3359:, sexual attraction and sexuality, and intersectional themes. Naegler and Salman believed that Ferrell's mold was limited and that they could add to the understanding of cultural criminology by studying women and those who do not fit Ferrell's mold. Hayward would later add that not only feminist theory, but green theory as well, played a role in the cultural criminology theory through the lens of adrenaline, the soft city, the transgressive subject, and the attentive gaze. The adrenaline lens deals with rational choice and what causes a person to have their own terms of availability, opportunity, and low levels of social control. The soft city lens deals with reality outside of the city and the imaginary sense of reality: the world where transgression occurs, where rigidity is slanted, and where rules are bent. The transgressive subject refers to a person who is attracted to rule-breaking and is attempting to be themselves in a world where everyone is against them. The attentive gaze is when someone, mainly an
3425:", focused on disseminating criminological insights to a broader audience than academia. Advocates of public criminology argue that criminologists should be "conducting and disseminating research on crime, law, and deviance in dialogue with affected communities." Its goal is for academics and researchers in criminology to provide their research to the public in order to inform public decisions and policymaking. This allows criminologists to avoid the constraints of traditional criminological research. In doing so, public criminology takes on many forms, including media and policy advising as well as activism, civic-oriented education, community outreach, expert testimony, and knowledge co-production.
3394:, a condition where one cannot meet a necessary level to maintain basic living standards. Rather, relative deprivation enforces the idea that even if a person is financially stable, he or she can still feel relatively deprived. The perception of being relatively deprived can result in criminal behavior and/or morally problematic decisions. Relative deprivation theory has increasingly been used to partially explain crime as rising living standards can result in rising crime levels. In criminology, the theory of relative deprivation explains that people who feel jealous and discontent of others might turn to crime to acquire the things that they can not afford.
48:
3410:
metropolitan and suburban areas. The crime in rural communities consists predominantly of narcotic related crimes such as the production, use, and trafficking of narcotics. Social disorganization theory is used to examine the trends involving narcotics. Social disorganization leads to narcotic use in rural areas because of low educational opportunities and high unemployment rates. Routine activity theory is used to examine all low-level street crimes such as theft. Much of the crime in rural areas is explained through routine activity theory because there is often a lack of capable guardians in rural areas.
2509:, finding that they were concentrated in the zone of transition. The Chicago School was a school of thought developed that blames social structures for human behaviors. This thought can be associated or used within criminology, because it essentially takes the stance of defending criminals and criminal behaviors. The defense and argument lies in the thoughts that these people and their acts are not their faults but they are actually the result of society (i.e. unemployment, poverty, etc.), and these people are actually, in fact, behaving properly.
1126:
75:
3114:), Becker's theory acknowledged that a society could not eradicate crime beneath a certain level. For example, if 25% of a supermarket's products were stolen, it would be very easy to reduce this rate to 15%, quite easy to reduce it until 5%, difficult to reduce it under 3% and nearly impossible to reduce it to zero (a feat which the measures required would cost the supermarket so much that it would outweigh the benefits). This reveals that the goals of utilitarianism and
7117:
3363:, is immersed into the culture and interested in lifestyle(s) and the symbolic, aesthetic, and visual aspects. When examined, they are left with the knowledge that they are not all the same, but come to a settlement of living together in the same space. Through it all, sociological perspective on cultural criminology theory attempts to understand how the environment an individual is in determines their criminal behavior.
3598:
7081:
2175:
7106:
3584:
1922:
377:
3023:
3152:
victim, and lack of a capable guardian. A guardian at a place, such as a street, could include security guards or even ordinary pedestrians who would witness the criminal act and possibly intervene or report it to law enforcement. Routine activity theory was expanded by John Eck, who added a fourth element of "place manager" such as rental property managers who can take
7093:
3290:, oftentimes having spent years inside the prison system. Researchers in the field of convict criminology such as John Irwin and Stephan Richards argue that traditional criminology can better be understood by those who lived in the walls of a prison. Martin Leyva argues that "prisonization" oftentimes begins before prison, in the home, community, and schools.
2453:, who focused on how "a person becomes delinquent because of an excess of definitions favorable to violation of law over definitions unfavorable to violation of law." Associating with people who may condone criminal conduct, or justify crime under specific circumstances makes one more likely to take that view, under his theory. Interacting with this type of "
3344:
culture. Kane adds that cultural criminology has three tropes; village, city street, and media, in which males can be geographically influenced by society's views on what is broadcast and accepted as right or wrong. The village is where one engages in available social activities. Linking the history of an individual to a location can help determine
3348:. The city street involves positioning oneself in the cultural area. This is full of those affected by poverty, poor health and crime, and large buildings that impact the city but not neighborhoods. Mass media gives an all-around account of the environment and the possible other subcultures that could exist beyond a specific geographical area.
3331:
is highly valuable in highlighting how LGBT individuals are affected by the criminal justice system. This research also has the opportunity to "queer" the curriculum of criminology in educational institutions by shifting the focus from controlling and monitoring LGBT communities to liberating and protecting them.
3330:
The value of pursuing criminology from a queer theorist perspective is contested; some believe that it is not worth researching and not relevant to the field as a whole, and as a result is a subject that lacks a wide berth of research available. On the other hand, it could be argued that this subject
3167:
is an interdisciplinary field that aims to explain crime and antisocial behavior by exploring both biological factors and environmental factors. While contemporary criminology has been dominated by sociological theories, biosocial criminology also recognizes the potential contributions of fields such
2979:
Labeling theory refers to an individual who is labeled by others in a particular way. The theory was studied in great detail by Becker. It was originally derived from sociology, but is regularly used in criminological studies. When someone is given the label of a criminal they may reject or accept it
2747:
idea, suggesting that delinquency among lower-class youths is a reaction against the social norms of the middle class. Some youth, especially from poorer areas where opportunities are scarce, might adopt social norms specific to those places that may include "toughness" and disrespect for authority.
3151:
Routine activity theory, developed by Marcus Felson and
Lawrence Cohen, draws upon control theories and explains crime in terms of crime opportunities that occur in everyday life. A crime opportunity requires that elements converge in time and place including a motivated offender, suitable target or
2805:
identified four main characteristics: "attachment to others", "belief in moral validity of rules", "commitment to achievement", and "involvement in conventional activities". The more a person features those characteristics, the less likely he or she is to become deviant (or criminal). On the other
3374:
involves the process where an individual measures his or her own well-being and materialistic worth against that of other people and perceive that they are worse off in comparison. When humans fail to obtain what they believe they are owed, they can experience anger or jealousy over the notion that
2980:
and continue to commit crime. Even those who initially reject the label can eventually accept it as the label becomes more well known, particularly among their peers. This stigma can become even more profound when the labels are about deviancy, and it is thought that this stigmatization can lead to
2082:
and the personality of criminals; and third, it studies the control of crime and the rehabilitation of offenders. Thus, criminology includes within its scope the activities of legislative bodies, law-enforcement agencies, judicial institutions, correctional institutions and educational, private and
2813:
A simple example: Someone wants a big yacht but does not have the means to buy one. If the person cannot exert self-control, he or she might try to get the yacht (or the means for it) in an illegal way, whereas someone with high self-control will (more likely) either wait, deny themselves of what
2299:
argues criminal behaviour comes from internal and external factors out of the individual's control. Its key method of thought is that criminals are born as criminals and not made into them; this school of thought also supports theory of nature in the debate between nature versus nurture. They also
2124:
Criminology grew substantially as a discipline in the first quarter of the twentieth century. From 1900 through to 2000 this field of research underwent three significant phases in the United States: (1) Golden Age of
Research (1900–1930) which has been described as a multiple-factor approach, (2)
3334:
As more and more people identify as something other than heterosexual, queer criminology continues to grow in relevance. At the same time, in jurisdictions such as Russia, Uganda, and Ghana, governments have become even more punitive through laws that expand the criminalisation of LGBTQ+ conduct,
2766:
Delinquency tends to occur among the lower-working-class males who have a lack of resources available to them and live in impoverished areas, as mentioned extensively by Albert Cohen (Cohen, 1965). Bias has been known to occur among law enforcement agencies, where officers tend to place a bias on
2069:
Criminologists are individuals who engage in the exploration and investigation of the intersection between crime and society's reactions to it. Certain criminologists delve into the behavioral trends of potential offenders. In a broader sense, these professionals undertake research and inquiries,
2682:
between what society expected of its citizens and what those citizens could actually achieve. Therefore, if the social structure of opportunities is unequal and prevents the majority from realizing the dream, some of those dejected will turn to illegitimate means (crime) in order to realize it.
2390:
used data and statistical analysis to study the relationship between crime and sociological factors. He found age, gender, poverty, education, and alcohol consumption were important factors to crime. Lance
Lochner performed three different research experiments, each one proving education reduces
2327:
The notion of having a criminal personality is achieved from the school of thought of psychological positivism. It essentially means that parts of an individual's personality have traits that align with many of those possessed by criminals, such as neuroticism, anti-social tendencies, aggressive
2091:
Modern academic criminology has direct roots in the 19th-century
Italian School of "criminal anthropology", which according to the historian Mary Gibson "caused a radical refocusing of criminological discussion throughout Europe and the United States from law to the criminal. While this 'Italian
3343:
Cultural criminology views crime and its control within the context of culture. Ferrell believes criminologists can examine the actions of criminals, control agents, media producers, and others to construct the meaning of crime. He discusses these actions as a means to show the dominant role of
2077:
of crime, social reaction to crime, and the functioning of law enforcement agencies and the penal institutions. It can be broadly said that criminology directs its inquiries along three lines: first, it investigates the nature of criminal law and its administration and conditions under which it
4403:
is no longer taken seriously (later in his career even
Lombroso recognized that not all criminals were biological throwbacks). Early biological determinism has been discredited because it is methodologically flawed: most studies did not use control groups from the general population to compare
3090:
Becker, for example, acknowledged that many people operate under a high moral and ethical constraint but considered that criminals rationally see that the benefits of their crime outweigh the cost, such as the probability of apprehension and conviction, severity of punishment, as well as their
3251:
According to the
Marxist perspective on crime, "defiance is normal – the sense that men are now consciously involved ... in assuring their human diversity." Thus Marxists criminologists argued in support of society in which the facts of human diversity, be it social or personal, would not be
2874:
posits a difference in the thoughts of individuals suffering traumatic unconscious pain which corresponds to them having thoughts and feelings which are not reflections of their true selves. There is enough correlation between this altered state of mind and criminality to suggest causation.
