Compiler - Knowledge (XXG)

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Development Kit) and as a component of an IDE (VADS, Eclipse, Ada Pro). The interrelationship and interdependence of technologies grew. The advent of web services promoted growth of web languages and scripting languages. Scripts trace back to the early days of Command Line Interfaces (CLI) where the user could enter commands to be executed by the system. User Shell concepts developed with languages to write shell programs. Early Windows designs offered a simple batch programming capability. The conventional transformation of these language used an interpreter. While not widely used, Bash and Batch compilers have been written. More recently sophisticated interpreted languages became part of the developers tool kit. Modern scripting languages include PHP, Python, Ruby and Lua. (Lua is widely used in game development.) All of these have interpreter and compiler support.

1028: 1255: 1010:"When the field of compiling began in the late 50s, its focus was limited to the translation of high-level language programs into machine code ... The compiler field is increasingly intertwined with other disciplines including computer architecture, programming languages, formal methods, software engineering, and computer security." The "Compiler Research: The Next 50 Years" article noted the importance of object-oriented languages and Java. Security and 2276:"The many source-language features described in the preceding section result in a number of salient differences between compilers and assemblers. On any one item the distinction may not be clear-cut. Moreover, it may be difficult to distinguish a simple compiler from a powerful macro assembler. Nevertheless, the differences are usually substantial enough that there remains a qualitative distinction between assemblers and compilers." 969:

machine (middle end), and translation to the target (back end). TCOL was developed for the PQCC research to handle language specific constructs in the intermediate representation. Variations of TCOL supported various languages. The PQCC project investigated techniques of automated compiler construction. The design concepts proved useful in optimizing compilers and compilers for the (since 1995, object-oriented) programming language

5209: 2197: 5219: 1814: 1142: 5229: 544: 943:. C++ was first used in 1980 for systems programming. The initial design leveraged C language systems programming capabilities with Simula concepts. Object-oriented facilities were added in 1983. The Cfront program implemented a C++ front-end for C84 language compiler. In subsequent years several C++ compilers were developed as C++ popularity grew. 1344:. Lexing and parsing comprise the syntactic analysis (word syntax and phrase syntax, respectively), and in simple cases, these modules (the lexer and parser) can be automatically generated from a grammar for the language, though in more complex cases these require manual modification. The lexical grammar and phrase grammar are usually 1120:

In some cases, the design of a language feature may require a compiler to perform more than one pass over the source. For instance, consider a declaration appearing on line 20 of the source which affects the translation of a statement appearing on line 10. In this case, the first pass needs to gather

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High-level languages continued to drive compiler research and development. Focus areas included optimization and automatic code generation. Trends in programming languages and development environments influenced compiler technology. More compilers became included in language distributions (PERL, Java

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document. Army and Navy worked on the Ada Language System (ALS) project targeted to DEC/VAX architecture while the Air Force started on the Ada Integrated Environment (AIE) targeted to IBM 370 series. While the projects did not provide the desired results, they did contribute to the overall effort on

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Compiler technology evolved from the need for a strictly defined transformation of the high-level source program into a low-level target program for the digital computer. The compiler could be viewed as a front end to deal with the analysis of the source code and a back end to synthesize the analysis

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A compiler for a relatively simple language written by one person might be a single, monolithic piece of software. However, as the source language grows in complexity the design may be split into a number of interdependent phases. Separate phases provide design improvements that focus development on

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A compiler implements a formal transformation from a high-level source program to a low-level target program. Compiler design can define an end-to-end solution or tackle a defined subset that interfaces with other compilation tools e.g. preprocessors, assemblers, linkers. Design requirements include

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Other Ada compiler efforts got underway in Britain at the University of York and in Germany at the University of Karlsruhe. In the U. S., Verdix (later acquired by Rational) delivered the Verdix Ada Development System (VADS) to the Army. VADS provided a set of development tools including a compiler.

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PQCC research into code generation process sought to build a truly automatic compiler-writing system. The effort discovered and designed the phase structure of the PQC. The BLISS-11 compiler provided the initial structure. The phases included analyses (front end), intermediate translation to virtual

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based on B and BCPL. The BCPL compiler had been transported to Multics by Bell Labs and BCPL was a preferred language at Bell Labs. Initially, a front-end program to Bell Labs' B compiler was used while a C compiler was developed. In 1971, a new PDP-11 provided the resource to define extensions to B

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capacity of early computers led to substantial technical challenges when the first compilers were designed. Therefore, the compilation process needed to be divided into several small programs. The front end programs produce the analysis products used by the back end programs to generate target code.

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performs optimizations on the IR that are independent of the CPU architecture being targeted. This source code/machine code independence is intended to enable generic optimizations to be shared between versions of the compiler supporting different languages and target processors. Examples of middle

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document formalized the program support environment (APSE) along with the kernel (KAPSE) and minimal (MAPSE). An Ada interpreter NYU/ED supported development and standardization efforts with the American National Standards Institute (ANSI) and the International Standards Organization (ISO). Initial

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language developed by IBM and IBM User Group. IBM's goal was to satisfy business, scientific, and systems programming requirements. There were other languages that could have been considered but PL/I offered the most complete solution even though it had not been implemented. For the first few years

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Classifying compilers by number of passes has its background in the hardware resource limitations of computers. Compiling involves performing much work and early computers did not have enough memory to contain one program that did all of this work. As a result, compilers were split up into smaller

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In the early days, the approach taken to compiler design was directly affected by the complexity of the computer language to be processed, the experience of the person(s) designing it, and the resources available. Resource limitations led to the need to pass through the source code more than once.

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Early operating systems and software were written in assembly language. In the 1960s and early 1970s, the use of high-level languages for system programming was still controversial due to resource limitations. However, several research and industry efforts began the shift toward high-level systems

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by collecting type information. If the input program is syntactically incorrect or has a type error, it generates error and/or warning messages, usually identifying the location in the source code where the problem was detected; in some cases the actual error may be (much) earlier in the program.

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Furthermore, for optimization compilers can contain interpreter functionality, and interpreters may include ahead of time compilation techniques. For example, where an expression can be executed during compilation and the results inserted into the output program, then it prevents it having to be

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Theoretical computing concepts developed by scientists, mathematicians, and engineers formed the basis of digital modern computing development during World War II. Primitive binary languages evolved because digital devices only understand ones and zeros and the circuit patterns in the underlying

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Unix/VADS could be hosted on a variety of Unix platforms such as DEC Ultrix and the Sun 3/60 Solaris targeted to Motorola 68020 in an Army CECOM evaluation. There were soon many Ada compilers available that passed the Ada Validation tests. The Free Software Foundation GNU project developed the

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at the University of Cambridge was originally developed as a compiler writing tool. Several compilers have been implemented, Richards' book provides insights to the language and its compiler. BCPL was not only an influential systems programming language that is still used in research but also

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is computer software that transforms and then executes the indicated operations. The translation process influences the design of computer languages, which leads to a preference of compilation or interpretation. In theory, a programming language can have both a compiler and an interpreter. In

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Splitting a compiler up into small programs is a technique used by researchers interested in producing provably correct compilers. Proving the correctness of a set of small programs often requires less effort than proving the correctness of a larger, single, equivalent program.

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Joseph M. Newcomer, David Alex Lamb, Bruce W. Leverett, Michael Tighe, William A. Wulf - Carnegie-Mellon University and David Levine, Andrew H. Reinerit - Intermetrics: "TCOL Ada: Revised Report on An Intermediate Representation for the DOD Standard Programming Language",

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Interpretation does not replace compilation completely. It only hides it from the user and makes it gradual. Even though an interpreter can itself be interpreted, a set of directly executed machine instructions is needed somewhere at the bottom of the execution stack (see

829:. The symbol processing capabilities provided useful features for artificial intelligence research. In 1962, LISP 1.5 release noted some tools: an interpreter written by Stephen Russell and Daniel J. Edwards, a compiler and assembler written by Tim Hart and Mike Levin. 898:

of the Multics project, a subset of the language could be compiled to assembly language with the Early PL/I (EPL) compiler by Doug McIlory and Bob Morris from Bell Labs. EPL supported the project until a boot-strapping compiler for the full PL/I could be developed.

867:(Basic Language for Implementation of System Software) was developed for a Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC) PDP-10 computer by W. A. Wulf's Carnegie Mellon University (CMU) research team. The CMU team went on to develop BLISS-11 compiler one year later in 1970. 998:

is one of the most widely used Ada compilers. GNAT is free but there is also commercial support, for example, AdaCore, was founded in 1994 to provide commercial software solutions for Ada. GNAT Pro includes the GNU GCC based GNAT with a tool suite to provide an

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it to be exclusively compiled or exclusively interpreted, although it is possible to design languages that rely on re-interpretation at run time. The categorization usually reflects the most popular or widespread implementations of a language – for instance,

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and rewrite the compiler. By 1973 the design of C language was essentially complete and the Unix kernel for a PDP-11 was rewritten in C. Steve Johnson started development of Portable C Compiler (PCC) to support retargeting of C compilers to new machines.

2094:(CIL) and others. A JIT compiler generally runs inside an interpreter. When the interpreter detects that a code path is "hot", meaning it is executed frequently, the JIT compiler will be invoked and compile the "hot" code for increased performance. 2744:

McCarthy, J.; Brayton, R.; Edwards, D.; Fox, P.; Hodes, L.; Luckham, D.; Maling, K.; Park, D.; Russell, S. (March 1960). "LISP I Programmers Manual" (PDF). Boston, Massachusetts: Artificial Intelligence Group, M.I.T. Computation Center and Research

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needed to generate high quality code. It can be difficult to count exactly how many passes an optimizing compiler makes. For instance, different phases of optimization may analyse one expression many times but only analyse another expression once.

