that name, see
742:. How climates are classified depends on what the application is. A
1421:"Climatologies at high resolution for the Earth land surface areas"
1118:
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28:
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Topics that climatologists study comprise three main categories:
920:), and the chemical and physical composition of the atmosphere.
694:, mechanisms of climatic change, and modern changes of climate.
1886:
738:
have been developed over the centuries, with the first ones in
398:, remained influential throughout history. Chinese scientist
1590:"ENSO FAQ: How often do El Niño and La Niña typically occur?"
789:(MJO), which has a cycle of approximately 30 to 60 days. The
337:
of the physical processes that determine climate. Short term
279:
269:
1762:
Robinson, Peter J. Robinson; Henderson-Sellers, Ann (1999).
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and scientific instrumentation such as a global network of
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1542:
1491:
Oblack, Rachelle; McDougal, Holt; weather. (3 July 2019).
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has made it necessary to constantly correct data for this
1863:
1252:
1240:
1358:"What kinds of data do scientists use to study climate?"
1847:, vol. LXVI, no. 20 (19 December 2019), pp. 56–58.
1270:"Climatology - Geography - Oxford Bibliographies - obo"
361:(PDO), and the Interdecadal Pacific Oscillation (IPO).
444:
for use in sending mail from North
America to Europe.
1027:
1025:
682:
high resolution for the Earth's land surface areas).
1739:
Teleconnections: Linking El Niño with Other Places.
657:
Models can range from relatively simple to complex:
1785:(fourth ed.). Jones & Bartlett Learning.
677:Earth system models further include the biosphere.
1804:(second ed.). Jones & Bartlett Learning.
888:Phenomena of climatological interest include the
310:. This topic of study is regarded as part of the
1809:Wang, Shih-Yu; Gillies, Robert R., eds. (2012).
1083:: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (
832:from the burning of fossil fuel which increases
1841:, University of Chicago Press, 2019, 332 pp.),
1493:"How Climatology Is Different From Meteorology"
1107:Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Climate Change
1837:, "What the Weather Is" (review of Sarah Dry,
1065:. Archived from the original on 6 October 2006
990:List of women climate scientists and activists
801:Climate change occurs when changes of Earth's
650:. These models predict a trend of increase of
1898:
1594:National Centers for Environmental Prediction
1402:Journal of Advances in Modeling Earth Systems
243:
8:
1800:Rohli, Robert. V.; Vega, Anthony J. (2011).
1781:Rohli, Robert. V.; Vega, Anthony J. (2018).
828:is caused largely by the human emissions of
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1302:
440:(1706–1790) first mapped the course of the
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1883:
1766:. Harlow, England: Pearson Prentice Hall.
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236:
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1560:
1548:
1533:
1521:
1444:
1386:
1362:Climate Change: Vital Signs of the Planet
1314:
1268:Collins, Jennifer M. (25 October 2018).
1155:History of palaeobotany: selected essays
1152:; C. V. Burek; Richard Wilding (2005).
1002:
409:found underground near Yanzhou (modern
322:. Climatology includes some aspects of
198:
180:
133:
91:
1076:
726:that transport heat around the globe.
1860:– U.S. Global Change Research Program
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1261:
1253:Robinson & Henderson-Sellers 1999
1241:Robinson & Henderson-Sellers 1999
975:Tropical cyclone rainfall climatology
781:. The layer of atmosphere above, the
466:this, climatologists had to define a
7:
2063:
1503:from the original on 23 October 2019
1368:from the original on 13 January 2020
1338:from the original on 13 January 2020
1284:from the original on 25 October 2019
1100:
1098:
1096:
1094:
590:. Climate is sometimes modeled as a
34:Köppen-Geiger climate classification
1630:from the original on 2 October 2019
1620:"Climate and Earth's Energy Budget"
294:is the scientific study of Earth's
1043:from the original on 2 August 2019
214:Glossary of tropical cyclone terms
14:
1656:. 14 January 2019. Archived from
1218:. American Institute of Physics.
482:history of climate change science
375:History of climate change science
2062:
2050:
2039:
2038:
2025:
834:global mean surface temperatures
791:Interdecadal Pacific oscillation
458:(1906–1985) fostered the use of
48:
1222:from the original on 9 May 2020
856:and shifts of flora and fauna.
502:American Meteorological Society
472:, or an average of weather and
2101:Climate and weather statistics
1858:Climate Science Special Report
1748:Retrieved on 16 February 2007.
1728:Retrieved on 16 February 2007.
1708:Retrieved on 16 February 2007.
1688:Retrieved on 16 February 2006.