3409:
Rural criminology is the study of crime trends outside of metropolitan and suburban areas. Rural criminologists have used social disorganization and routine activity theories. The FBI Uniform Crime Report shows that rural communities have significantly different crime trends as opposed to
2758:
suggested that delinquency can result from a differential opportunity for lower class youth. Such youths may be tempted to take up criminal activities, choosing an illegitimate path that provides them more lucrative economic benefits than conventional, over legal options such as
2318:
Social
Positivism, which is often referred to as Sociological Positivism, discusses the thought process that criminals are produced by society. This school claims that low income levels, high poverty/unemployment rates, and poor educational systems create and motivate criminals.
2367:, a student of Lombroso, believed social as well as biological factors played a role, and believed criminals should not be held responsible when factors causing their criminality were beyond their control. Criminologists have since rejected Lombroso's biological theories since
3087:. Rational choice theory argues that criminals, like other people, weigh costs or risks and benefits when deciding whether to commit crime and think in economic terms. They will also try to minimize risks of crime by considering the time, place, and other situational factors.
3433:
Both the positivist and classical schools take a consensus view of crime: that a crime is an act that violates the basic values and beliefs of society. Those values and beliefs are manifested as laws that society agrees upon. However, there are two types of laws:
2925:. This school of thought focused on the relationship between state, media, and conservative-ruling elite and other less powerful groups. The powerful groups had the ability to become the "significant other" in the less powerful groups' processes of generating
2774:, where some criminal activities were seen as "imaginary solutions" to the problem of belonging to a subordinate class. A further study by the Chicago school looked at gangs and the influence of the interaction of gang leaders under the observation of adults.
2821:, parents, and others can have a countering effect on one's low self-control. For families of low socio-economic status, a factor that distinguishes families with delinquent children, from those who are not delinquent, is the control exerted by parents or
2631:
Since the 1950s, social ecology studies have built on the social disorganization theories. Many studies have found that crime rates are associated with poverty, disorder, high numbers of abandoned buildings, and other signs of community deterioration. As
3184:
have sought to explain trends in criminality through the lens of evolutionary biology. Specifically, they seek to explain why criminality is so much higher in men than in women and why young men are most likely to exhibit criminal behavior. See also:
2602:
Social disorganization theory is based on the work of Henry McKay and
Clifford R. Shaw of the Chicago School. Social disorganization theory postulates that neighborhoods plagued with poverty and economic deprivation tend to experience high rates of
2929:. The former could to some extent impose their meanings on the latter; therefore they were able to "label" minor delinquent youngsters as criminal. These youngsters would often take the label on board, indulge in crime more readily, and become
3843:
2125:
Golden Age of Theory (1930–1960) which endeavored to show the limits of systematically connecting criminological research to theory, and (3) a 1960–2000 period, which was seen as a significant turning point for criminology.
3106:. Rational choice theories also suggest that increasing risk and likelihood of being caught, through added surveillance, law enforcement presence, added street lighting, and other measures, are effective in reducing crime.
3335:
relationships, and organising. 'Digiqueer criminology' has emerged as a sub discipline of queer criminology and aims to deepen understanding of the relationship between digital technology, LGBTQ+ identity, and justice.
3109:
One of the main differences between this theory and
Bentham's rational choice theory, which had been abandoned in criminology, is that if Bentham considered it possible to completely annihilate crime (through the
2347:. Lombroso took a scientific approach, insisting on empirical evidence for studying crime. He suggested physiological traits such as the measurements of cheekbones or hairline, or a cleft palate could indicate "
3293:
According to Rod Earle, Convict
Criminology started in the United States after the major expansion of prisons in the 1970s, and the U.S. still remains the main focus for those who study convict criminology.
3052:. Beccaria conceived of punishment as the necessary application of the law for a crime; thus, the judge was simply to confirm his or her sentence to the law. Beccaria also distinguished between crime and
2870:. Freud suggested that unconscious impulses such as 'repetition compulsion' and a 'death drive' can dominate a person's creativity, leading to self-destructive behavior. Phillida Rosnick, in the article
2092:
School' was in turn attacked and partially supplanted in countries such as France by 'sociological' theories of delinquency, they retained the new focus on the criminal." According to Gibson, the term
3137:, which is a systematic toolkit for those seeking to focus attention on "crime facilitators" by tackling the markets for stolen goods that provide motivation for thieves to supply them by theft.
4186:
6424:
3441:
are rooted in core values shared by many cultures. Natural laws protect against harm to persons (e.g. murder, rape, assault) or property (theft, larceny, robbery), and form the basis of
2300:
argue that criminal behavior is innate and within a person. Philosophers within this school applied the scientific method to study human behavior. Positivism comprises three segments:
4282:
3042:. They argued that punishment, if certain, swift, and proportionate to the crime, was a deterrent for crime, with risks outweighing possible benefits to the offender. In
1096:
6045:
Stallwitz, A. (2014). "Community-Mindedness: Protection against Crime in the Context of Illicit Drug Cultures?" International Journal of Rural Criminology, 2(2), 166-208.
7173:
6211:
6097:
5261:
Sutton, M. Schneider, J. and Hetherington, S. (2001) Tackling Theft with the Market Reduction Approach. Crime Reduction Research Series paper 8. Home Office. London.
4150:
O'Riordan, Cáit; O'Connell, Michael (1 October 2014). "Predicting adult involvement in crime: Personality measures are significant, socio-economic measures are not".
4049:
Samuels, Jack; Bienvenu, O. Joseph; Cullen, Bernadette; Costa, Paul T.; Eaton, William W.; Nestadt, Gerald (July 2004). "Personality dimensions and criminal arrest".
3390:
set by the military. Relative deprivation can be made up of societal, political, economic, or personal factors which create a sense of injustice. It is not based on
6036:
Bunei, E. K., & Barasa, B. (2017). "Farm Crime Victimisation in Kenya: A Routine Activity Approach." International Journal of Rural Criminology, 3(2), 224-249.
5923:
3274:
are not crimes that occur out of contempt for one's fellow man, but are crimes of power. They continue systems of control and hegemony which allow state crime and
3008:
describes Athens' observations about domestic and societal violence in the criminals' backgrounds. Both Athens and Rhodes reject the genetic inheritance theories.
2814:
want or seek an intelligent intermediate solution, such as joining a yacht club to use a yacht by group consolidation of resources without violating social norms.
2594:
or structural conflict perspective in sociology and sociology of crime. As this perspective is itself broad enough, embracing as it does a diversity of positions.
6146:
3252:
criminalized. They further attributed the processes of crime creation not to genetic or psychological facts, but rather to the material basis of a given society.
2810:
is more likely to become criminal. As opposed to most criminology theories, these do not look at why people commit crime but rather why they do not commit crime.
2265:
should be used as a way to deter people from further criminal action. This is premised on the belief that individuals want to maximize pleasure and minimize pain.
6311:
5507:
Walton, K. G.; Levitsky, D. K. (2003). "Effects of the Transcendental Meditation program on neuroendocrine abnormalities associated with aggression and crime".
3126:
3886:
1505:
2662:, suggests that mainstream culture, especially in the United States, is saturated with dreams of opportunity, freedom, and prosperity—as Merton put it, the
6369:, Black, W. K., & Geis, G. (2014). "Too big to fail, too powerful to jail? On the absence of criminal prosecutions after the 2008 financial meltdown."
2806:
hand, if these factors are not present, a person is more likely to become a criminal. Hirschi expanded on this theory with the idea that a person with low
5454:
Kevin M. Beaver and Anthony Walsh. 2011. Biosocial Criminology. Chapter 1 in The Ashgate Research Companion to Biosocial Theories of Crime. 2011. Ashgate.
3503:
Comparative criminology, which is the study of the social phenomenon of crime across cultures, to identify differences and similarities in crime patterns.
5341:
5295:
4713:
Morenoff, Jeffrey; Robert Sampson; Stephen Raudenbush (2001). "Neighborhood Inequality, Collective Efficacy and the Spatial Dynamics of Urban Violence".
4304:
3204:
6300:
2607:. This theory suggests that crime and deviance is valued within groups in society, 'subcultures' or 'gangs'. These groups have different values to the
6460:
3091:
current set of opportunities. From the public policy perspective, since the cost of increasing the fine is marginal to that of the cost of increasing
2644:
suggested a poverty "concentration effect", which may cause neighborhoods to be isolated from the mainstream of society and become prone to violence.
3000:
developed a theory about how a process of brutalization by parents or peers that usually occurs in childhood results in violent crimes in adulthood.
2133:
There were three main schools of thought in early criminological theory, spanning the period from the mid-18th century to the mid-twentieth century:
3240:– members of the NDC – rejected previous explanations of crime and deviance. Thus, they decided to pursue a new Marxist criminological approach. In
713:
190:
5618:
J. B. Charles, C. W. G. Jasperse, K. A. van Leeuwen-Burow. "Criminology Between the Rule of Law and the Outlaws." (1976). Deventer: Kluwer D.V. 116
6012:
2145:. These schools of thought were superseded by several contemporary paradigms of criminology, such as the sub-culture, control, strain, labelling,
5263:
4243:
Jones, Shayne E.; Miller, Joshua D.; Lynam, Donald R. (1 July 2011). "Personality, antisocial behavior, and aggression: A meta-analytic review".
5738:
Ellis, Justin R. Representation Resistance and the Digiqueer: Fighting for Recognition in Technocratic Times (2023). Bristol University Press.
5726:
Ellis, Justin R. Representation Resistance and the Digiqueer: Fighting for Recognition in Technocratic Times (2023). Bristol University Press.
3973:
Miller, Joshua D.; Lynam, Donald (2001). "Structural Models of Personality and Their Relation to Antisocial Behavior: A Meta-Analytic Review*".
3543:
1530:
1089:
6350:
6122:
5551:
5376:
5246:
5218:
5154:
5079:
4894:
4860:
4832:
4807:
4782:
4665:
4585:
4502:
4342:
3827:
3741:
2315:
Psychological Positivism is the concept that criminal acts or the people doing said crimes do them because of internal factors driving them.
348:
4092:
Dam, Coleta van; Janssens, Jan M. A. M.; De Bruyn, Eric E. J. (1 July 2005). "PEN, Big Five, juvenile delinquency and criminal recidivism".
3017:
446:
2891:
and suggests there is a direct link between an unconscious desire for pain or punishment and the impulse to commit crime or deviant acts.
2328:
behaviors, and other factors. There is evidence of correlation, but not causation, between these personality traits and criminal actions.