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performs optimizations on the intermediate representation in order to improve the performance and the quality of the produced machine code. The middle end contains those optimizations that are independent of the CPU architecture being targeted.

1926:. However, there is nothing inherent in the definition of Common Lisp that stops it from being interpreted. Other languages have features that are very easy to implement in an interpreter, but make writing a compiler much harder; for example, 2132:(ASIC). Such compilers are said to be hardware compilers, because the source code they compile effectively controls the final configuration of the hardware and how it operates. The output of the compilation is only an interconnection of 1348:, which simplifies analysis significantly, with context-sensitivity handled at the semantic analysis phase. The semantic analysis phase is generally more complex and written by hand, but can be partially or fully automated using 1197:

takes the optimized IR from the middle end. It may perform more analysis, transformations and optimizations that are specific for the target CPU architecture. The back end generates the target-dependent assembly code, performing

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Due to the extra time and space needed for compiler analysis and optimizations, some compilers skip them by default. Users have to use compilation options to explicitly tell the compiler which optimizations should be enabled.

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design would produce a Production Quality Compiler (PQC) from formal definitions of source language and the target. PQCC tried to extend the term compiler-compiler beyond the traditional meaning as a parser generator (e.g.,

1550:(requiring all local variables to be initialized before use), rejecting incorrect programs or issuing warnings. Semantic analysis usually requires a complete parse tree, meaning that this phase logically follows the 560:

It is usually more productive for a programmer to use a high-level language, so the development of high-level languages followed naturally from the capabilities offered by digital computers. High-level languages are

1190:), relocation of computation to a less frequently executed place (e.g., out of a loop), or specialization of computation based on the context, eventually producing the "optimized" IR that is used by the back end. 1430:. Typically the preprocessing phase occurs before syntactic or semantic analysis; e.g. in the case of C, the preprocessor manipulates lexical tokens rather than syntactic forms. However, some languages such as 516:

of source input to target output. Program faults caused by incorrect compiler behavior can be very difficult to track down and work around; therefore, compiler implementers invest significant effort to ensure

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techniques for solving them are well-developed and implemented in production-quality compilers. Typically the output of a back end is machine code specialized for a particular processor and operating system.

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was criticized for a long time for lacking powerful interprocedural optimizations, but it is changing in this respect. Another open source compiler with full analysis and optimization infrastructure is

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Sudarsanam, Ashok; Malik, Sharad; Fujita, Masahiro (2002). "A Retargetable Compilation Methodology for Embedded Digital Signal Processors Using a Machine-Dependent Code Optimization Library".

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which is usually considered the first high-level language. In 1957, they completed a FORTRAN compiler that is generally credited as having introduced the first unambiguously complete compiler.

614:. "BNF and its extensions have become standard tools for describing the syntax of programming notations. In many cases, parts of compilers are generated automatically from a BNF description." 1663:

are fast to perform during compilation but only affect a small local fragment of the code, and can be performed independently of the context in which the code fragment appears. In contrast,

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An example of hardware compiler is XST, the Xilinx Synthesis Tool used for configuring FPGAs. Similar tools are available from Altera, Synplicity, Synopsys and other hardware vendors.

2595: 1934:, and many scripting languages allow programs to construct arbitrary source code at runtime with regular string operations, and then execute that code by passing it to a special 1149:

Regardless of the exact number of phases in the compiler design, the phases can be assigned to one of three stages. The stages include a front end, a middle end, and a back end.

1983:(VM) may or may not be executed on the same platform as the compiler that produced it. For this reason, such compilers are not usually classified as native or cross compilers. 3568: 3545: 672:(Formula Translation) for engineering and science applications is considered to be one of the first actually implemented high-level languages and first optimizing compiler. 1113:. Thus, partly driven by the resource limitations of early systems, many early languages were specifically designed so that they could be compiled in a single pass (e.g., 2414: 3229:

CECOM Center for Software Engineering Advanced Software Technology, "Final Report - Evaluation of the ACEC Benchmark Suite for Real-Time Applications", AD-A231 968, 1990

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Lecture notes. Compilers: Principles, Techniques, and Tools. Jing-Shin Chang. Department of Computer Science & Information Engineering. National Chi-Nan University

1474:. Common token categories may include identifiers, keywords, separators, operators, literals and comments, although the set of token categories varies in different 1328:, it was traditionally implemented and analyzed as several phases, which may execute sequentially or concurrently. This method is favored due to its modularity and 1667:

requires more compilation time and memory space, but enable optimizations that are only possible by considering the behavior of multiple functions simultaneously.

1659:, to whole procedures, or even the whole program. There is a trade-off between the granularity of the optimizations and the cost of compilation. For example, 5268: 3671: 2923:

Knuth, Donald E.; Pardo, Luis Trabb, "Early development of programming languages", Encyclopedia of Computer Science and Technology (Marcel Dekker) 7: 419–493

2636:(Tagungsband zum Kolloquium 14. November 2014 in Jena). GI Series: Lecture Notes in Informatics (LNI) – Thematics (in German). Vol. T-7. Bonn, Germany: 2319: 1968:

compiler is one whose output is intended to directly run on the same type of computer and operating system that the compiler itself runs on. The output of a

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has classically been seen as a benefit because it simplifies the job of writing a compiler and one-pass compilers generally perform compilations faster than

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A compiler is a computer program that translates a program written in a high-level language (HLL), such as C, into an equivalent assembly language program .

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compiler will frequently take in a high-level language program as an input and then transform the code and annotate it with parallel code annotations (e.g.

350: 2101:. A bytecode interpreter executes the bytecode, but the JIT compiler will translate the bytecode to machine code when increased performance is necessary. 4252: 956:(Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency) sponsored a compiler project with Wulf's CMU research team in 1970. The Production Quality Compiler-Compiler 2675: 2699: 552:

machine architecture. In the late 1940s, assembly languages were created to offer a more workable abstraction of the computer architectures. Limited

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instructions executed by hardware, are not considered compilers. (The inverse program that translates machine code to assembly language is called a

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In many application domains, the idea of using a higher-level language quickly caught on. Because of the expanding functionality supported by newer

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Ada compiler development by the U.S. Military Services included the compilers in a complete integrated design environment along the lines of the

477:, compilers that produce compilers (or parts of them), often in a generic and reusable way so as to be able to produce many differing compilers. 3188:

Leverett, Cattell, Hobbs, Newcomer, Reiner, Schatz, Wulf: "An Overview of the Production Quality Compiler-Compiler Project", CMU-CS-89-105, 1979

1620:: the intermediate language representation is transformed into functionally equivalent but faster (or smaller) forms. Popular optimizations are 4962: 4934: 2941: 1170:(IR) for further processing by the middle end. This IR is usually a lower-level representation of the program with respect to the source code. 1166:

Aspects of the front end include lexical analysis, syntax analysis, and semantic analysis. The front end transforms the input program into an

451:, programs that translate from low-level languages to higher level ones; programs that translate between high-level languages, usually called 4987: 4117: 4086: 4065: 4040: 4012: 3982: 3825: 3808: 3794: 3766: 3740: 3389: 3238:

P.Biggar, E. de Vries, D. Gregg, "A Practical Solution for Scripting Language Compilers", submission to Science of Computer Programming, 2009

2645: 2574: 2536: 2470: 1998:, used C as its target language. The C code generated by such a compiler is usually not intended to be readable and maintained by humans, so 1394:, table-driven parsers used in the 1960s typically read the source one character at a time and did not require a separate tokenizing phase. 1121:

information about declarations appearing after statements that they affect, with the actual translation happening during a subsequent pass.

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High-level language design during the formative years of digital computing provided useful programming tools for a variety of applications:

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programs which each made a pass over the source (or some representation of it) performing some of the required analysis and translations.

1049: 4992: 4271: 3493: 2261: 931:(OOP) offered some interesting possibilities for application development and maintenance. OOP concepts go further back but were part of 4181: 4504: 3509: 2499: 1000: 818: 5144: 4972: 4509: 3943: 3870: 3685: 3572: 3541: 3176: 2759: 2546: 2389: 2349: 1861: 1071: 3523: 2837: 2097:

For some languages, such as Java, applications are first compiled using a bytecode compiler and delivered in a machine-independent

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A program that rewrites object code back into the same type of object code while applying optimisations and transformations is a

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which define the language's syntax. The parse tree is often analyzed, augmented, and transformed by later phases in the compiler.

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This front/middle/back-end approach makes it possible to combine front ends for different languages with back ends for different

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is sometimes called an interpreted language, and C a compiled one, despite the existence of BASIC compilers and C interpreters.

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and creating pretty C intermediate code are ignored. Some of the features of C that make it a good target language include the

1990:. C, viewed by some as a sort of portable assembly language, is frequently the target language of such compilers. For example, 1987: 723:

to describe it), although the A-0 compiler functioned more as a loader or linker than the modern notion of a full compiler.

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William A. Whitaker, "Ada - the project: the DoD High Order Working Group", ACM SIGPLAN Notices (Volume 28, No. 3, March 1991)

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Porter Adams, Vicki (5 October 1981). "Captain Grace M. Hopper: the Mother of COBOL". InfoWorld. 3 (20): 33. ISSN 0199-6649.