1278:10.1093/obo/9780199874002-0096
868:, which emphasises short term
554:climatology. The study of the
448:(1822–1911) invented the term
156:Climate variability and change
1:
1212:"Climatology as a Profession"
749:Köppen climate classification
304:mechanisms of climate changes
1844:The New York Review of Books
860:Differences with meteorology
771:El Niño–Southern Oscillation
765:Dow Jones Industrial Average
343:El Niño–Southern Oscillation
1870:Climatology as a Profession
1813:. Rijeka, Croatia: InTech.
1200:Retrieved on 19 April 2007.
1009:Climate Prediction Center.
955:Climate as complex networks
850:widespread melt of glaciers
359:Pacific decadal oscillation
2122:
985:List of climate scientists
927:
924:Use in weather forecasting
890:atmospheric boundary layer
775:North Atlantic oscillation
634:
605:Earth observing satellites
372:
351:North Atlantic oscillation
280:
270:
224:Glossary of climate change
18:
2034:
2023:
1920:
1717:Weather Associates, Inc.
1624:earthobservatory.nasa.gov
1586:Climate Prediction Center
787:Madden–Julian oscillation
667:Coupled atmosphere–ocean–
382:On Airs, Water and Places
347:Madden–Julian oscillation
219:Glossary of tornado terms
1764:Contemporary Climatology
1650:"Global Warming Effects"
722:, with winds generating
698:Climatological processes
546:, regional climatology,
1303:Wang & Gillies 2012
1210:Weart, Spencer (2008).
736:climate classifications
706:of temperature whereas
209:Glossary of meteorology
1478:10.48364/ISIMIP.836809
1437:10.1038/sdata.2017.122
1033:"What is Climatology?"
960:Climatic geomorphology
730:Climate classification
584:differential equations
537:Historical climatology
497:
318:, which is one of the
37:
1864:KNMI Climate Explorer
1744:20 April 2007 at the
1573:Rohli & Vega 2018
1561:Rohli & Vega 2018
1549:Rohli & Vega 2018
1534:Rohli & Vega 2018
1522:Rohli & Vega 2018
1387:Rohli & Vega 2011
1315:Rohli & Vega 2018
826:Modern climate change
816:Earth's energy budget
672:global climate models
588:global climate models
495:
430:Scientific Revolution
373:Further information:
314:and a subdivision of
308:modern climate change
77:Atmospheric chemistry
32:
2096:Atmospheric sciences
1704:14 July 2007 at the
1588:(19 December 2005).
894:circulation patterns
652:surface temperatures
460:statistical analysis
395:climatic determinism
312:atmospheric sciences
65:Atmospheric dynamics
42:Atmospheric sciences
2106:Natural environment
1925:Atmospheric science
1654:National Geographic
1626:. 14 January 2009.
930:Weather forecasting
759:Climate variability
692:climate variability
615:ice extracted from
544:tornado climatology
339:weather forecasting
300:climate variability
60:Atmospheric physics
44:
2017:Quaternary science
1914:Physical geography
1875:2007-07-13 at the
1811:Modern Climatology
1724:2007-06-22 at the
1697:Kenneth C. Allen.
1684:2007-05-19 at the
1660:on 2 December 2019
1431:(170122): 170122.
1196:2019-01-20 at the
1160:Geological Society
1016:2006-10-06 at the
965:Climate reanalysis
686:Topics of research
592:stochastic process
556:hydrological cycle
498:
355:Arctic oscillation
316:physical geography
38:
2078:
2077:
2012:Landscape ecology
1956:Coastal geography
1820:978-953-51-0095-9
1600:on 27 August 2009
1470:ISIMIP Repository
1169:978-1-86239-174-1
1011:Climate Glossary.
980:Urban climatology
625:urban heat island
533:Paleotempestology
529:dendroclimatology
438:Benjamin Franklin
420:The invention of
260:
259:
2113:
2066:
2065:
2054:
2042:
2041:
2029:
1947:Paleoclimatology
1907:
1900:
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1737:Thinkquest.org.
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1596:. Archived from
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708:tropical regions
644:greenhouse gases
517:Paleoclimatology
474:weather extremes
462:in climatology.
456:Helmut Landsberg
283:
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119:Tropical cyclone
52:
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22:Climate Research
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1951:Palaeogeography
1916:
1911:
1877:Wayback Machine
1854:
1831:
1829:Further reading
1821:
1808:
1799:
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1746:Wayback Machine
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1726:Wayback Machine
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1706:Wayback Machine
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1425:Scientific Data
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1332:www.climate.gov
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1239:
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1223:
1216:history.aip.org
1209:
1208:
1204:
1198:Wayback Machine
1191:Francis Galton.
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1162:. p. 293.