3668:
3663:
3181:
1952:
1549:
180:
5576:
4757:
3631:
2154:
1063:
917:
317:
2590:
This theory is applied to a variety of approaches within the bases of criminology in particular and in sociology more generally as a
2184:
6321:
6246:
5308:
Sutton, M. (2010) Stolen Goods Markets. U.S. Department of Justice. Centre for Problem Oriented Policing, COPS Office. Guide No 57.
4568:
4385:
2516:
approach to studying cities and postulated that urban neighborhoods with high levels of poverty often experience a breakdown in the
2429:
2217:
1891:
1881:
1585:
1545:
1082:
3916:
3286:
Convict criminology is a school of thought in the realm of criminology. Convict criminologists have been directly affected by the
4278:
3262:, which considers these crimes to be some of the most costly to society in terms of overall harm/injury. In a Marxist framework,
1340:
7033:
3387:
2305:
2301:
2138:
1640:
1425:
1176:
960:
657:
211:
140:
2268:
Punishment should be "public, prompt, necessary, the minimum possible under the given circumstances, and established by law."
6990:
6644:
6485:
5686:
5314:
2699:
developed this theory further to include types of strain which were not derived from financial constraints. This is known as
2668:. Most people buy into this dream, and it becomes a powerful cultural and psychological motivator. Merton also used the term
2408:
2231:
2158:
2134:
897:
877:
451:
5986:
3915:
David, Christian Carsten. "Criminology - Crime." Cybercrime. Northamptonshire (UK), 5 June 1972. Web. 23 February 2012. <
3459:
use and gambling. Marxist criminology, conflict criminology, and critical criminology claim that most relationships between
3067:
This philosophy was replaced by the positivist and Chicago schools and was not revived until the 1970s with the writings of
2953:" describing the societal reaction to spectacular, alarming social phenomena (e.g. post-World War 2 youth cultures like the
3929:
7153:
7148:
6597:
6453:
3575:
2981:
2412:
2344:
1906:
1560:
1058:
1053:
907:
312:
307:
2437:
viewed crime as an inevitable aspect of a society with uneven distribution of wealth and other differences among people.
7168:
7163:
6938:
6848:
6227:
6159:
Hillyard, P., Pantazis, C., Tombs, S., & Gordon, D. (2004). Beyond Criminology: Taking Harm Seriously. London: Pluto
5192:
5174:
2834:
2696:
2364:
1225:
1191:
708:
185:
4533:
47:
6490:
6338:
4686:
Bursik, Robert J. Jr. (1988). "Social Disorganization and Theories of Crime and Delinquency: Problems and Prospects".
3611:
3306:
individuals and their interactions with the criminal justice system. The goals of this field of study are as follows:
3229:
3134:
2946:
2279:
when society began designing prisons for the sake of extreme punishment. This period also saw many legal reforms, the
1869:
1195:
1145:
965:
216:
4399:
The work of Lombroso and his contemporaries is regarded today as a historical curiosity, not scientific fact. Strict
3491:
by introducing the universal term "harm" into the criminological debate as a replacement for the legal term "crime".
7097:
2906:
2846:
2718:
2539:
suggested that people learn criminal behavior from older, more experienced criminals with whom they may associate.
2470:
2142:
1886:
1384:
872:
597:
548:
461:
431:
4875:
Raymond D. Gastil, "Homicide and a Regional Culture of Violence", American Sociological Review 36 (1971): 412-427.
3894:
2833:
argued that criminals are able to temporarily neutralize internal moral and social-behavioral constraints through
7178:
6752:
6480:
5961:
3267:
3130:
2782:
2730:
2653:
2547:
2457:" peer is a major cause of delinquency. Reinforcing criminal behavior makes it chronic. Where there are criminal
2059:
1876:
1712:
1445:
1315:
1181:
1010:
892:
796:
762:
747:
553:
471:
341:
302:
261:
7121:
6386:
4187:"Longitudinal associations of cognitive ability, personality traits and school grades with antisocial behaviour"
2188:
7158:
7116:
7085:
6933:
6923:
6720:
6446:
6257:
3233:
3044:
2934:
2797:. Instead of looking for factors that make people become criminal, these theories try to explain why people do
2726:
2446:
2284:
2244:
1435:
1270:
1015:
421:
266:
114:
99:
5337:
4213:
3857:
2073:
The interests of criminologists include the study of nature of crime and criminals, origins of criminal law,
6895:
6783:
6678:
6359:
3287:
3177:
3146:
2900:
2579:
2525:
2513:
2379:
1945:
1685:
1675:
1645:
1525:
1510:
1475:
1395:
1390:
1290:
902:
737:
543:
481:
124:
104:
5717:
Ball, Matthew. "Queer Criminology as Activism." Critical Criminology 24.4 (2016): 473-87. Web. 5 April 2018
5609:
Sparks, Richard F., "A Critique of Marxist Criminology." Crime and Justice. Vol. 2 (1980). JSTOR. 170 - 171
7005:
6725:
6553:
6278:
Briar, S., & Piliavin, I. (1966). Delinquency, Situational Inducements, and Commitment to Conformity.
5875:
5404:
4910:
4400:
3636:
3186:
3173:
2575:
2528:, which reduces the ability of these institutions to control behavior and creates an environment ripe for
1670:
1600:
1590:
1570:
1555:
1485:
1455:
1375:
1280:
1068:
830:
466:
322:
109:
3313:
Why LGBT citizens are incarcerated and if or why they are arrested at higher rates than heterosexual and
6928:
6918:
6880:
6853:
6815:
6788:
6698:
6607:
6526:
6516:
6241:(International Library of Criminology, Criminal Justice & Penology.). Aldershot: Ashgate/Dartmouth.
3467:
is not necessarily representative of public beliefs and wishes: it is exercised in the interests of the
3275:
3164:
2926:
2794:
2700:
2641:
2640:
people leave deteriorating neighborhoods, the most disadvantaged portions of the population may remain.
2490:
2486:
2454:
2340:
1901:
1726:
1655:
1630:
1535:
1460:
1420:
1380:
1365:
1330:
1303:
1230:
1020:
970:
867:
820:
742:
703:
677:
624:
456:
401:
396:
271:
221:
160:
39:
31:
5600:
Sparks, Richard F., "A Critique of Marxist Criminology." Crime and Justice. Vol. 2 (1980). JSTOR. 169.
5591:
Sparks, Richard F., "A Critique of Marxist Criminology." Crime and Justice. Vol. 2 (1980). JSTOR. 165.
4518:
Garland, David (2002). "Of Crimes and Criminals". In Maguire, Mike; Rod Morgan; Robert Reiner (eds.).
3351:
It was later that Naegler and Salman introduced feminist theory to cultural criminology and discussed
7143:
6875:
6715:
6688:
6683:
6580:
5750:
Ellis, Justin R. Policing Legitimacy: Social Media, Scandal and Sexual Citizenship (2021). Springer.
5643:
Richards, Stephen C.; Ross, Jeffrey Ian (2001). "Introducing the New School of Convict Criminology".
3548:
3527:
3371:
3115:
2962:
2859:
2684:
2571:
2529:
2506:
2339:(1835–1909), an Italian sociologist working in the late 19th century, is often called "the father of
2150:
2146:
1999:
1896:
1750:
1698:
1665:
1635:
1470:
1440:
1430:
1360:
1345:
1140:
1135:
990:
985:
975:
927:
887:
882:
845:
789:
698:
592:
426:
334:
241:
236:
226:
175:
5409:
3692:
1125:
74:
7055:
7049:
6975:
6890:
6835:
6710:
6575:
6521:
5880:
3621:
3259:
3223:
3192:
3169:
2914:
2604:
2360:
2047:
2003:
1770:
1515:
1415:
1253:
1240:
1035:
912:
835:
825:
629:
406:
286:
3757:
Braithwaite, J. (1 March 2000). "The New Regulatory State and the Transformation of Criminology".
3102:
or reduction measures can be devised to increase the effort required to commit the crime, such as
2117:
2106:
7000:
6565:
6392:
6205:
6140:
6091:
5943:
5901:
5799:
5652:
5524:
5489:
5422:
5127:
5037:
5002:
4730:
4475:
4433:
4225:
3955:
3943:
3782:
3658:
3647:
3418:
3379:
3057:
2988:
conducted a test which showed that labeling theory affected some youth offenders but not others.
2918:
2855:
2822:
2744:
2712:
2494:
2400:
1938:
1580:
1575:
1495:
1450:
1400:
1370:
1350:
1210:
1187:
1030:
1005:
662:
612:
568:
476:
281:
256:
150:
119:
35:
1846:
4618:
3471:
or dominant class. The more right-wing criminologies tend to posit that there is a consensual
6970:
6965:
6953:
6948:
6820:
6810:
6730:
6673:
6617:
6376:
6346:
6317:
6242:
6128:
6118:
5893:
5841:
5791:
5572:
5547:
5481:
5372:
5289:
5242:
5214:
5150:
5075:
4994:
4890:
4856:
4828:
4803:
4778:
4753:
4661:
4564:
4498:
4381:
4338:
4298:
4260:
4217:
4167:
4109:
4074:
4066:
4031:
3990:
3823:
3774:
3737:
3522:
3480:
2675:
2434:
2309:
2296:
2280:
2101:
2015:
1798:
1762:
1742:
1722:
1680:
1660:
1490:
1480:
1410:
1260:
1205:
922:
693:
563:
504:
170:
89:
5987:"Relative Deprivation in Psychology: Theory & Definition - Video & Lesson Transcript"
5110:
Kelin, Malcolm (March 1986). "Labeling Theory and Delinquency Policy: An Experimental Test".
3718:
Gibson, M. S. (1982). The 'female offender' and the Italian school of criminal anthropology.
3705:
Gibson, M. S. (1982). The 'female offender' and the Italian school of criminal anthropology.
6985:
6830:
6805:
6612:
6602:
6592:
6178:
6064:
5935:
5885:
5833:
5783:
5516:
5473:
5414:
5365:
5119:
5029:
4986:
4941:
4722:
4695:
4467:
4425:
4252:
4209:
4201:
4159:
4101:
4058:
4021:
3982:
3947:
3766:
3626:
3558:
3511:
3506:
3422:
3391:
3208:
3103:
3099:
2985:
2954:
2938:
2722:
2659:
2616:
2536:
2517:
2450:
2396:
2392:
2387:
2063:
2023:
1850:
1810:
1754:
1610:
1565:
1520:
1465:
1405:
1320:
1285:
1235:
688:
634:
145:
4592:
4453:"The Effect of Education on Crime: Evidence from Prison Inmates, Arrests, and Self-Reports"
3310:
To better understand the history of LGBT individuals and the laws put against the community
3095:, one can conclude that the best policy is to maximize the fine and minimize surveillance.