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are a type of compiler that takes a high-level language as its input and outputs a high-level language. For example, an

1664: 1547: 1219: 566: 277: 31: 917:(Uniplexed Information and Computing Service) operating system for a PDP-7 in B. Unics eventually became spelled Unix. 5263: 5222: 4957: 4462: 2202: 2098: 2083: 2055: 1321:, a data structure mapping each symbol in the source code to associated information such as location, type and scope. 1314: 1167: 1085:

rigorously defined interfaces both internally between compiler components and externally between supporting toolsets.

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Bjarne Stroustrup, "An Overview of the C++ Programming Language", Handbook of Object Technology (Editor: Saba Zamir,

1824: 1767: 1734:: optimizations that depend on the details of the CPU architecture that the compiler targets. A prominent example is 1042: 1036: 1558:

phase, though it is often possible to fold multiple phases into one pass over the code in a compiler implementation.

635:("Plan assembly device") to automatically translate the mathematical formulation of a program into machine-readable 5194: 4843: 4209: 4197: 4004: 3786: 3758: 3732: 1927: 1742: 1719: 1555: 1352:. These phases themselves can be further broken down: lexing as scanning and evaluating, and parsing as building a 970: 640: 509: 336: 2155:

A program that translates into an object code format that is not supported on the compilation machine is called a

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Compiler analysis is the prerequisite for any compiler optimization, and they tightly work together. For example,

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As computer technology provided more resources, compiler designs could align better with the compilation process.

512:. Compilers generally implement these phases as modular components, promoting efficient design and correctness of 5212: 5139: 5114: 4977: 4625: 4238: 2023: 2019: 1835: 1637: 453: 201: 172: 2964: 1053: 697:

into the target code. Optimization between the front end and back end could produce more efficient target code.

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is often a temporary compiler, used for compiling a more permanent or better optimised compiler for a language.

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The disadvantage of compiling in a single pass is that it is not possible to perform many of the sophisticated

921: 902: 847: 843: 769:. The COBOL design drew on A-0 and FLOW-MATIC. By the early 1960s COBOL was compiled on multiple architectures. 256: 178: 3275: 3037:

BCPL: The Language and Its Compiler, M Richards, Cambridge University Press (first published 31 December 1981)

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is the branch of software engineering that deals with trying to show that a compiler behaves according to its

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The scope of compiler analysis and optimizations vary greatly; their scope may range from operating within a

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computer at the University of Manchester is considered by some to be the first compiled programming language.

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Proceedings of the 1998 ACM/SIGDA sixth international symposium on Field programmable gate arrays - FPGA '98

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recalculated each time the program runs, which can greatly speed up the final program. Modern trends toward

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of the system. This involves resource and storage decisions, such as deciding which variables to fit into

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remarked: "... it was not only an improvement on its predecessors but also on nearly all its successors."

5159: 5129: 5119: 5015: 4929: 4805: 4745: 4712: 4702: 4592: 4557: 4547: 4484: 4353: 4328: 4323: 4288: 2221: 2070:(JIT compiler) defer compilation until runtime. JIT compilers exist for many modern languages including 1972:

is designed to run on a different platform. Cross compilers are often used when developing software for

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M.Hall, D. Padua, K. Pingali, "Compiler Research: The Next 50 Years", ACM Communications 2009 Vol 54 #2

1518:, which replaces the linear sequence of tokens with a tree structure built according to the rules of a 804: 595: 3424: 1313:

The front end analyzes the source code to build an internal representation of the program, called the

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the token sequence to identify the syntactic structure of the program. This phase typically builds a

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practice, programming languages tend to be associated with just one (a compiler or an interpreter).

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McCarthy, John; Abrahams, Paul W.; Edwards, Daniel J.; Hart, Timothy P.; Levin, Michael I. (1965).

1751: 1746:: the transformed intermediate language is translated into the output language, usually the native 1649: 1645: 1633: 1591: 1495: 1199: 1110: 873:(Multiplexed Information and Computing Service), a time-sharing operating system project, involved 784: 78: 3831: 994:(GCC) which provides a core capability to support multiple languages and targets. The Ada version 5258: 5149: 5048: 4924: 4881: 4790: 4732: 4717: 4707: 4499: 4298: 3515: 3463: 2950: 2819: 2786: 2710: 2395: 1951: 1607: 1583: 1487: 1383: 1325: 1011: 655: 636: 438: 3127:

S.C. Johnson, "a Portable C Compiler: Theory and Practice", 5th ACM POPL Symposium, January 1978

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converts the input character sequence to a canonical form ready for the parser. Languages which

3938:(in English, Spanish, Japanese, Chinese, Italian, and Russian). New York: John Wiley and Sons. 1230:

while sharing the optimizations of the middle end. Practical examples of this approach are the

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scans the input and verifies syntax and semantics according to a specific source language. For

639:. While no actual implementation occurred until the 1970s, it presented concepts later seen in 5169: 5099: 5078: 5040: 4848: 4815: 4795: 4494: 4406: 4280: 4113: 4082: 4061: 4036: 4008: 3978: 3939: 3919: 3909: 3884: 3876: 3866: 3821: 3790: 3762: 3736: 3681: 3667: 3505: 3385: 3342: 3332: 3172: 3005: 2755: 2651: 2641: 2590: 2570: 2542: 2532: 2495: 2466: 2385: 2345: 2231: 2216: 2174: 2163: 2121: 1938:. To implement these features in a compiled language, programs must usually be shipped with a 1879: 1579: 1349: 1106: 738: 647: 505: 480:

A compiler is likely to perform some or all of the following operations, often called phases:

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There are many different types of compilers which produce output in different useful forms. A

404: 27: 2965:"Revised(3) Report on the Algorithmic Language Scheme, (Dedicated to the Memory of ALGOL 60)" 1297:, which is then treated by the remaining compiler phases. The scanner and parser handles the 569:

which form the high-level language architecture. Elements of these formal languages include:

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B. Stroustrup: "What is Object-Oriented Programming?" Proceedings 14th ASU Conference, 1986.

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Proceedings of the ACM SIGPLAN History of Programming Languages (HOPL) conference, June 1978

2809: 2776: 2604: 2524: 2377: 2337: 2106: 1900: 1747: 1738:, which rewrites short sequences of assembler instructions into more efficient instructions. 1691: 1679: 1621: 1599: 1587: 1491: 1479: 1438: 1387: 1333: 1274: 1258: 882: 643:

485: 433: 372: 56: 20: 5073: 4967: 4939: 4833: 4785: 4770: 4755: 4610: 4605: 4552: 4442: 4416: 4368: 4313: 4224: 4185: 4032: 3992: 3620: 2722: 2520: 2415:"The Evolution of Programming Languages: From Primitive Binary to High-Level Abstractions" 2236: 1980: 1973: 1939: 1915:

at times blur the traditional categorizations of compilers and interpreters even further.

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Interprocedural analysis and optimizations are common in modern commercial compilers from

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statements). Other terms for a source-to-source compiler are transcompiler or transpiler.

965:) without much success. PQCC might more properly be referred to as a compiler generator. 3862:. Computer software engineering series (1st printing, 1st ed.). Potomac, Maryland: 3482: 950:

and the increasing complexity of computer architectures, compilers became more complex.

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Bell Labs left the Multics project in 1969, and developed a system programming language

5179: 5083: 4982: 4828: 4800: 4109: 3851: 3804: 3677: 2593:(1951). "Über automatische Rechenplanfertigung bei programmgesteuerten Rechenanlagen". 2563: 2341: 2156: 2087: 2003: 1969: 1800:

and using rigorous testing (often called compiler validation) on an existing compiler.

1797: 1595: 1543: 1519: 1395: 1207: 906: 712: 659: 424: 196: 96: 2369: 5247: 5068: 4363: 4096: 3997: 3974: 3964: 3856: 3659: 2754:

Compilers Principles, Techniques, & Tools 2nd edition by Aho, Lam, Sethi, Ullman

2159:

and is commonly used to prepare code for execution on embedded software applications.

1695: 1539: 1399: 1162: 796: 734: 624: 4123: 3467: 3376:, Hoboken, NJ, US: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., pp. 289–329, 28 February 2012, 2852: 2823: 2790: 1718:

The back end is responsible for the CPU architecture specific optimizations and for

1386:

their keywords or allow arbitrary spaces within identifiers require this phase. The

524:

Compilers are not the only language processor used to transform source programs. An

5164: 4823: 4175: 3776: 3750: 3519: 2399: 2292: 2226: 2182: 2178: 2137: 1999: 1535: 1466:, which converts lexemes into a processed value. A token is a pair consisting of a 1418: 1318: 910: 708: 611: 481: 412: 151: 71: 19:

This article is about software to translate computer languages. For the manga, see

3115: 3092:"PL/I As a Tool for System Programming", F.J. Corbato, Datamation 6 May 1969 issue 2963:

Abelson, Hal; Dybvig, R. K.; et al. Rees, Jonathan; Clinger, William (eds.).

2012:

of the original source, and the wide platform support available with C compilers.

654:, a high-level language and automatic translator. His ideas were later refined by 4051: 4026: 3780: 5154: 4780: 4692: 3960: 3931: 3369: 2374:

Proceedings of the 25th International Symposium on Software Testing and Analysis

2196: 1923: 1813: 1656: 1215: 1158: 748: 618: 599: 553: 408: 392: 292: 273: 141: 136: 3381: 3198: 3137: 2148:

A program that translates from a low-level language to a higher level one is a

2015:

While a common compiler type outputs machine code, there are many other types:

1246:, which have multiple front-ends, shared optimizations and multiple back-ends. 592:

The sentences in a language may be defined by a set of rules called a grammar.