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1037:drought.unl.edu
1031:
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1018:Wayback Machine
1008:
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950:Biogeochemistry
945:
937:teleconnections
932:
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864:In contrast to
862:
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761:
732:
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688:
639:
633:
600:
564:
490:
377:
371:
328:biogeochemistry
292:climate science
278:, "slope"; and
256:
27:
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12:
11:
5:
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2020:
2019:
2014:
2009:
2000:
1995:
1990:
1985:
1980:
1975:
1962:
1953:
1940:
1938:Phytogeography
1931:
1921:
1918:
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925:
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875:Climatologists
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848:, such as the
846:climate system
830:greenhouse gas
805:result in new
803:climate system
798:
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720:climate system
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1965:Soil science
1960:Oceanography
1942:
1934:Biogeography
1842:
1838:
1810:
1801:
1782:
1763:
1733:
1713:
1693:
1674:
1662:. Retrieved
1658:the original
1653:
1644:
1632:. Retrieved
1623:
1614:
1602:. Retrieved
1598:the original
1580:
1568:
1556:
1529:
1517:
1505:. Retrieved
1496:
1486:
1469:
1463:
1428:
1424:
1414:
1405:
1401:
1394:
1389:, p. 8.
1382:
1370:. Retrieved
1361:
1352:
1340:. Retrieved
1331:
1322:
1310:
1298:
1286:. Retrieved
1248:
1236:
1224:. Retrieved
1215:
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1185:
1173:. Retrieved
1154:
1143:
1110:
1106:
1067:. Retrieved
1057:
1045:. Retrieved
1036:
1005:
933:
887:
863:
842:storm tracks
824:
800:
783:stratosphere
769:
762:
733:
701:
689:
680:
656:
640:
621:urbanization
609:thermometers
601:
598:Climate data
581:
577:mathematical
565:
541:
515:
499:
467:
464:
449:
422:thermometers
419:
393:
381:
378:
345:(ENSO), the
332:
324:oceanography
291:
285:
275:
262:
261:
199:
134:
21:
2091:Climatology
1943:Climatology
1929:Meteorology
1835:Jenny Uglow
1802:Climatology
1783:Climatology
1317:, p. 6
1069:23 November
1047:27 February
866:meteorology
812:outer space
779:troposphere
744:wind energy
613:prehistoric
573:statistical
511:agriculture
451:anticyclone
442:Gulf Stream
428:during the
386:Hippocrates
384:written by
353:(NAO), the
349:(MJO), the
263:Climatology
135:Climatology
93:Meteorology
36:(1980–2016)
2085:Categories
1998:Glaciology
1978:Geobiology
1973:Edaphology
1773:0582276314
1634:3 December
1507:23 October
1372:13 January
1342:13 January
1288:25 October
1226:25 October
1063:"Glossary"
997:References
970:Geophysics
918:topography
906:convective
525:tree rings
426:barometers
388:about 400
357:(AO), the
200:Glossaries
2007:Limnology
2003:Hydrology
1664:2 January
1497:ThoughtCo
1135:126580528
1127:1757-7799
902:radiative
820:sea level
571:, either
521:ice cores
488:Subfields
404:petrified
335:modelling
24:(journal)
2045:Category
1969:Pedology
1873:Archived
1742:Archived
1722:Archived
1702:Archived
1682:Archived
1628:Archived
1501:Archived
1455:28872642
1366:Archived
1336:Archived
1282:Archived
1220:Archived
1194:Archived
1079:cite web
1041:Archived
1014:Archived
943:See also
914:land use
646:such as
627:effect.
617:glaciers
552:synoptic
478:ice ages
400:Shen Kuo
191:Aeronomy
182:Aeronomy
166:category
149:category
124:category
107:category
82:category
70:category
2069:Commons
1983:Geology
1604:26 July
1446:5584396
1175:3 April
881:future
879:predict
870:weather
807:weather
669:sea ice
562:Methods
415:Shaanxi
407:bamboos
369:History
296:climate
144:Climate
102:Weather
2057:Portal
1817:
1789:
1770:
1453:
1443:
1166:
1133:
1125:
910:latent
716:winter
712:oceans
631:Models
569:models
550:, and
411:Yan'an
287:-logia
281:-λογία
265:(from
171:portal
112:portal
1756:Books
1131:S2CID
611:, to
290:) or
276:klima
271:κλίμα
267:Greek
1815:ISBN
1787:ISBN
1768:ISBN
1666:2020
1636:2021
1606:2009
1509:2019
1451:PMID
1374:2020
1344:2020
1290:2019
1228:2019
1177:2013
1164:ISBN
1123:ISSN
1085:link
1071:2006
1049:2017
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908:and
523:and
509:and
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1474:doi
1441:PMC
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575:or
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