6995:
6762:
6757:
6570:
6429:
6419:
6252:
4416:
Beirne, Piers (March 1987). "Adolphe Quetelet and the Origins of Positivist Criminology".
3641:
3472:
3456:
3345:
3320:
How queer activists have fought against oppressive laws that criminalized LGBT individuals
3195:
has been associated with abnormalities in three principal regulatory systems in the body:
3068:
3035:
2974:
2922:
2751:
2736:
2591:
2482:
2336:
2239:
2079:
1858:
1854:
1838:
1818:
1746:
1734:
1623:
1595:
1540:
1500:
1265:
1215:
1025:
667:
607:
602:
587:
519:
514:
436:
416:
276:
94:
6393:
Adverse childhood experiences, negative emotionality, and pathways to juvenile recidivism
6271:
Bouchard, Jean-Pierre, "Can criminology be considered as a discipline in its own right?"
6287:
Imprisoning Communities: How Mass Incarceration Makes Disadvantaged Neighborhoods Worse.
5866:
Kane, Stephanie C. (August 2004). "The Unconventional Methods of Cultural Criminology".
4010:"Examining antisocial behavior through the lens of the five factor model of personality"
3800:
3734:
Sociological Theory and Criminological Research: Views from Europe and the United States
2866:
talks about how the unconscious desire for pain relates to psychoanalysis in his essay,
2386:, membership of subcultures, or low levels of education can predispose people to crime.
7110:
6958:
6870:
6865:
6622:
6543:
6538:
6469:
6264:
Blatier, Catherine (1998), "The Specialized Jurisdiction: A Better Chance for Minors".
5187:
4945:
4914:
4726:
4699:
3986:
3951:
3589:
3460:
3244:, they argued against the biological "positivism" perspective represented by Lombroso,
3118:
have to be tempered and reduced to more modest proposals to be practically applicable.
3080:
3039:
3031:
3001:
2910:
2888:
2851:
2802:
2778:
2664:
2563:
2551:
2543:
2498:
2478:
2474:
2356:
2249:
2235:
2007:
1926:
1842:
1834:
1830:
1826:
1778:
1738:
1325:
1171:
784:
411:
6084:
Criminology and Criminal Justice; Epilogue: Toward a public criminology of state crime
5442:
Reducing Crime and Drug Dealing by Improving Place Management: A Randomized Experiment
5270:
5033:
7137:
7061:
7017:
6980:
6910:
6885:
6795:
6693:
6639:
6634:
6414:
6366:
6334:
6182:
6068:
5905:
5803:
5528:
5131:
4437:
4128:
3959:
3934:
3786:
3616:
3538:
3488:
3448:
3200:
3122:
2997:
2958:
2876:
2863:
2830:
2740:
2633:
2612:
2567:
2502:
2497:", which was identified as the most volatile and subject to disorder. In the 1940s,
2368:
2112:
2055:
1978:
1814:
1802:
1786:
1782:
1708:
1220:
1166:
940:
772:
682:
580:
165:
5947:
5493:
5041:
5006:
4734:
4479:
4229:
4062:
3402:"Rural crime" redirects here. For illegal hunting or capturing of wild animals, see
3386:
measured their personal success by the experience in their units rather than by the
6860:
6800:
6548:
6506:
5335:
Home Office Crime Reduction Website. Tackling Burglary: Market Reduction Approach.
4932:
Wilson, Harriet (1980). "Parental Supervision: A Neglected Aspect of Delinquency".
4256:
3468:
3464:
3383:
3245:
3092:
2942:
2807:
2771:
2760:
2637:
2620:
2559:
2416:
2199:
2070:
formulating hypotheses, and scrutinizing observable trends in a systematic manner.
2027:
1806:
1758:
935:
509:
56:
5310:
4129:"Delinquent Behavior and the Five-Factor Model: Hiding in the Adaptive Landscape?"
2748:
Criminal acts may result when youths conform to norms of the deviant subculture.
6292:
Cohen, A. K. (1965). The Sociology of the Deviant Act: Anomie Theory and Beyond.
5837:
4375:
4185:
Mõttus, René; Guljajev, Juri; Allik, Jüri; Laidra, Kaia; Pullmann, Helle (2012).
3278:, along with state-corporate non-profit criminals, to continue governing people.
3232:(NDC) group. The group was restricted to academics and consisted of 300 members.
7012:
6900:
6661:
6654:
6511:
6169:
clear, todd (6 October 2010). "editorial introduction to public criminologies".
5169:
5123:
3597:
3563:
3484:
3438:
3382:, who was a pioneer of this theory. Stouffer revealed that soldiers fighting in
3360:
3352:
3255:
3072:
2950:
2826:
2767:
minority groups, without knowing for sure if they had committed a crime or not.
2755:
2658:
Strain theory, also known as Mertonian Anomie, advanced by American sociologist
2608:
2521:
2458:
2424:
2097:
2039:
1822:
1794:
1766:
1650:
1605:
1310:
767:
672:
619:
486:
441:
155:
5464:
Ellis, Lee (2005). "A Theory Explaining Biological Correlates of Criminality".
4471:
4163:
4105:
2445:
Differential association (sub-cultural) posits that people learn crime through
2343:". He was one of the key contributors to biological positivism and founded the
376:
7105:
7066:
6905:
6747:
6705:
6649:
6132:
5671:
5395:
Cohen, Lawrence; Marcus Felson (1979). "Social Change and Crime Rate Trends".
3603:
3583:
3579:
3532:
3479:
There have been moves in contemporary criminological theory to move away from
3442:
3356:
3237:
3111:
3022:
2818:
2404:
2352:
2262:
2254:
2035:
2031:
1921:
1355:
1275:
1200:
1000:
995:
801:
251:
246:
195:
17:
5939:
5897:
5889:
5845:
5795:
5787:
5485:
5477:
4264:
4221:
4171:
4113:
4070:
4035:
3994:
3778:
3064:
and inhumane treatments, as he did not consider them as rational deterrents.
2937:" of the powerful groups. Later developments in this set of theories were by
2351:" criminal tendencies. This approach, whose influence came via the theory of
6840:
6737:
6666:
6560:
6533:
5751:
4990:
3314:
3214:
Biosocial approaches remain very controversial within the scientific field.
3196:
2930:
2854:
is a psychological theory (and therapy) which regards the unconscious mind,
2679:
2420:
2043:
2019:
2011:
1774:
1730:
1117:
639:
575:
6112:
4998:
4537:
4078:
3770:
2733:
away from the mainstream to form their own values and meanings about life.
6055:
Uggen, Christopher; Inderbitzin, Michelle (2010). "Public Criminologies".
5520:
4452:
3378:
Relative deprivation was originally utilized in the field of sociology by
2427:
approach to address social questions and poverty, and gave his studies in
5739:
5727:
3553:
3403:
3263:
3153:
3049:
2276:
2258:), and other early criminological philosophers proposed ideas including:
2074:
779:
726:
368:
5656:
3822:. Translated by Richard Davies. Cambridge University Press. p. 64.
2271:
Severity of punishment should be determined by actual harms, not intent.
6587:
6354:
6082:
Kramer, Michalowski, J. Chambliss, Ronald C., Raymond, William (2013).
5426:
3061:
2555:
2383:
2348:
1161:
840:
810:
52:
5962:"Relative Deprivation definition | Psychology Glossary | alleydog.com"
5774:
Hayward, Keith J.; Young, Jock (August 2004). "Cultural Criminology".
3455:, albeit that some laws may be controversial, e.g. laws that prohibit
3421:
is a strand within criminology closely tied to ideas associated with "
3323:
To conduct research and use it as a form of activism through education
3048:(On Crimes and Punishments, 1763–1764), Beccaria advocated a rational
2461:, many individuals learn crime, and crime rates swell in those areas.
6433:
4026:
4009:
2670:
2619:
often fails to develop, which in turn makes it difficult to maintain
757:
391:
5418:
4205:
2770:
British sub-cultural theorists focused more heavily on the issue of
2674:, but it meant something slightly different for him than it did for
6301:"Risky Business: Harlem Pimps' Work Decisions and Economic Returns"
6232:
Why Do Criminals Offend? A General Theory of Crime and Delinquency.
4429:
6438:
6381:
Great American City: Chicago and the Enduring Neighborhood Effect.
5311:"Stolen Goods Markets | Center for Problem-Oriented Policing"
3653:
3452:
2884:
1995:
1969:
752:
533:
6329:
Seductions of crime: Moral and sensual attractions in doing evil.
5020:
Gilman, Sander (2008). "Freud and the Making of Psychoanalysis".
3207:. Abnormalities in these systems also are known to be induced by
2535:
Other researchers suggested an added social-psychological link.
4563:(3rd ed.). Chicago: J.B. Lippincott Company. pp. 4–8.
4536:. Center for Spatially Integrated Social Science. Archived from
3303:
2692:
2688:
2195:
6442:
6313:
Global Criminology: Crime and Victimization in a Globalized Era
4380:(12 ed.). Cengage Learning (published 2015). p. 135.
2862:, as the key drivers of behavior, especially deviant behavior.
6629:
3271:
3053:
2168:
2051:
5672:"From Corrections to College: The Value of a Convict's Voice"
3858:"On Crimes and Punishments | Office of Justice Programs"
2883:, looks for evidence in the physical mechanisms of the human
1981:
6316:. Boca Raton, Florida: CRC Press, Taylor and Francis Group.
6013:"Whether Rich Or Poor, Feeling Deprived Makes Us Steal More"
3844:"What is Criminology? The Study of Crime and Criminal Minds"
5569:
Hereditary: The Persistence of Biological Theories of Crime
4977:
Rosnick, Phillida (2017). "Mental Pain and Social Trauma".
4619:"Criminology, the Study of Crime, Causes, and Consequences"
3211:, either severe, acute stress or chronic low-grade stress.
1994:
meaning: "word, reason") is the interdisciplinary study of
6343:
Not Just Deserts. A Republican Theory of Criminal Justice.
5147:
Why They Kill: The Discoveries of a Maverick Criminologist
4008:
Miller, Joshua D.; Lynam, Donald; Leukefeld, Carl (2003).