16:

Computer program which translates code from one programming language to another

5174: 5104: 4697: 4437: 4293: 4203: 4191: 3663: 2528: 2192: 2149: 2133: 2075: 1611: 1531: 1515: 1494:. This may not be a separate step—it can be combined with the parsing step in 1353: 1211: 1141: 808: 716: 683: 679: 447: 416: 108: 4076: 3923: 3908:(2nd ed.). Amsterdam, Netherlands: Elsevier/Morgan Kaufmann. p. 8. 3880: 3346: 2655: 2608: 1490:

can be used to recognize it. The software doing lexical analysis is called a

939:

language science. Bell Labs became interested in OOP with the development of

765:: The Conference on Data Systems Language (CODASYL) initiated development of 598:(BNF) describes the syntax of "sentences" of a language. It was developed by 547:

A diagram of the operation of a typical multi-language, multi-target compiler

391:

language). The name "compiler" is primarily used for programs that translate

4679: 4640: 4057: 3074:

Report II of the SHARE Advanced Language Development Committee, 25 June 1964

2986:

Recursive Functions of Symbolic Expressions and Their Computation by Machine

2381: 2079: 2009: 1771: 1706:, which is used by many organizations for research and commercial purposes. 1687: 1498:, in which case parsing is done at the character level, not the token level. 886: 878: 800: 651: 463: 364: 156: 4200:

explaining the key conceptual difference between compilers and interpreters

2864: 2040:

compilers compile to assembly language of a theoretical machine, like some

1324:

While the frontend can be a single monolithic function or program, as in a

621:

designed the first (algorithmic) programming language for computers called

3501: 3459: 2814: 2781: 1986:

The lower level language that is the target of a compiler may itself be a

1546:(associating variable and function references with their definitions), or 4740: 3028:" M. Richards, University Mathematical Laboratory Cambridge, England 1969 2037: 1912: 1606:, etc. Accurate analysis is the basis for any compiler optimization. The 1407: 1306: 780: 776: 730: 603: 146: 4164:

A collection of references to mainstream Compiler Construction Textbooks

3715: 2910: 2625:

Keller, Stack und automatisches Gedächtnis – eine Struktur mit Potenzial

2622:

Fothe, Michael; Wilke, Thomas, eds. (2015) . Written at Jena, Germany.

4053:

The Compiler Design Handbook: Optimizations and Machine Code Generation

3698:(September 1981). "A History of Language Processor Technology in IBM". 3267: 2114: 1931: 1551: 1511: 1262: 870: 756: 669: 287: 243: 26:"Compile" and "Compiling" redirect here. For the software company, see 4214: 3481:

Swartz, Jordan S.; Betz, Vaugh; Rose, Jonathan (22–25 February 1998).

2773:

Proceedings of the 1952 ACM national meeting (Pittsburgh) on - ACM '52

2322:

by Alfred V. Aho, Ravi Sethi, Jeffrey D. Ullman - Second Edition, 2007

1886:. However, in practice there is rarely anything about a language that 1360:(AST, syntax tree). In some cases additional phases are used, notably 3118:", ACM Second History of Programming Languages Conference, April 1993 2041: 2027: 1991: 1976:

that are not intended to support a software development environment.

1703: 1450:) breaks the source code text into a sequence of small pieces called 936: 686:

to become the dominant high-level language for business applications.

489: 268: 3057: 543: 4230: 2806:

Proceedings of the 1952 ACM national meeting (Toronto) on - ACM '52

2265: 1995: 940: 3083:

Multicians.org "The Choice of PL/I" article, Editor /tom Van Vleck

1892: 1683: 1410:) are examples of stropped languages whose compilers would have a 1403: 1253: 1235: 1140: 953: 864: 839: 766: 675: 542: 319: 1874:

Higher-level programming languages usually appear with a type of

700:

Some early milestones in the development of compiler technology:

3888: 2515:

Hellige, Hans Dieter, ed. (2004) . Written at Bremen, Germany.

1935: 1762:

of appropriate machine instructions along with their associated

1614:

of the program are usually also built during the analysis phase.

1239: 995: 962: 957: 932: 914: 894: 853: 835: 315: 252: 247: 4234: 3105:", R. A. Freiburghouse, GE, Fall Joint Computer Conference 1969 2630:

Cellar, stack and automatic memory - a structure with potential

2109:(also known as synthesis tools) are compilers whose input is a 3707: 1807: 1675: 1021: 874: 822: 752: 2953:, also involved in implementing the first ALGOL 60 compiler.) 2517:

Geschichten der Informatik - Visionen, Paradigmen, Leitmotive

2008:

directive, which can be generated by the compiler to support

1954:

on which their generated code executes. This is known as the

3329:

Instruction selection: Principles, methods, and applications

2771:

Hopper, Grace Murray (1952). "The education of a computer".

1918:

Some language specifications spell out that implementations

1458:, which segments the input text into syntactic units called 913:. Ritchie created a boot-strapping compiler for B and wrote 4078:

Compilers and Compiler Generators: An Introduction with C++

3810:

Understanding and Writing Compilers: A Do It Yourself Guide

2368:

Sun, Chengnian; Le, Vu; Zhang, Qirun; Su, Zhendong (2016).

1332:. Most commonly, the frontend is broken into three phases: 3322: 3320: 3046:

The BCPL Cintsys and Cintpos User Guide, M. Richards, 2017

1770:). Debug data may also need to be generated to facilitate 1293:. The latter sequence is transformed by the parser into a 856:(Basic Combined Programming Language) designed in 1966 by 1575:

The main phases of the middle end include the following:

436:

than the one on which the cross-compiler itself runs. A

3446:

Aycock, John (2003). "A Brief History of Just-in-Time".

3026:

BCPL: A tool for compiler writing and system programming

2519:(in German) (1 ed.). Berlin / Heidelberg, Germany: 1371:

The main phases of the front end include the following:

2949:(This statement is sometimes erroneously attributed to 1727:

The main phases of the back end include the following:

3417:

International Journal of Open Information Technologies

2494:. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 304. 861:

provided a basis for the design of B and C languages.

1434:

support macro substitutions based on syntactic forms.

807:. ALGOL 60 inspired many languages that followed it. 3201:", CMU Research Showcase Report, CMU-CS-82-138, 1982 2370:"Toward understanding compiler bugs in GCC and LLVM" 2113:

and whose output is a description, in the form of a

5092: 5039: 5001: 4948: 4910: 4872: 4814: 4731: 4677: 4639: 4591: 4528: 4461: 4425: 4382: 4346: 4279: 2640:(GI) / Köllen Druck + Verlag GmbH. pp. 20–21. 1796:. Techniques include developing the compiler using 1356:(CST, parse tree) and then transforming it into an 920:Bell Labs started the development and expansion of 3996: 3855: 3595:"Decompilers - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics" 3374:Compiler Construction Using Java, JavaCC, and Yacc 2804:Ridgway, Richard K. (1952). "Compiling routines". 2596:Zeitschrift für Angewandte Mathematik und Mechanik 2562: 1979:The output of a compiler that produces code for a 3058:"Introduction and Overview of the MULTICS System" 1454:. This phase can be divided into two stages: the 1186:), discovery and propagation of constant values ( 678:(Common Business-Oriented Language) evolved from 1942:that includes a version of the compiler itself. 1206:, which re-orders instructions to keep parallel 1277:, and categorizes each of them, for example as 791:. ALGOL 60 was the first language to implement 3858:Assemblers, Compilers, and Program Translation 1538:. This phase performs semantic checks such as 1014:were cited among the future research targets. 565:that are strictly defined by their syntax and 467:, usually programs that translate the form of 4270:Note: This template roughly follows the 2012 4246: 4176:Incremental Approach to Compiler Construction 3904:Cooper, Keith Daniel; Torczon, Linda (2012). 3729:Optimizing Compilers for Modern Architectures 3619:Chandrasekaran, Siddharth (26 January 2018). 3296:Aho, Lam, Sethi, Ullman 2007, p. 5-6, 109-189 3151:Basic Concepts in Object Oriented Programming 2880:"Did Grace Hopper Create the First Compiler?" 1922:include a compilation facility; for example, 344: 8: 4144:"The LLVM Target-Independent Code Generator" 3673:Compilers: Principles, Techniques, and Tools 3483:"A fast routability-driven router for FPGAs" 3272:The Architecture of Open Source Applications 2320:Compilers: Principles, Techniques, and Tools 1269:. Starting from the sequence of characters " 630: 622: 3999:Advanced Compiler Design and Implementation 3936:Compiler Construction for Digital Computers 3314:Aho, Lam, Sethi, Ullman 2007, p. 8, 191-300 3199:Delayed binding in PQCC generated compilers 2461:Chomsky, Noam; Lightfoot, David W. (2002). 2117:or otherwise, of a hardware configuration. 1842:. Unsourced material may be challenged and 629:("Plan Calculus"). Zuse also envisioned a 4253: 4239: 4231: 3411:Ilyushin, Evgeniy; Namiot, Dmitry (2016). 1950:One classification of compilers is by the 1214:. Although most optimization problems are 1178:end optimizations are removal of useless ( 1093:the functions in the compilation process. 719:programming language (and coined the term 692:(List Processor) for symbolic computation. 351: 337: 38: 3644:Calingaert and Horowitz 1979, pp. 186-187 3149:K. Nygaard, University of Oslo, Norway, " 2813: 2780: 2047:This Prolog machine is also known as the 2030:) or language constructs (e.g. Fortran's 1862:Learn how and when to remove this message 1340:(also known as scanning or parsing), and 1271:if(net>0.0)total+=net*(1.0+tax/100.0); 1072:Learn how and when to remove this message 4081:. International Thomson Computer Press. 3950:The first text on compiler construction. 2988:", Communications of the ACM, April 1960 2893:Strawn, George; Strawn, Candace (2015). 2838:"List of early compilers and assemblers" 2315: 2313: 1804:Compiled vis-à-vis interpreted languages 1035:This section includes a list of general 4050:Srikant, Y. N.; Shankar, Priti (2003). 3700:IBM Journal of Research and Development 3327:Blindell, Gabriel Hjort (3 June 2016). 2334:Readings in Hardware/Software Co-Design 2284: 2254: 2130:application-specific integrated circuit 1097:One-pass vis-à-vis multi-pass compilers 301: 214: 164: 128: 48: 41: 4963:Knowledge representation and reasoning 3755:Modern Compiler Implementation in Java 3270:. In Brown, Amy; Wilson, Greg (eds.). 3138:A Portable Compiler for the Language C 2935:"Hints on Programming Language Design" 2878:Bruderer, Herbert (21 December 2022). 2718: 2708: 2689:"The history of FORTRAN I, II and III" 2447:Naur, P. et al. "Report on ALGOL 60". 2293:"Encyclopedia: Definition of Compiler" 1273:", the scanner composes a sequence of 1202:in the process. The back end performs 500:), conversion of input programs to an 4988:Philosophy of artificial intelligence 2947:from the original on 10 October 2022. 2705:from the original on 10 October 2022. 2376:. ISSTA 2016. ACM. pp. 294–305. 2120:The output of these compilers target 1462:and assigns them a category; and the 893:from MIT. Multics was written in the 387:language) into another language (the 7: 4314:Energy consumption (Green computing) 3782:Modern Compiler Implementation in ML 3548:from the original on 2 November 2016 3305:Aho, Lam, Sethi, Ullman 2007, p. 111 3278:from the original on 2 December 2016 1840:adding citations to reliable sources 1336:(also known as lexing or scanning), 834:programming languages, for example, 588:, any set of strings on an alphabet. 5269:Programming language implementation 4993:Distributed artificial intelligence 4272:ACM Computing Classification System 3529:from the original on 9 August 2017. 3062:1965 Fall Joint Computer Conference 2895:"Grace Hopper: Compilers and Cobol" 2262:United States Department of Defense 2124:at a very low level, for example a 2062:are also examples of this category. 1610:of every compiled function and the 1478:. The lexeme syntax is typically a 905:based on BCPL concepts, written by 4505:Integrated development environment 2665:from the original on 12 April 2020 2413:Baghai, Christian (4 April 2023). 1554:phase, and logically precedes the 1041:it lacks sufficient corresponding 1001:integrated development environment 471:without a change of language; and 302:Notable compilers & toolchains 14: 4973:Automated planning and scheduling 4510:Software configuration management 4205:Syntax Analysis & LL1 Parsing 3116:The Development of the C Language 3056:Corbató, F. J.; Vyssotsky, V. A. 1530:adds semantic information to the 5227: 5217: 5208: 5207: 4221:Forum about compiler development 4178: – a PDF tutorial 3359:Cooper and Toczon (2012), p. 540 2696:History of Programming Languages 2342:10.1016/b978-155860702-6/50045-4 2195: 1812: 1242:-based C/C++ compiler), and the 1026: 539:History of compiler construction 510:machine specific code generation 5218: 4621:Computational complexity theory 4227: (archived 10 October 2014) 4028:Programming Language Pragmatics 3621:"Cross Compilation Demystified" 3413:"On source-to-source compilers" 2933:Hoare, C.A.R. (December 1973). 2173:which translate human readable 1988:high-level programming language 1732:Machine dependent optimizations 1542:(checking for type errors), or 803:. Its syntax was defined using 787:, a key advance in the rise of 582:, a finite sequence of symbols; 397:high-level programming language 4412:Network performance evaluation 2488:"Appendix 1: Backus-Naur Form" 2336:. Elsevier. pp. 506–515. 1567:The middle end, also known as 1137:Three-stage compiler structure 428:produces code for a different 401:low-level programming language 1: 4776:Multimedia information system 4761:Geographic information system 4751:Enterprise information system 4347:Computer systems organization 3256:Cooper and Torczon 2012, p. 8 2126:field-programmable gate array 2111:hardware description language 1402:(and some implementations of 379:computer code written in one 5135:Computational social science 4723:Theoretical computer science 4543:Software development process 4319:Electronic design automation 4304:Very Large Scale Integration 4162:Compiler textbook references 3963:; Wortman, David B. (1970). 3864:Computer Science Press, Inc. 3571:. Altera.com. Archived from 3153:", SIGPLAN Notices V21, 1986 2561:Iverson, Kenneth E. (1962). 