2729:, sub-cultural theorists focused on small cultural groups
2473:
arose in the early twentieth century, through the work of
4333:
McLennan, Gregor; Jennie Pawson; Mike Fitzgerald (1980).
3451:
are enacted by legislatures and reflect current cultural
5544:
Conviction: the making and unmaking of the violent brain
4495:
City Limits: Crime, Consumerism and the Urban Experience
2611:. These neighborhoods also tend to have high population
5824:
Ferrell, Jeff (1 August 1999). "Cultural criminology".
2002:. Criminology is a multidisciplinary field in both the
3807:. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. 2021.
3302:
Queer criminology is a field of study that focuses on
2234:
arose in the mid-18th century and reflects ideas from
2542:
Theoretical perspectives used in criminology include
3873:
The New Criminology: For a Social Theory of Deviance
7042:
7026:
6773:
6499:
6355:
Republican Criminology and Victim Advocacy: Comment
6266:
International Journal of Law, Policy and the Family
5364:
2489:. In the 1920s, Park and Burgess identified five
5630:State Crime: Governments, Violence and Corruption
4534:"Henry Mayhew: London Labour and the London Poor"
4335:Crime and Society: Readings in History and Theory
4214:20.500.11820/e509a56e-5d66-4411-938c-ea6d41764ddb
3887:"Classifying Crime: Major Schools of Criminology"
3258:is a distinct field of crimes that is studied by
2996:At the other side of the spectrum, criminologist
2161:, Queer criminology, and others discussed below.
5546:. Stanford (Calif.): Stanford University press.
2493:that often exist as cities grow, including the "
2415:on their studies of crime and its distribution.
2111:In the late 19th century, French anthropologist
5924:"Cultural Criminology and Gender Consciousness"
4750:Criminology: Theories, Patterns, and Typologies
4520:The Oxford Handbook of Criminology, 3rd edition
4377:Criminology: Theories, Patterns, and Typologies
3930:"Positivism, Empiricism and Criminology Theory"
3228:In 1968, young British sociologists formed the
2793:Another approach is made by the social bond or
2524:, such as family and schools. This results in
2275:This school developed during a major reform in
5232:
5230:
4681:
4679:
4677:
4404:results, a violation of the scientific method.
6454:
3928:Weatherburn, Don; Findlay, Mark (July 1985).
3820:On Crimes and Punishments, and Other Writings
3463:and citizen are non-consensual and, as such,
3127:crime prevention through environmental design
2010:, which draws primarily upon the research of
1946:
1090:
342:
8:
6210:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
6096:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
4966:. Peterborough, Ontario: Broadview Editions.
2407:, with crowded cities producing more crime.
27:Study of crime and criminal actions/behavior
6391:Wolff, Kevin & Baglivio, M. T. (2017).
5670:Leyva, Martin; Bickel, Christopher (2010).
4979:The International Journal of Psychoanalysis
4656:Shaw, Clifford R.; McKay, Henry D. (1942).
1972:
6461:
6447:
6439:
6145:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
6114:Routledge handbook of public criminologies
5204:
5202:
5178:, vol. 76 (2), March–April 1968, p.196-217
4846:
4844:
3205:hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical axis
2198:. Please do not remove this message until
1953:
1939:
1124:
1108:
1097:
1083:
731:
360:
349:
335:
73:
62:
6196:Barak-Glantz, I.L., E.H. Johnson (1983).
5879:
5752:https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-73519-7
5408:
5209:Cornish, Derek; Ronald V. Clarke (1986).
4025:
3180:. Various theoretical frameworks such as
3121:Such rational choice theories, linked to
2218:Learn how and when to remove this message
7174:Interdisciplinary subfields of sociology
6423:) is being considered for deletion. See
6310:Jaishankar, K., & Ronel, N. (2013).
5390:
5388:
5190:, "The Optimum Enforcement of Laws", in
3021:
2194:Relevant discussion may be found on the
46:
5571:. Stanford: Stanford University Press.
5196:, vol.78 (3), May–June 1970, p. 526–536
4851:Cloward, Richard; Ohlin, Lloyd (1960).
3805:The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
3684:
3499:Areas of study in criminology include:
3030:Rational choice theory is based on the
2721:and strain theory, and also drawing on
2441:Differential association (sub-cultural)
2058:, as well as the processes that define
1116:
809:
363:
294:
203:
132:
81:
65:
6203:
6138:
6111:Henne, Kathryn E.; Shah, Rita (2020).
6089:
5740:https://doi.org/10.51952/9781529228731
5728:https://doi.org/10.51952/9781529228731
5294:: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (
5287:
4522:. Oxford University Press. p. 21.
4303:: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (
4296:
4152:Personality and Individual Differences
4094:Personality and Individual Differences
3544:The International Crime Victims Survey
3375:they have been wrongly disadvantaged.
2881:Freud and the Making of Psychoanalysis
2512:Chicago school sociologists adopted a
6383:Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
5922:Naegler, Laura; Salman, Sara (2016).
5917:
5915:
5861:
5859:
5857:
5855:
5819:
5817:
5815:
5813:
5769:
5767:
5765:
5763:
5761:
5759:
5344:from the original on 12 December 2009
4957:
4955:
4285:from the original on 27 December 2015
2905:Symbolic interactionism draws on the
2683:Others will retreat or drop out into
7:
7092:
6387:Wikibooks: Introduction to sociology
6363:, Vol. 28, No. 4, pp. 765–776).
4658:Juvenile Delinquency and Urban Areas
4591:. Cullen & Agnew. Archived from
3018:Rational choice theory (criminology)
2678:. Merton saw the term as meaning a
6357:for article concerning the book in
5705:Convict Criminology: Inside and Out
5692:from the original on 9 August 2017.
4660:. The University of Chicago Press.
4374:Siegel, Larry J. (1 January 2015).
3669:Quantitative methods in criminology
3664:Qualitative research in criminology
3182:evolutionary neuroandrogenic theory
3034:, classical school philosophies of
6345:New York: Oxford University Press
6234:New York: Oxford University Press.
5509:Journal of Offender Rehabilitation
4946:10.1093/oxfordjournals.bjc.a047169
4775:Social Theory and Social Structure
4727:10.1111/j.1745-9125.2001.tb00932.x
4700:10.1111/j.1745-9125.1988.tb00854.x
3987:10.1111/j.1745-9125.2001.tb00940.x
3952:10.1111/j.1748-121X.1985.tb00608.x
3632:List of crime-related publications
2411:and John Glyde read papers to the
2382:suggests societal factors such as
2096:was most likely coined in 1885 by
2078:develops; second, it analyzes the
204:Subfields and other major theories
38:. For the true crime podcast, see
25:
6427:to help reach a consensus. ›
5628:Green, Penny; Ward, Tony (2004).
5440:Eck, John; Julie Wartell (1997).
5317:from the original on 21 June 2010
4752:. Cengage Learning. p. 191.
4586:"Criminological Theory Summaries"
4362:. Thomson-Wadsworth. p. 139.
3327:Legitimacy of Queer criminology:
2825:. In addition, theorists such as
2430:London Labour and the London Poor
2285:legal system in the United States
7115:
7104:
7091:
7080:
7079:
6371:Crime, Law and Social Change, 61
6289:Oxford: Oxford University Press.
6183:10.1111/j.1745-9133.2010.00665.x
6069:10.1111/j.1745-9133.2010.00666.x
5444:. National Institute of Justice.
5099:. Nelson Thornes. pp. 154+.
3596:
3582:
2763:-paying jobs available to them.
2173:
1920:
452:Risk & actuarial criminology
375:
7034:List of social science journals
6171:Criminology & Public Policy
6057:Criminology & Public Policy
5466:European Journal of Criminology
4827:. University of Chicago Press.
4322:. Thomson-Wadsworth. p. 7.
4194:European Journal of Personality
4133:Individual Differences Research
4127:Wiebe, Richard (1 April 2004).
4063:10.1016/j.comppsych.2004.03.013
3519:Criminal careers and desistance
3085:The Optimum Enforcement of Laws
2615:. With high turnover, informal
2449:. This theory was advocated by
2115:used the analogous French term
2087:History of academic criminology
1506:Peace, war, and social conflict
6991:Science and technology studies
5059:. University of Chicago Press.
4934:British Journal of Criminology
4257:10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2011.03.004
3893:. 21 July 2017. Archived from
3891:Southeastern University Online
3871:Taylor; Walton; Young (1973).
3759:British Journal of Criminology
3429:Types and definitions of crime
2872:Mental Pain and Social Trauma,
2868:Beyond the Pleasure Principle,
2781:have explored the impact of a
2371:were not used in his studies.
30:For the academic journal, see
1:
5172:, "Crime and Punishment", in
5112:Criminal Justice and Behavior
5055:Mead, George Herbert (1934).
5034:10.1016/S0140-6736(08)61746-8
4964:Beyond the Pleasure Principle
4825:Social Sources of Delinquency
4418:American Journal of Sociology
3732:Deflem, Mathieu, ed. (2006).
3576:Index of criminology articles
3125:, have been at the basics of
2413:Statistical Society of London
2345:Italian school of criminology
2283:, and the development of the
6294:American Sociological Review
6273:L'Evolution Psychiatrique 78
6237:Barak, Gregg (ed.). (1998).
5838:10.1146/annurev.soc.25.1.395
5397:American Sociological Review
5239:Situational Crime Prevention
5193:Journal of Political Economy
5175:Journal of Political Economy
4921:. Stanford University Press.
4642:Hester, S., Eglin, P. 1992,
3535:of criminal justice agencies
3230:National Deviance Conference
3056:, and advocated against the
3038:, which were popularized by
2835:techniques of neutralization
2165:Origins and Classical School
34:. For the Raekwon song, see
6397:Crime & Delinquency, 63
6299:Horning, A. et al. (2020).
5338:"Crime prevention – GOV.UK"
5124:10.1177/0093854886013001004
4853:Delinquency and Opportunity
4245:Journal of Criminal Justice
3720:Journal of European Studies
3707:Journal of European Studies
3612:Anthropological criminology
2945:, in the mid-20th century.
2200:conditions to do so are met
7195:
5826:Annual Review of Sociology
5679:Western Criminology Review
5237:Clarke, Ronald V. (1992).
4889:. Transaction Publishers.
4559:Sutherland, E. H. (1939).
4493:Hayward, Keith J. (2004).
4472:10.1257/000282804322970751
4337:. Routledge. p. 311.
4164:10.1016/j.paid.2014.04.010
4106:10.1016/j.paid.2004.06.016
3693:"Etymology of Criminology"
3573:
3475:between state and citizen.