2092:Common Intermediate Language 1994:, the original compiler for 1878:in mind: either designed as 1665:interprocedural optimization 1105:The ability to compile in a 606:. The ideas derive from the 576:, any finite set of symbols; 259:target-specific initializer) 4958:Natural language processing 4746:Information storage systems 4188: (archived 15 May 2018) 3001:Lisp 1.5 Programmers Manual 2638:Gesellschaft für Informatik 2203:Computer programming portal 2099:intermediate representation 1315:intermediate representation 1168:intermediate representation 929:Object-oriented programming 715:wrote the compiler for the 602:and used for the syntax of 502:intermediate representation 498:syntax-directed translation 86:Intermediate representation 5290: 4874:Human–computer interaction 4844:Intrusion detection system 4756:Social information systems 4741:Database management system 4075:Terry, Patrick D. (1997). 4005:Morgan Kaufmann Publishers 3957:McKeeman, William Marshall 3850:Calingaert, Peter (1979). 3787:Cambridge University Press 3759:Cambridge University Press 3733:Morgan Kaufmann Publishers 3423:(5): 48–51. Archived from 3382:10.1002/9781118112762.ch12 2492:The Science of Programming 2020:Source-to-source compilers 1782: 1317:(IR). It also manages the 1159:statically typed languages 536: 454:source-to-source compilers 25: 18: 5203: 5140:Computational engineering 5115:Computational mathematics 4268: 4182:Basics of Compiler Design 3331:. Switzerland: Springer. 3103:The Multics PL/1 Compiler 2905:(Jan.-Feb. 2015): 62–64. 2569:. John Wiley & Sons. 2529:10.1007/978-3-642-18631-8 2523:. pp. 45, 104, 105. 2449:Communications of the ACM 1638:automatic parallelization 445:Related software include 5150:Computational healthcare 5145:Differentiable computing 5064:Graphics processing unit 4490:Domain-specific language 4359:Computational complexity 3542:"XST Synthesis Overview" 2609:10.1002/zamm.19510310820 1909:just-in-time compilation 5125:Computational chemistry 5059:Photograph manipulation 4950:Artificial intelligence 4766:Decision support system 3266:Lattner, Chris (2017). 2382:10.1145/2931037.2931074 2212:Abstract interpretation 2054:Bytecode compilers for 2049:Warren Abstract Machine 2024:automatic parallelizing 1913:bytecode interpretation 1428:conditional compilation 1232:GNU Compiler Collection 1182:) or unreachable code ( 1056:more precise citations. 992:GNU Compiler Collection 646:Between 1949 and 1951, 617:Between 1942 and 1945, 310:GNU Compiler Collection 235:Common Language Runtime 5274:Utility software types 5190:Educational technology 5021:Reinforcement learning 4771:Process control system 4669:Computational geometry 4659:Algorithmic efficiency 4654:Analysis of algorithms 4309:Systems on Chip (SoCs) 4215:Let's Build a Compiler 3906:Engineering a compiler 3370:"S1-A Simple Compiler" 2865:10.1145/800025.1198341 2565:A Programming Language 2451:3 (May 1960), 299–314. 2242:Program transformation 2068:Just-in-time compilers 1794:language specification 1768:Sethi–Ullman algorithm 1736:peephole optimizations 1661:peephole optimizations 1484:finite state automaton 1330:separation of concerns 1310: 1244:Amsterdam Compiler Kit 1204:instruction scheduling 1146: 789:structured programming 733:compiler developed by 727:1952, before September 631: 623: 548: 165:Compilation strategies 30:. For other uses, see 5160:Electronic publishing 5130:Computational biology 5120:Computational physics 5016:Unsupervised learning 4930:Distributed computing 4806:Information retrieval 4713:Mathematical analysis 4703:Mathematical software 4593:Theory of computation 4558:Software construction 4548:Requirements analysis 4426:Software organization 4354:Computer architecture 4324:Hardware acceleration 4289:Printed circuit board 4102:Compiler Construction 3599:www.sciencedirect.com 3567:Altera Staff (2017). 3540:Xilinx Staff (2009). 3502:10.1145/275107.275134 3460:10.1145/857076.857077 2815:10.1145/800259.808980 2782:10.1145/609784.609818 2486:Gries, David (2012). 2465:. Walter de Gruyter. 2266:Stoneman requirements 2222:Compile and go system 2128:(FPGA) or structured 1626:dead-code elimination 1476:programming languages 1346:context-free grammars 1257: 1184:reachability analysis 1180:dead-code elimination 1144: 1018:Compiler construction 948:programming languages 779:was the precursor to 610:concepts by linguist 546: 190:Compile and go system 4920:Concurrent computing 4892:Ubiquitous computing 4864:Application security 4859:Information security 4688:Discrete mathematics 4664:Randomized algorithm 4616:Computability theory 4601:Model of computation 4573:Software maintenance 4568:Software engineering 4530:Software development 4480:Programming language 4475:Programming paradigm 4392:Network architecture 3971:Englewood Cliffs, NJ 3966:A Compiler Generator 3818:Macmillan Publishing 3777:Appel, Andrew Wilson 3751:Appel, Andrew Wilson 3496:. pp. 140–149. 3427:on 13 September 2022 3114:Dennis M. Ritchie, " 2775:. pp. 243–249. 2463:Syntactic Structures 2249:Notes and references 1884:interpreted language 1836:improve this section 1790:Compiler correctness 1785:Compiler correctness 1779:Compiler correctness 1630:constant propagation 1368:but these are rare. 1358:abstract syntax tree 1354:concrete syntax tree 1188:constant propagation 1111:multi-pass compilers 608:context-free grammar 519:compiler correctness 381:programming language 263:Java virtual machine 185:Tracing just-in-time 5254:American inventions 5195:Document management 5185:Operations research 5110:Enterprise software 5026:Multi-task learning 5011:Supervised learning 4733:Information systems 4563:Software deployment 4520:Software repository 4374:Real-time computing 4129:on 17 February 2017 3900:(2+xiv+270+6 pages) 3716:10.1147/rd.255.0535 3569:"Spectra-Q™ Engine" 3197:W. Wulf, K. Nori, " 2911:10.1109/MITP.2015.6 2264:(18 February 1980) 1936:evaluation function 1754:and memory and the 1650:loop transformation 1646:dependence analysis 1634:loop transformation 1592:dependence analysis 1548:definite assignment 1496:scannerless parsing 1486:constructed from a 1412:Line Reconstruction 1378:Line reconstruction 1362:line reconstruction 1200:register allocation 632:Planfertigungsgerät 79:Optimizing compiler 5264:Computer libraries 4978:Search methodology 4925:Parallel computing 4882:Interaction design 4791:Computing platform 4718:Numerical analysis 4708:Information theory 4500:Software framework 4463:Software notations 4402:Network components 4299:Integrated circuit 4217:, by Jack Crenshaw 4148:LLVM Documentation 4023:Scott, Michael Lee 3668:Ullman, Jeffrey D. 3575:on 10 October 2016 2951:Edsger W. Dijkstra 2591:Rutishauser, Heinz 2107:Hardware compilers 1608:control-flow graph 1584:data-flow analysis 1488:regular expression 1350:attribute grammars 1326:scannerless parser 1311: 1147: 1012:parallel computing 656:Friedrich L. Bauer 637:punched film stock 549: 474:compiler-compilers 439:bootstrap compiler 5241: 5240: 5170:Electronic voting 5100:Quantum Computing 5093:Applied computing 5079:Image compression 4849:Hardware security 4839:Security services 4796:Digital marketing 4583:Open-source model 4495:Modeling language 4407:Network scheduler 4119:978-0-201-40353-4 4088:978-1-85032-298-6 4067:978-0-8493-1240-3 4042:978-0-12-633951-2 4014:978-1-55860-320-2 3984:978-0-13-155077-3 3961:Horning, James J. 3827:978-0-333-21732-0 3796:978-0-521-58274-2 3768:978-0-521-82060-8 3742:978-1-55860-286-1 3696:Allen, Frances E. 3391:978-1-118-11276-2 3064:. Multicians.org. 3004:. The MIT Press. 2853:"Keynote Address" 2647:978-3-88579-426-4 2576:978-0-471430-14-8 2538:978-3-540-00217-8 2472:978-3-11-017279-9 2232:List of compilers 2217:Bottom-up parsing 2175:assembly language 2164:binary recompiler 2122:computer hardware 1880:compiled language 1872: 1871: 1864: 1588:use-define chains 1586:is used to build 1527:Semantic analysis 1426:substitution and 1392:recursive-descent 1342:semantic analysis 1082: 1081: 1074: 986:Ada development. 889:) and was led by 795:definitions with 739:Manchester Mark I 648:Heinz Rutishauser 506:code optimization 494:semantic analysis 405:assembly language 361: 360: 43:Program execution 28:Compile (company) 5281: 5231: 5230: 5221: 5220: 5211: 5210: 5031:Cross-validation 5003:Machine learning 4887:Social computing 4854:Network security 4649:Algorithm design 4578:Programming team 4538:Control variable 4515:Software library 4453:Software quality 4448:Operating system 4397:Network protocol 4262:Computer science 4255: 4248: 4241: 4232: 4206: 4194: 4158: 4156: 4154: 4142:LLVM community. 