3401:
3221:
3144:
3015:
2972:
2949:developed the concept of "
2898:
2847:Psychoanalytic criminology
2844:
2710:
2651:
2399:to suggest a link between
1982:
1177:Human environmental impact
432:Expressive function of law
29:
7075:
6476:
5567:Larregue, Julien (2024).
5095:Slattery, Martin (2003).
4919:A General Theory of Crime
4561:Principles of Criminology
4497:. Routledge. p. 89.
4358:Siegel, Larry J. (2003).
4318:Siegel, Larry J. (2003).
3818:Beccaria, Cesare (1764).
3736:. Elsevier. p. 279.
3268:environmental degradation
3131:Market Reduction Approach
2783:Southern culture of honor
2654:Strain theory (sociology)
2586:Social structure theories
2245:On Crimes and Punishments
2060:administration of justice
6425:templates for discussion
6360:Law & Society Review
6258:Dei delitti e delle pene
5940:10.1177/1557085116660609
5890:10.1177/1362480604044611
5788:10.1177/1362480604044608
5542:Rollins, Oliver (2021).
5478:10.1177/1477370805054098
5145:Rhodes, Richard (2000).
4885:Hirschi, Travis (1969).
4460:American Economic Review
4360:Criminology, 8th edition
4320:Criminology, 8th edition
4051:Comprehensive Psychiatry
3045:Dei delitti e delle pene
2935:self-fulfilling prophecy
2785:on violent crime rates.
2739:tied anomie theory with
2727:differential association
2083:public social agencies.
1271:Structural functionalism
422:Differential association
115:Structural functionalism
100:Differential association
6679:international relations
6239:Integrative criminology
6198:Comparative criminology
5868:Theoretical Criminology
5776:Theoretical Criminology
5367:Crime and Everyday Life
5363:Felson, Marcus (1994).
5070:Becker, Howard (1963).
4991:10.1111/1745-8315.12165
4962:Freud, Sigmund (2011).
4911:Gottfredson, Michael R.
4823:Kornhauser, R. (1978).
4773:Merton, Robert (1957).
4451:Lochner, Lance (2004).
3288:criminal justice system
3178:evolutionary psychology
3147:Routine activity theory
3141:Routine activity theory
3098:With this perspective,
2901:Symbolic interactionism
2895:Symbolic interactionism
2580:evolutionary psychology
2380:Sociological positivism
2375:Sociological positivist
2363:, has been superseded.
1291:Symbolic interactionism
1186:Industrial revolutions
482:Symbolic interactionism
125:Symbolic interactionism
105:Integrative criminology
7006:Quantum social science
6331:New York: Basic Books.
5632:. London: Pluto Press.
5211:The Reasoning Criminal
5097:Key Ideas In Sociology
4798:Cohen, Albert (1955).
4748:Siegel, Larry (2015).
4401:biological determinism
3722:, 12(47), 155-165.
3709:, 12(47), 155-165.
3637:List of criminologists
3187:genetics of aggression
3174:personality psychology
3027:
3012:Rational choice theory
2982:deviancy amplification
2817:Social bonds, through
2576:personality psychology
2526:social disorganization
2155:postmodern criminology
2048:social anthropologists
1973:
1281:Social constructionism
462:Social disorganization
110:Rational choice theory
60:
7043:Other categorizations
6896:International studies
6881:History of technology
6816:Communication studies
6699:public administration
6285:Clear, T. R. (2009).
6086:. Taylor and Francis.
5521:10.1300/J076v36n01_04
5241:. Harrow and Heston.
5057:Mind Self and Society
4887:Causes of Delinquency
4584:Anderson, Ferracuti.
3276:state-corporate crime
3165:Biosocial criminology
3025:
2795:social control theory
2777:Sociologists such as
2701:general strain theory
2687:subcultures (such as
2642:William Julius Wilson
2487:University of Chicago
1656:Conversation analysis
1231:Social stratification
971:Biosocial criminology
678:Uniform Crime Reports
397:Biosocial criminology
222:Biosocial criminology
161:Uniform Crime Reports
50:
40:Criminology (podcast)
32:Criminology (journal)
7154:Behavioural sciences
7149:Academic disciplines
6876:Historical sociology
6305:Deviant Behavior, 21
5928:Feminist Criminology
4646:, London, Routledge.
4644:A Sociology of Crime
3942:(2). New York City:
3771:10.1093/bjc/40.2.222
3549:Juvenile delinquency
3372:Relative deprivation
3367:Relative deprivation
3248:and Gordon Trasler.
3156:abatement measures.
3116:classical liberalism
3077:Crime and Punishment
2963:football hooliganism
2691:, or what he calls "
2572:behavioural genetics
2507:juvenile delinquents
2323:Criminal personality
2159:feminist criminology
2151:cultural criminology
2147:critical criminology
2016:political scientists
1977:, "accusation", and
846:Solitary confinement
7169:Forensic psychology
7164:Criminal psychology
7056:Geisteswissenschaft
7050:Behavioral sciences
6976:Political sociology
6891:Information science
6836:Development studies
6268:. pp. 115–127.
5651:(1 (83)): 177–190.
5213:. Springer-Verlag.
5028:(9652): 1799–1800.
4623:The Balance Careers
4014:Aggressive Behavior
3897:on 12 November 2019
3622:Forensic psychology
3260:Marxist criminology
3242:The New Criminology
3224:Marxist criminology
3193:Aggressive behavior
3170:behavioral genetics
2957:in the UK in 1964,
2915:George Herbert Mead
2605:population turnover
2361:theory of evolution
2187:of this section is
1241:Social cycle theory
1112:Part of a series on
1036:Radical criminology
407:Collective efficacy
287:Radical criminology
51:Three women in the
7111:Society portal
6598:auxiliary sciences
6377:Sampson, Robert J.
5703:Earle, R. (2016).
5276:on 8 December 2010
4598:on 20 October 2013
3944:Palgrave Macmillan
3659:Public criminology
3648:The Mask of Sanity
3419:Public criminology
3380:Samuel A. Stouffer
3236:, Paul Walton and
3028:
2919:subcultural theory
2856:repressed memories
2745:reaction formation
2713:Subcultural theory
2495:zone of transition
2483:urban sociologists
2401:population density
2129:Schools of thought
2080:causation of crime
2024:legal sociologists
1927:Society portal
1550:History of science
1531:Race and ethnicity
1211:Social environment
120:Subcultural theory
61:
36:Criminology (song)
7131:
7130:
6971:Political economy
6966:Political ecology
6821:Community studies
6811:Cognitive science
6774:Interdisciplinary
6674:Political science
6351:978-0-19-824056-3
6339:Braithwaite, John
6327:Katz, J. (1988).
6124:978-1-351-06610-5
5553:978-1-5036-0701-9
5378:978-0-8039-9029-6
5248:978-1-881798-68-2
5220:978-0-387-96272-6
5156:978-0-375-40249-4
5081:978-0-684-83635-5
4896:978-0-7658-0900-1
4862:978-0-02-905590-8
4834:978-0-226-45113-8
4809:978-0-02-905770-4
4784:978-0-02-921130-4
4667:978-0-226-75125-2
4504:978-1-904385-03-5
4344:978-0-415-02755-7
3829:978-0-521-40203-3
3743:978-0-7623-1322-8
3523:Domestic violence
3516:Criminal behavior
3481:liberal pluralism
3203:systems, and the
3129:and underpin the
2879:, in the article
2801:become criminal.
2779:Raymond D. Gastil
2310:social positivism
2297:Positivist school
2281:French Revolution
2252:(inventor of the
2228:
2227:
2220:
2102:Raffaele Garofalo
2000:deviant behaviour
1963:
1962:
1681:Social experiment
1561:Social psychology
1206:Social complexity
1107:
1106:
853:
852:
790:Prisoners' rights
694:Positivist school
359:
358:
171:Positivist school
16:(Redirected from
7186:
7179:1880s neologisms
7119:
7109:
7108:
7095:
7094:
7083:
7082:
6986:Regional science
6831:Cultural studies
6806:Business studies
6463:
6456:
6449:
6440:
6399:(12), 1495–1521.
6253:Beccaria, Cesare
6216:
6215:
6209:
6201:
6193:
6187:
6186:
6166:
6160:
6157:
6151:
6150:
6144:
6136:
6117:. New York, NY.
6108:
6102:
6101:
6095:
6087:
6079:
6073:
6072:
6052:
6046:
6043:
6037:
6034:
6028:
6027:
6025:
6023:
6011:DiSalvo, David.
6008:
6002:
6001:
5999:
5997:
5983:
5977:
5976:
5974:
5972:
5966:www.alleydog.com
5958:
5952:
5951:
5919:
5910:
5909:
5883:
5863:
5850:
5849:
5821:
5808:
5807:
5771:
5754:
5748:
5742:
5736:
5730:
5724:
5718:
5715:
5709:
5708:
5700:
5694:
5693:
5691:
5676:
5667:
5661:
5660:
5640:
5634:
5633:
5625:
5619:
5616:
5610:
5607:
5601:
5598:
5592:
5589:
5583:
5582:
5564:
5558:
5557:
5539:
5533:
5532:
5504:
5498:
5497:
5461:
5455:
5452:
5446:
5445:
5437:
5431:
5430:
5412:
5392:
5383:
5382:
5370:
5360:
5354:
5353:
5351:
5349:
5333:
5327:
5326:
5324:
5322:
5313:. January 2010.
5306:
5300:
5299:
5293:
5285:
5283:
5281:
5275:
5269:. Archived from
5268:
5259:
5253:
5252:
5234:
5225:
5224:
5206:
5197:
5185:
5179:
5167:
5161:
5160:
5142:
5136:
5135:
5107:
5101:
5100:
5092:
5086:
5085:
5067:
5061:
5060:
5052:
5046:
5045:
5017:
5011:
5010:
4985:(6): 1200–1202.
4974:
4968:
4967:
4959:
4950:
4949:
4929:
4923:
4922:
4907:
4901:
4900:
4882:
4876:
4873:
4867:
4866:
4848:
4839:
4838:
4820:
4814:
4813:
4795:
4789:
4788:
4770:
4764:
4763:
4745:
4739:
4738:
4710:
4704:
4703:
4683:
4672:
4671:
4653:
4647:
4640:
4634:
4633:
4631:
4629:
4617:Roufa, Timothy.