4138: 4136: 4134: 4128: 4122:. Archived from 4107: 4092: 4071: 4046: 4031:(2nd ed.). 4018: 4002: 3993:Muchnick, Steven 3988: 3952: 3927: 3915:978-0-12088478-0 3899: 3897: 3895: 3861: 3846: 3844: 3842: 3836: 3830:. Archived from 3815: 3800: 3772: 3757:(2nd ed.). 3746: 3719: 3691: 3676:(1st ed.). 3645: 3642: 3636: 3635: 3633: 3631: 3625:embedjournal.com 3616: 3610: 3609: 3607: 3605: 3591: 3585: 3584: 3582: 3580: 3564: 3558: 3557: 3555: 3553: 3537: 3531: 3530: 3528: 3492:. Monterey, CA: 3487: 3478: 3472: 3471: 3448:ACM Comput. Surv 3443: 3437: 3436: 3434: 3432: 3408: 3402: 3401: 3400: 3398: 3366: 3360: 3357: 3351: 3350: 3338:978-3-31934019-7 3324: 3315: 3312: 3306: 3303: 3297: 3294: 3288: 3287: 3285: 3283: 3263: 3257: 3254: 3248: 3245: 3239: 3236: 3230: 3227: 3221: 3218: 3212: 3208: 3202: 3195: 3189: 3186: 3180: 3169: 3163: 3160: 3154: 3147: 3141: 3134: 3128: 3125: 3119: 3112: 3106: 3099: 3093: 3090: 3084: 3081: 3075: 3072: 3066: 3065: 3053: 3047: 3044: 3038: 3035: 3029: 3022: 3016: 3015: 3011:978-0-26213011-0 2995: 2989: 2982: 2976: 2975: 2973: 2971: 2960: 2954: 2948: 2946: 2939: 2930: 2924: 2921: 2915: 2914: 2890: 2884: 2883: 2875: 2869: 2868: 2848: 2842: 2841: 2834: 2828: 2827: 2817: 2808:. pp. 1–5. 2801: 2795: 2794: 2784: 2768: 2762: 2752: 2746: 2742: 2736: 2733: 2727: 2726: 2720: 2716: 2714: 2706: 2704: 2693: 2684: 2678: 2674: 2672: 2670: 2664: 2635: 2619: 2613: 2612: 2587: 2581: 2580: 2568: 2558: 2552: 2550: 2512: 2506: 2505: 2483: 2477: 2476: 2458: 2452: 2445: 2439: 2436: 2430: 2429: 2427: 2425: 2410: 2404: 2403: 2365: 2359: 2358: 2329: 2323: 2317: 2308: 2307: 2305: 2303: 2289: 2277: 2274: 2268: 2259: 2205: 2200: 2199: 2044:implementations 2033: 2006: 1974:embedded systems 1956:target platform. 1901:machine language 1867: 1860: 1856: 1853: 1847: 1816: 1808: 1764:addressing modes 1748:machine language 1692:Sun Microsystems 1622:inline expansion 1600:pointer analysis 1590:, together with 1492:lexical analyzer 1480:regular language 1470:and an optional 1439:Lexical analysis 1380: 1379: 1334:lexical analysis 1292: 1288: 1284: 1280: 1272: 1210:busy by filling 1077: 1070: 1066: 1063: 1057: 1052:this section by 1043:inline citations 1030: 1029: 1022: 891:Fernando Corbató 883:General Electric 783:. It introduced 747:: A team led by 634: 628: 596:Backus–Naur form 563:formal languages 486:lexical analysis 434:operating system 373:computer program 353: 346: 339: 215:Notable runtimes 202:Transcompilation 49:General concepts 39: 21:Compiler (manga) 5289: 5288: 5284: 5283: 5282: 5280: 5279: 5278: 5244: 5243: 5242: 5237: 5228: 5199: 5180:Word processing 5088: 5074:Virtual reality 5035: 4997: 4968:Computer vision 4944: 4940:Multiprocessing 4906: 4868: 4834:Security hacker 4810: 4786:Digital library 4727: 4678:Mathematics of 4673: 4635: 4611:Automata theory 4606:Formal language 4587: 4553:Software design 4524: 4457: 4443:Virtual machine 4421: 4417:Network service 4378: 4369:Embedded system 4342: 4275: 4264: 4259: 4225:Wayback Machine 4204: 4193:Short animation 4192: 4186:Wayback Machine 4172: 4167: 4152: 4150: 4141: 4132: 4130: 4126: 4120: 4105: 4095: 4089: 4074: 4068: 4049: 4043: 4033:Morgan Kaufmann 4021: 4015: 3991: 3985: 3955: 3946: 3930: 3916: 3903: 3893: 3891: 3873: 3852:Horowitz, Ellis 3849: 3840: 3838: 3837:on 15 June 2007 3834: 3828: 3813: 3805:Bornat, Richard 3803: 3797: 3775: 3769: 3749: 3743: 3722: 3694: 3688: 3658: 3654: 3652:Further reading 3649: 3648: 3643: 3639: 3629: 3627: 3618: 3617: 3613: 3603: 3601: 3593: 3592: 3588: 3578: 3576: 3566: 3565: 3561: 3551: 3549: 3544:. Xilinx, Inc. 3539: 3538: 3534: 3526: 3512: 3485: 3480: 3479: 3475: 3445: 3444: 3440: 3430: 3428: 3410: 3409: 3405: 3396: 3394: 3392: 3368: 3367: 3363: 3358: 3354: 3339: 3326: 3325: 3318: 3313: 3309: 3304: 3300: 3295: 3291: 3281: 3279: 3265: 3264: 3260: 3255: 3251: 3246: 3242: 3237: 3233: 3228: 3224: 3219: 3215: 3209: 3205: 3196: 3192: 3187: 3183: 3170: 3166: 3161: 3157: 3148: 3144: 3135: 3131: 3126: 3122: 3113: 3109: 3100: 3096: 3091: 3087: 3082: 3078: 3073: 3069: 3055: 3054: 3050: 3045: 3041: 3036: 3032: 3023: 3019: 3012: 2997: 2996: 2992: 2983: 2979: 2969: 2967: 2962: 2961: 2957: 2944: 2937: 2932: 2931: 2927: 2922: 2918: 2899:IT Professional 2892: 2891: 2887: 2877: 2876: 2872: 2851:Hopper, Grace. 2850: 2849: 2845: 2836: 2835: 2831: 2803: 2802: 2798: 2770: 2769: 2765: 2753: 2749: 2743: 2739: 2734: 2730: 2717: 2707: 2702: 2691: 2686: 2685: 2681: 2668: 2666: 2662: 2648: 2633: 2621: 2620: 2616: 2589: 2588: 2584: 2577: 2560: 2559: 2555: 2551:(xii+514 pages) 2539: 2521:Springer-Verlag 2514: 2513: 2509: 2502: 2485: 2484: 2480: 2473: 2460: 2459: 2455: 2446: 2442: 2437: 2433: 2423: 2421: 2412: 2411: 2407: 2392: 2367: 2366: 2362: 2352: 2331: 2330: 2326: 2318: 2311: 2301: 2299: 2291: 2290: 2286: 2281: 2280: 2275: 2271: 2260: 2256: 2251: 2246: 2237:Metacompilation 2201: 2194: 2191: 2031: 2004: 1981:virtual machine 1948: 1940:runtime library 1868: 1857: 1851: 1848: 1833: 1817: 1806: 1787: 1781: 1743:Code generation 1720:code generation 1716: 1648:is crucial for 1604:escape analysis 1565: 1556:code generation 1534:and builds the 1506:(also known as 1503:Syntax analysis 1442:(also known as 1377: 1376: 1338:syntax analysis 1309:, respectively. 1290: 1286: 1282: 1278: 1270: 1252: 1208:execution units 1145:Compiler design 1139: 1099: 1078: 1067: 1061: 1058: 1048:Please help to 1047: 1031: 1027: 1020: 858:Martin Richards 793:nested function 541: 535: 514:transformations 415:) to create an 357: 237:(CLR) and 223:Android Runtime 119:Virtual machine 35: 24: 17: 12: 11: 5: 5287: 5285: 5277: 5276: 5271: 5266: 5261: 5256: 5246: 5245: 5239: 5238: 5236: 5235: 5225: 5215: 5204: 5201: 5200: 5198: 5197: 5192: 5187: 5182: 5177: 5172: 5167: 5162: 5157: 5152: 5147: 5142: 5137: 5132: 5127: 5122: 5117: 5112: 5107: 5102: 5096: 5094: 5090: 5089: 5087: 5086: 5084:Solid modeling 5081: 5076: 5071: 5066: 5061: 5056: 5051: 5045: 5043: 5037: 5036: 5034: 5033: 5028: 5023: 5018: 5013: 5007: 5005: 4999: 4998: 4996: 4995: 4990: 4985: 4983:Control method 4980: 4975: 4970: 4965: 4960: 4954: 4952: 4946: 4945: 4943: 4942: 4937: 4935:Multithreading 4932: 4927: 4922: 4916: 4914: 4908: 4907: 4905: 4904: 4899: 4894: 4889: 4884: 4878: 4876: 4870: 4869: 4867: 4866: 4861: 4856: 4851: 4846: 4841: 4836: 4831: 4829:Formal methods 4826: 4820: 4818: 4812: 4811: 4809: 4808: 4803: 4801:World Wide Web 4798: 4793: 4788: 4783: 4778: 4773: 4768: 4763: 4758: 4753: 4748: 4743: 4737: 4735: 4729: 4728: 4726: 4725: 4720: 4715: 4710: 4705: 4700: 4695: 4690: 4684: 4682: 4675: 4674: 4672: 4671: 4666: 4661: 4656: 4651: 4645: 4643: 4637: 4636: 4634: 4633: 4628: 4623: 4618: 4613: 4608: 4603: 4597: 4595: 4589: 4588: 4586: 4585: 4580: 4575: 4570: 4565: 4560: 4555: 4550: 4545: 4540: 4534: 4532: 4526: 4525: 4523: 4522: 4517: 4512: 4507: 4502: 4497: 4492: 4487: 4482: 4477: 4471: 4469: 4459: 4458: 4456: 4455: 4450: 4445: 4440: 4435: 4429: 4427: 4423: 4422: 4420: 4419: 4414: 4409: 4404: 4399: 4394: 4388: 4386: 4380: 4379: 4377: 4376: 4371: 4366: 4361: 4356: 4350: 4348: 4344: 4343: 4341: 4340: 4331: 4326: 4321: 4316: 4311: 4306: 4301: 4296: 4291: 4285: 4283: 4277: 4276: 4269: 4266: 4265: 4260: 4258: 4257: 4250: 4243: 4235: 4229: 4228: 4218: 4212: 4201: 4189: 4179: 4171: 4170:External links 4168: 4166: 4165: 4159: 4139: 4118: 4110:Addison-Wesley 4097:Wirth, Niklaus 4093: 4087: 4072: 4066: 4047: 4041: 4019: 4013: 3989: 3983: 3953: 3944: 3928: 3914: 3901: 3871: 3847: 3826: 3801: 3795: 3773: 3767: 3747: 3741: 3723:Allen, Randy; 3720: 3692: 3686: 3678:Addison-Wesley 3660:Aho, Alfred V. 3655: 3653: 3650: 3647: 3646: 3637: 3611: 3586: 3559: 3532: 3511:978-0897919784 3510: 3473: 3438: 3403: 3390: 3361: 3352: 3337: 3316: 3307: 3298: 3289: 3258: 3249: 3240: 3231: 3222: 3213: 3203: 3190: 3181: 3164: 3155: 3142: 3129: 3120: 3107: 3094: 3085: 3076: 3067: 3048: 3039: 3030: 3017: 3010: 2990: 2977: 2955: 2940:. p. 27. 