4614:
4608:
4607:
4605:
4603:
4597:
4590:
4581:
4575:
4574:
4556:
4550:
4549:
4547:
4545:
4530:
4524:
4523:
4515:
4509:
4508:
4490:
4484:
4483:
4457:
4448:
4442:
4441:
4424:(5): 1140–1169.
4413:
4407:
4406:
4396:
4394:
4370:
4364:
4363:
4355:
4349:
4348:
4330:
4324:
4323:
4315:
4309:
4308:
4302:
4294:
4292:
4290:
4275:
4269:
4268:
4240:
4234:
4233:
4191:
4182:
4176:
4175:
4147:
4141:
4140:
4124:
4118:
4117:
4089:
4083:
4082:
4046:
4040:
4039:
4029:
4027:10.1002/ab.10064
4005:
3999:
3998:
3970:
3964:
3963:
3925:
3919:
3913:
3907:
3906:
3904:
3902:
3883:
3877:
3876:
3868:
3862:
3861:
3854:
3848:
3847:
3840:
3834:
3833:
3815:
3809:
3808:
3801:"Jeremy Bentham"
3797:
3791:
3790:
3754:
3748:
3747:
3729:
3723:
3716:
3710:
3703:
3697:
3696:
3689:
3627:Forensic science
3606:
3601:
3600:
3592:
3587:
3586:
3559:Sociology of law
3528:Deviant behavior
3512:Crime statistics
3507:Crime prevention
3423:public sociology
3392:absolute poverty
3160:Biosocial theory
3104:target hardening
3100:crime prevention
3083:'s 1970 article
3075:'s 1965 article
2955:Mods and Rockers
2723:Edwin Sutherland
2623:in a community.
2617:social structure
2537:Edwin Sutherland
2530:deviant behavior
2518:social structure
2503:Clifford R. Shaw
2491:concentric zones
2451:Edwin Sutherland
2397:crime statistics
2393:Rawson W. Rawson
2388:Adolphe Quetelet
2232:Classical school
2223:
2216:
2212:
2209:
2203:
2177:
2176:
2169:
2064:criminal justice
1985:
1984:
1976:
1955:
1948:
1941:
1925:
1924:
1676:Network analysis
1566:Sociocybernetics
1556:Social movements
1286:Social darwinism
1236:Social structure
1128:
1109:
1099:
1092:
1085:
732:
689:Crime statistics
615:
379:
361:
351:
344:
337:
146:Crime statistics
77:
63:
21:
7194:
7193:
7189:
7188:
7187:
7185:
7184:
7183:
7159:Social sciences
7134:
7133:
7132:
7127:
7103:
7071:
7038:
7022:
6996:Science studies
6780:Administration
6769:
6495:
6472:
6470:Social sciences
6467:
6428:
6409:
6403:
6280:Social Problems
6275:(2013) 343–349.
6224:
6219:
6202:
6195:
6194:
6190:
6168:
6167:
6163:
6158:
6154:
6137:
6125:
6110:
6109:
6105:
6088:
6081:
6080:
6076:
6054:
6053:
6049:
6044:
6040:
6035:
6031:
6021:
6019:
6010:
6009:
6005:
5995:
5993:
5985:
5984:
5980:
5970:
5968:
5960:
5959:
5955:
5921:
5920:
5913:
5865:
5864:
5853:
5823:
5822:
5811:
5773:
5772:
5757:
5749:
5745:
5737:
5733:
5725:
5721:
5716:
5712:
5707:. Policy Press.
5702:
5701:
5697:
5689:
5674:
5669:
5668:
5664:
5642:
5641:
5637:
5627:
5626:
5622:
5617:
5613:
5608:
5604:
5599:
5595:
5590:
5586:
5579:
5566:
5565:
5561:
5554:
5541:
5540:
5536:
5506:
5505:
5501:
5463:
5462:
5458:
5453:
5449:
5439:
5438:
5434:
5419:10.2307/2094589
5410:10.1.1.476.3696
5394:
5393:
5386:
5379:
5362:
5361:
5357:
5347:
5345:
5336:
5334:
5330:
5320:
5318:
5309:
5307:
5303:
5286:
5279:
5277:
5273:
5266:
5264:"Archived copy"
5262:
5260:
5256:
5249:
5236:
5235:
5228:
5221:
5208:
5207:
5200:
5186:
5182:
5168:
5164:
5157:
5144:
5143:
5139:
5109:
5108:
5104:
5094:
5093:
5089:
5082:
5069:
5068:
5064:
5054:
5053:
5049:
5019:
5018:
5014:
4976:
4975:
4971:
4961:
4960:
4953:
4931:
4930:
4926:
4915:Hirschi, Travis
4909:
4908:
4904:
4897:
4884:
4883:
4879:
4874:
4870:
4863:
4850:
4849:
4842:
4835:
4822:
4821:
4817:
4810:
4800:Delinquent Boys
4797:
4796:
4792:
4785:
4772:
4771:
4767:
4760:
4747:
4746:
4742:
4712:
4711:
4707:
4685:
4684:
4675:
4668:
4655:
4654:
4650:
4641:
4637:
4627:
4625:
4616:
4615:
4611:
4601:
4599:
4595:
4588:
4583:
4582:
4578:
4571:
4558:
4557:
4553:
4543:
4541:
4532:
4531:
4527:
4517:
4516:
4512:
4505:
4492:
4491:
4487:
4455:
4450:
4449:
4445:
4415:
4414:
4410:
4392:
4390:
4388:
4373:
4371:
4367:
4357:
4356:
4352:
4345:
4332:
4331:
4327:
4317:
4316:
4312:
4295:
4288:
4286:
4279:"Archived copy"
4277:
4276:
4272:
4242:
4241:
4237:
4206:10.1002/per.820
4189:
4184:
4183:
4179:
4149:
4148:
4144:
4126:
4125:
4121:
4091:
4090:
4086:
4048:
4047:
4043:
4007:
4006:
4002:
3972:
3971:
3967:
3927:
3926:
3922:
3914:
3910:
3900:
3898:
3885:
3884:
3880:
3870:
3869:
3865:
3856:
3855:
3851:
3842:
3841:
3837:
3830:
3817:
3816:
3812:
3799:
3798:
3794:
3756:
3755:
3751:
3744:
3731:
3730:
3726:
3717:
3713:
3704:
3700:
3691:
3690:
3686:
3682:
3677:
3642:Social cohesion
3602:
3595:
3588:
3581:
3578:
3572:
3497:
3473:social contract
3431:
3416:
3407:
3400:
3369:
3346:social dynamics
3341:
3300:
3284:
3226:
3220:
3162:
3149:
3143:
3069:James Q. Wilson
3036:Cesare Beccaria
3026:Cesare Beccaria
3020:
3014:
2994:
2977:
2975:Labeling theory
2971:
2969:Labeling theory
2923:conflict theory
2903:
2897:
2849:
2843:
2791:
2752:Richard Cloward
2737:Albert K. Cohen
2715:
2709:
2656:
2650:
2629:
2600:
2598:Disorganization
2592:conflict theory
2588:
2467:
2443:
2423:methods and an
2409:Joseph Fletcher
2377:
2337:Cesare Lombroso
2334:
2325:
2293:
2240:Cesare Beccaria
2224:
2213:
2207:
2204:
2193:
2178:
2174:
2167:
2131:
2089:
2008:social sciences
1959:
1919:
1912:
1911:
1872:
1862:
1861:
1789:
1715:
1701:
1699:Major theorists
1691:
1690:
1626:
1616:
1615:
1306:
1296:
1295:
1266:Critical theory
1261:Conflict theory
1256:
1246:
1245:
1216:Social equality
1157:
1103:
1074:
1073:
1049:
1041:
1040:
966:Anthropological
956:
948:
947:
863:
855:
854:
729:
719:
718:
668:Critical theory
653:
645:
644:
625:State-corporate
613:
536:
525:
524:
520:Archibald Reiss
515:Cesare Lombroso
500:
499:Major theorists
492:
491:
467:Social learning
447:Rational choice
437:Labeling theory
417:Criminalization
387:
355:
217:Anthropological
95:Criminalization
90:Conflict theory
43:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
7192:
7190:
7182:
7181:
7176:
7171:
7166:
7161:
7156:
7151:
7146:
7136:
7135:
7129:
7128:
7126:
7125:
7113:
7101:
7089:
7076:
7073:
7072:
7070:
7069:
7064:
7059:
7052:
7046:
7044:
7040:
7039:
7037:
7036:
7030:
7028:
7024:
7023:
7021:
7020:
7015:
7010:
7009:
7008:
7003:
6993:
6988:
6983:
6978:
6973:
6968:
6963:
6962:
6961:
6956:
6951:
6943:
6942:
6941:
6939:social science
6936:
6931:
6926:
6921:
6913:
6908:
6903:
6898:
6893:
6888:
6883:
6878:
6873:
6871:Global studies
6868:
6866:Gender studies
6863:
6858:
6857:
6856:
6851:
6849:social science
6845:Environmental
6843:
6838:
6833:
6828:
6823:
6818:
6813:
6808:
6803:
6798:
6793:
6792:
6791:
6786:
6777:
6775:
6771:
6770:
6768:
6767:
6766:
6765:
6760:
6755:
6750:
6745:
6735:
6734:
6733:
6728:
6723:
6718:
6713:
6703:
6702:
6701:
6696:
6691:
6686:
6681:
6671:
6670:
6669:
6659:
6658:
6657:
6652:
6647:
6642:
6637:
6627:
6626:
6625:
6620:
6615:
6610:
6605:
6600:
6595:
6585:
6584:
6583:
6578:
6573:
6568:
6558:
6557:
6556:
6551:
6546:
6544:macroeconomics
6541:
6539:microeconomics
6531:
6530:
6529:
6524:
6519:
6514:
6503:
6501:
6497:
6496:
6494:
6493:
6488:
6483:
6477:
6474:
6473:
6468:
6466:
6465:
6458:
6451:
6443:
6437:
6436:
6412:
6408:
6407:External links
6405:
6401:
6400:
6389:
6384:
6374:
6367:Pontell, Henry
6364:
6335:Pettit, Philip
6332:
6325:
6308:
6297:
6290:
6283:
6276:
6269:
6262:
6250:
6235:
6223:
6220:
6218:
6217:
6188:
6177:(4): 721–724.
6161:
6152:
6123:
6103:
6074:
6063:(4): 725–749.
6047:
6038:
6029:
6003:
5978:
5953:
5934:(4): 354–374.
5911:
5881:10.1.1.203.812
5874:(3): 303–321.
5851:
5832:(1): 395–418.