2925: 2916: 2885: 2870: 2843: 2829: 2796: 2763: 2747: 2737: 2728: 2719:|website= 2687:Backus, John. 2679: 2646: 2614: 2582: 2575: 2553: 2537: 2507: 2501:978-1461259831 2500: 2478: 2471: 2453: 2440: 2431: 2405: 2390: 2360: 2350: 2324: 2309: 2283: 2282: 2279: 2278: 2269: 2253: 2252: 2250: 2247: 2245: 2244: 2239: 2234: 2229: 2224: 2219: 2214: 2208: 2207: 2206: 2190: 2187: 2168: 2167: 2160: 2157:cross compiler 2153: 2146: 2145: 2144: 2141: 2104: 2103: 2102: 2065: 2064: 2063: 2052: 2035: 1970:cross compiler 1947: 1944: 1870: 1869: 1820: 1818: 1811: 1805: 1802: 1798:formal methods 1783:Main article: 1780: 1777: 1776: 1775: 1739: 1715: 1712: 1642: 1641: 1615: 1596:alias analysis 1564: 1561: 1560: 1559: 1544:object binding 1523: 1520:formal grammar 1499: 1452:lexical tokens 1435: 1415: 1396:Atlas Autocode 1366:preprocessing, 1287:number literal 1251: 1248: 1224: 1223: 1191: 1171: 1138: 1135: 1098: 1095: 1080: 1079: 1034: 1032: 1025: 1019: 1016: 907:Dennis Ritchie 831: 830: 812: 799:. It included 770: 760: 742: 724: 713:Remington Rand 694: 693: 687: 673: 660:Klaus Samelson 590: 589: 583: 577: 537:Main article: 534: 531: 425:cross-compiler 359: 358: 356: 355: 348: 341: 333: 330: 329: 328: 327: 322: 313: 304: 303: 299: 298: 297: 296: 290: 281: 271: 266: 260: 250: 241: 232: 226: 217: 216: 212: 211: 210: 209: 204: 199: 197:Precompilation 194: 193: 192: 187: 176: 167: 166: 162: 161: 160: 159: 154: 149: 144: 139: 131: 130: 126: 125: 124: 123: 122: 121: 116: 111: 106: 105: 104: 97:Runtime system 89: 83: 82: 81: 76: 75: 74: 59: 51: 50: 46: 45: 15: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 5286: 5275: 5272: 5270: 5267: 5265: 5262: 5260: 5257: 5255: 5252: 5251: 5249: 5234: 5226: 5224: 5216: 5214: 5206: 5205: 5202: 5196: 5193: 5191: 5188: 5186: 5183: 5181: 5178: 5176: 5173: 5171: 5168: 5166: 5163: 5161: 5158: 5156: 5153: 5151: 5148: 5146: 5143: 5141: 5138: 5136: 5133: 5131: 5128: 5126: 5123: 5121: 5118: 5116: 5113: 5111: 5108: 5106: 5103: 5101: 5098: 5097: 5095: 5091: 5085: 5082: 5080: 5077: 5075: 5072: 5070: 5069:Mixed reality 5067: 5065: 5062: 5060: 5057: 5055: 5052: 5050: 5047: 5046: 5044: 5042: 5038: 5032: 5029: 5027: 5024: 5022: 5019: 5017: 5014: 5012: 5009: 5008: 5006: 5004: 5000: 4994: 4991: 4989: 4986: 4984: 4981: 4979: 4976: 4974: 4971: 4969: 4966: 4964: 4961: 4959: 4956: 4955: 4953: 4951: 4947: 4941: 4938: 4936: 4933: 4931: 4928: 4926: 4923: 4921: 4918: 4917: 4915: 4913: 4909: 4903: 4902:Accessibility 4900: 4898: 4897:Visualization 4895: 4893: 4890: 4888: 4885: 4883: 4880: 4879: 4877: 4875: 4871: 4865: 4862: 4860: 4857: 4855: 4852: 4850: 4847: 4845: 4842: 4840: 4837: 4835: 4832: 4830: 4827: 4825: 4822: 4821: 4819: 4817: 4813: 4807: 4804: 4802: 4799: 4797: 4794: 4792: 4789: 4787: 4784: 4782: 4779: 4777: 4774: 4772: 4769: 4767: 4764: 4762: 4759: 4757: 4754: 4752: 4749: 4747: 4744: 4742: 4739: 4738: 4736: 4734: 4730: 4724: 4721: 4719: 4716: 4714: 4711: 4709: 4706: 4704: 4701: 4699: 4696: 4694: 4691: 4689: 4686: 4685: 4683: 4681: 4676: 4670: 4667: 4665: 4662: 4660: 4657: 4655: 4652: 4650: 4647: 4646: 4644: 4642: 4638: 4632: 4629: 4627: 4624: 4622: 4619: 4617: 4614: 4612: 4609: 4607: 4604: 4602: 4599: 4598: 4596: 4594: 4590: 4584: 4581: 4579: 4576: 4574: 4571: 4569: 4566: 4564: 4561: 4559: 4556: 4554: 4551: 4549: 4546: 4544: 4541: 4539: 4536: 4535: 4533: 4531: 4527: 4521: 4518: 4516: 4513: 4511: 4508: 4506: 4503: 4501: 4498: 4496: 4493: 4491: 4488: 4486: 4483: 4481: 4478: 4476: 4473: 4472: 4470: 4468: 4464: 4460: 4454: 4451: 4449: 4446: 4444: 4441: 4439: 4436: 4434: 4431: 4430: 4428: 4424: 4418: 4415: 4413: 4410: 4408: 4405: 4403: 4400: 4398: 4395: 4393: 4390: 4389: 4387: 4385: 4381: 4375: 4372: 4370: 4367: 4365: 4364:Dependability 4362: 4360: 4357: 4355: 4352: 4351: 4349: 4345: 4339: 4335: 4332: 4330: 4327: 4325: 4322: 4320: 4317: 4315: 4312: 4310: 4307: 4305: 4302: 4300: 4297: 4295: 4292: 4290: 4287: 4286: 4284: 4282: 4278: 4273: 4267: 4263: 4256: 4251: 4249: 4244: 4242: 4237: 4236: 4233: 4226: 4222: 4219: 4216: 4213: 4211: 4207: 4202: 4199: 4195: 4190: 4187: 4183: 4180: 4177: 4174: 4173: 4169: 4163: 4160: 4149: 4145: 4140: 4125: 4121: 4115: 4111: 4104: 4103: 4098: 4094: 4090: 4084: 4080: 4079: 4073: 4069: 4063: 4059: 4055: 4054: 4048: 4044: 4038: 4034: 4030: 4029: 4024: 4020: 4016: 4010: 4006: 4001: 4000: 3994: 3990: 3986: 3980: 3976: 3975:Prentice-Hall 3972: 3968: 3967: 3962: 3958: 3954: 3951: 3947: 3945:0-471-32776-X 3941: 3937: 3933: 3929: 3925: 3921: 3917: 3911: 3907: 3902: 3890: 3886: 3882: 3878: 3874: 3872:0-914894-23-4 3868: 3865: 3860: 3859: 3853: 3848: 3833: 3829: 3823: 3819: 3812: 3811: 3806: 3802: 3798: 3792: 3788: 3784: 3783: 3778: 3774: 3770: 3764: 3760: 3756: 3752: 3748: 3744: 3738: 3734: 3730: 3726: 3721: 3717: 3713: 3709: 3705: 3701: 3697: 3693: 3689: 3687:9780201100884 3683: 3679: 3675: 3674: 3669: 3665: 3661: 3657: 3656: 3651: 3641: 3638: 3626: 3622: 3615: 3612: 3600: 3596: 3590: 3587: 3574: 3570: 3563: 3560: 3547: 3543: 3536: 3533: 3525: 3521: 3517: 3513: 3507: 3503: 3499: 3495: 3491: 3484: 3477: 3474: 3469: 3465: 3461: 3457: 3454:(2): 93–113. 3453: 3449: 3442: 3439: 3426: 3422: 3418: 3414: 3407: 3404: 3393: 3387: 3383: 3379: 3375: 3371: 3365: 3362: 3356: 3353: 3348: 3344: 3340: 3334: 3330: 3323: 3321: 3317: 3311: 3308: 3302: 3299: 3293: 3290: 3277: 3273: 3269: 3262: 3259: 3253: 3250: 3244: 3241: 3235: 3232: 3226: 3223: 3217: 3214: 3207: 3204: 3200: 3194: 3191: 3185: 3182: 3178: 3177:0-8493-3135-8 3174: 3168: 3165: 3159: 3156: 3152: 3146: 3143: 3139: 3133: 3130: 3124: 3121: 3117: 3111: 3108: 3104: 3098: 3095: 3089: 3086: 3080: 3077: 3071: 3068: 3063: 3059: 3052: 3049: 3043: 3040: 3034: 3031: 3027: 3021: 3018: 3013: 3007: 3003: 3002: 2994: 2991: 2987: 2981: 2978: 2966: 2959: 2956: 2952: 2943: 2936: 2929: 2926: 2920: 2917: 2912: 2908: 2904: 2900: 2896: 2889: 2886: 2881: 2874: 2871: 2866: 2862: 2858: 2854: 2847: 2844: 2839: 2833: 2830: 2825: 2821: 2816: 2811: 2807: 2800: 2797: 2792: 2788: 2783: 2778: 2774: 2767: 2764: 2761: 2760:0-321-48681-1 2757: 2751: 2748: 2741: 2738: 2732: 2729: 2724: 2712: 2701: 2697: 2690: 2683: 2680: 2676: 2661: 2657: 2653: 2649: 2643: 2639: 2631: 2627: 2626: 2618: 2615: 2610: 2606: 2602: 2599:(in German). 2598: 2597: 2592: 2586: 2583: 2578: 2572: 2567: 2566: 2557: 2554: 2548: 2547:3-540-00217-0 2544: 2540: 2534: 2530: 2526: 2522: 2518: 2511: 2508: 2503: 2497: 2493: 2489: 2482: 2479: 2474: 2468: 2464: 2457: 2454: 2450: 2444: 2441: 2435: 2432: 2420: 2416: 2409: 2406: 2401: 2397: 2393: 2391:9781450343909 2387: 2383: 2379: 2375: 2371: 2364: 2361: 2357: 2353: 2351:9781558607026 2347: 2343: 2339: 2335: 2328: 2325: 2321: 2316: 2314: 2310: 2298: 2294: 2288: 2285: 2273: 2270: 2267: 2263: 2258: 2255: 2248: 2243: 2240: 2238: 2235: 2233: 2230: 2228: 2225: 2223: 2220: 2218: 2215: 2213: 2210: 2209: 2204: 2198: 2193: 2188: 2186: 2184: 2180: 2176: 2172: 2165: 2161: 2158: 2154: 2151: 2147: 2142: 2139: 2138:lookup tables 2135: 2131: 2127: 2123: 2119: 2118: 2116: 2112: 2108: 2105: 2100: 2096: 2095: 2093: 2089: 2085: 2081: 2077: 2073: 2069: 2066: 2061: 2057: 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1449: 1445: 1441: 1440: 1436: 1433: 1429: 1425: 1421: 1420: 1419:Preprocessing 1416: 1413: 1409: 1405: 1401: 1397: 1393: 1389: 1385: 1381: 1374: 1373: 1372: 1369: 1367: 1363: 1359: 1355: 1351: 1347: 1343: 1339: 1335: 1331: 1327: 1322: 1320: 1316: 1308: 1307:grammar for C 1305:parts of the 1304: 1301:and properly 1300: 1296: 1283:reserved word 1276: 1268: 1264: 1260: 1256: 1249: 1247: 1245: 1241: 1237: 1233: 1229: 1221: 1217: 1213: 1209: 1205: 1201: 1196: 1192: 1189: 1185: 1181: 1176: 1172: 1169: 1164: 1163:type checking 1160: 1156: 1152: 1151: 1150: 1143: 1136: 1134: 1130: 1127: 1126:optimizations 1122: 1118: 1116: 1112: 1108: 1103: 1096: 1094: 1090: 1086: 1076: 1073: 1065: 1062:December 2019 1055: 1051: 1045: 1044: 1038: 1033: 1024: 1023: 1017: 1015: 1013: 1008: 1004: 1002: 997: 993: 987: 984: 979: 974: 972: 966: 964: 959: 955: 951: 949: 944: 942: 938: 934: 930: 926: 923: 918: 916: 912: 908: 904: 899: 896: 892: 888: 884: 880: 876: 872: 868: 866: 862: 859: 855: 851: 849: 845: 841: 837: 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