5809:
5782:(3): 259–273.
5755:
5743:
5731:
5719:
5710:
5695:
5662:
5645:Social Justice
5635:
5620:
5611:
5602:
5593:
5584:
5578:978-1503637764
5577:
5559:
5552:
5534:
5515:(1–4): 67–87.
5499:
5472:(3): 287–315.
5456:
5447:
5432:
5403:(4): 588–608.
5384:
5377:
5371:. Pine Forge.
5355:
5328:
5301:
5254:
5247:
5226:
5219:
5198:
5188:George Stigler
5180:
5162:
5155:
5137:
5102:
5087:
5080:
5074:. Free Press.
5062:
5047:
5012:
4969:
4951:
4940:(3): 203–235.
4924:
4902:
4895:
4877:
4868:
4861:
4855:. Free Press.
4840:
4833:
4815:
4808:
4802:. Free Press.
4790:
4783:
4777:. Free Press.
4765:
4759:978-1305446090
4758:
4740:
4705:
4694:(4): 519–539.
4673:
4666:
4648:
4635:
4609:
4576:
4569:
4551:
4540:on 15 May 2008
4525:
4510:
4503:
4485:
4443:
4430:10.1086/228630
4408:
4386:
4365:
4350:
4343:
4325:
4310:
4270:
4251:(4): 329–337.
4235:
4177:
4142:
4119:
4084:
4057:(4): 275–280.
4041:
4020:(6): 497–514.
4000:
3981:(4): 765–798.
3965:
3920:
3908:
3878:
3863:
3849:
3835:
3828:
3810:
3792:
3765:(2): 222–238.
3749:
3742:
3724:
3711:
3698:
3683:
3681:
3678:
3676:
3673:
3672:
3671:
3666:
3661:
3656:
3651:
3644:
3639:
3634:
3629:
3624:
3619:
3614:
3608:
3607:
3593:
3590:Society portal
3574:Main article:
3571:
3568:
3567:
3566:
3561:
3556:
3551:
3546:
3541:
3536:
3530:
3525:
3520:
3517:
3514:
3509:
3504:
3496:
3493:
3477:
3476:
3446:
3430:
3427:
3415:
3412:
3399:
3396:
3368:
3365:
3340:
3337:
3325:
3324:
3321:
3318:
3311:
3299:
3296:
3283:
3280:
3222:Main article:
3219:
3216:
3161:
3158:
3145:Main article:
3142:
3139:
3081:George Stigler
3040:Jeremy Bentham
3016:Main article:
3013:
3010:
3002:Richard Rhodes
2993:
2992:Traitor theory
2990:
2973:Main article:
2970:
2967:
2911:Edmund Husserl
2899:Main article:
2896:
2893:
2889:nervous system
2852:Psychoanalysis
2845:Main article:
2842:
2841:Psychoanalytic
2839:
2803:Travis Hirschi
2790:
2787:
2719:Chicago school
2717:Following the
2711:Main article:
2708:
2705:
2665:American Dream
2652:Main article:
2649:
2646:
2628:
2627:Social Ecology
2625:
2599:
2596:
2587:
2584:
2564:systems theory
2552:interactionism
2544:psychoanalysis
2514:social ecology
2479:Ernest Burgess
2475:Robert E. Park
2471:Chicago school
2466:
2463:
2442:
2439:
2435:Émile Durkheim
2376:
2373:
2369:control groups
2357:Charles Darwin
2333:
2330:
2324:
2321:
2292:
2289:
2273:
2272:
2269:
2266:
2250:Jeremy Bentham
2226:
2225:
2181:
2179:
2172:
2166:
2163:
2130:
2127:
2088:
2085:
2050:, scholars of
2040:social workers
1961:
1960:
1958:
1957:
1950:
1943:
1935:
1932:
1931:
1930:
1929:
1914:
1913:
1910:
1909:
1904:
1899:
1894:
1889:
1884:
1879:
1873:
1868:
1867:
1864:
1863:
1717:
1716:
1702:
1697:
1696:
1693:
1692:
1689:
1688:
1683:
1678:
1673:
1668:
1663:
1658:
1653:
1648:
1643:
1638:
1633:
1627:
1622:
1621:
1618:
1617:
1614:
1613:
1608:
1603:
1598:
1593:
1588:
1583:
1578:
1573:
1568:
1563:
1558:
1553:
1543:
1538:
1533:
1528:
1523:
1518:
1513:
1508:
1503:
1498:
1493:
1488:
1483:
1478:
1473:
1468:
1463:
1458:
1453:
1448:
1443:
1438:
1433:
1428:
1423:
1418:
1413:
1408:
1403:
1398:
1393:
1388:
1378:
1373:
1368:
1363:
1358:
1353:
1348:
1343:
1338:
1333:
1328:
1326:Astrosociology
1323:
1318:
1313:
1307:
1302:
1301:
1298:
1297:
1294:
1293:
1288:
1283:
1278:
1273:
1268:
1263:
1257:
1252:
1251:
1248:
1247:
1244:
1243:
1238:
1233:
1228:
1223:
1218:
1213:
1208:
1203:
1198:
1184:
1179:
1174:
1172:Human behavior
1169:
1164:
1158:
1155:
1154:
1151:
1150:
1149:
1148:
1143:
1138:
1130:
1129:
1121:
1120:
1114:
1113:
1105:
1104:
1102:
1101:
1094:
1087:
1079:
1076:
1075:
1072:
1071:
1066:
1061:
1056:
1050:
1047:
1046:
1043:
1042:
1039:
1038:
1033:
1028:
1023:
1021:Organizational
1018:
1013:
1008:
1003:
998:
993:
988:
983:
978:
973:
968:
963:
957:
954:
953:
950:
949:
946:
945:
944:
943:
938:
930:
925:
920:
915:
910:
905:
900:
895:
890:
885:
880:
875:
870:
864:
861:
860:
857:
856:
851:
850:
849:
848:
843:
838:
833:
831:Transformative
828:
823:
815:
814:
807:
806:
805:
804:
799:
797:Rehabilitation
794:
793:
792:
787:
785:Prisoner abuse
777:
776:
775:
770:
765:
755:
750:
748:Incapacitation
745:
740:
730:
725:
724:
721:
720:
717:
716:
711:
706:
701:
696:
691:
686:
680:
675:
670:
665:
660:
654:
651:
650:
647:
646:
643:
642:
637:
632:
627:
622:
617:
610:
605:
600:
595:
590:
585:
584:
583:
573:
572:
571:
566:
558:
557:
556:
551:
546:
537:
531:
530:
527:
526:
523:
522:
517:
512:
507:
505:Émile Durkheim
501:
498:
497:
494:
493:
490:
489:
484:
479:
474:
469:
464:
459:
457:Social control
454:
449:
444:
439:
434:
429:
424:
419:
414:
412:Crime analysis
409:
404:
402:Broken windows
399:
394:
388:
385:
384:
381:
380:
372:
371:
357:
356:
354:
353:
346:
339:
331:
328:
327:
326:
325:
320:
315:
310:
305:
297:
296:
292:
291:
290:
289:
284:
279:
274:
272:Organizational
269:
264:
259:
254:
249:
244:
239:
234:
229:
224:
219:
214:
206:
205:
201:
200:
199:
198:
193:
188:
183:
178:
173:
168:
163:
158:
153:
148:
143:
135:
134:
130:
129:
128:
127:
122:
117:
112:
107:
102:
97:
92:
84:
83:
79:
78:
70:
69:
26:
24:
18:Criminological
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
7191:
7180:
7177:
7175:
7172:
7170:
7167:
7165:
7162:
7160:
7157:
7155:
7152:
7150:
7147:
7145:
7142:
7141:
7139:
7124:
7123:
7118:
7114:
7112:
7107:
7102:
7100:
7099:
7090:
7088:
7087:
7078:
7077:
7074:
7068:
7065:
7063:
7062:Human science
7060:
7058:
7057:
7053:
7051:
7048:
7047:
7045:
7041:
7035:
7032:
7031:
7029:
7025:
7019:
7018:Vegan studies
7016:
7014:
7011:
7007:
7004:
7002:
6999:
6998:
6997:
6994:
6992:
6989:
6987:
6984:
6982:
6981:Public health
6979:
6977:
6974:
6972:
6969:
6967:
6964:
6960:
6957:
6955:
6952:
6950:
6947:
6946:
6944:
6940:
6937:
6935:
6932:
6930:
6927:
6925:
6922:
6920:
6917:
6916:
6915:Philosophies
6914:
6912:
6911:Media studies
6909:
6907:
6904:
6902:
6899:
6897:
6894:
6892:
6889:
6887:
6886:Human ecology
6884:
6882:
6879:
6877:
6874:
6872:
6869:
6867:
6864:
6862:
6859:
6855:
6852:
6850:
6847:
6846:
6844:
6842:
6839:
6837:
6834:
6832:
6829:
6827:
6824:
6822:
6819:
6817:
6814:
6812:
6809:
6807:
6804:
6802:
6799:
6797:
6796:Anthrozoology
6794:
6790:
6787:
6785:
6782:
6781:
6779:
6778:
6776:
6772:
6764:
6761:
6759:
6756:
6754:
6751:
6749:
6746:
6744:
6741:
6740:
6739:
6736:
6732:
6729:
6727:
6724:
6722:
6721:developmental
6719:
6717:
6714:
6712:
6709:
6708:
6707:
6704:
6700:
6697:
6695:
6694:public policy
6692:
6690:
6687:
6685:
6682:
6680:
6677:
6676:
6675:
6672:
6668:
6665:
6664:
6663:
6660:
6656:
6653:
6651:
6648:
6646:
6645:legal systems
6643:
6641:
6640:legal history
6638:
6636:
6635:jurisprudence
6633:
6632:
6631:
6628:
6624:
6621:
6619:
6616:
6614:
6611:
6609:
6606:
6604:
6601:
6599:
6596:
6594:
6591:
6590:
6589:
6586:
6582:
6579:
6577:
6574:
6572:
6569:
6567:
6564:
6563:
6562:
6559:
6555:
6552:
6550:
6547:
6545:
6542:
6540:
6537:
6536:
6535:
6532:
6528:
6525:
6523:
6520:
6518:
6515:
6513:
6510:
6509:
6508:
6505:
6504:
6502:
6498:
6492:
6489:
6487:
6484:
6482:
6479:
6478:
6475:
6471:
6464:
6459:
6457:
6452:
6450:
6445:
6444:
6441:
6435:
6431:
6426:
6422:
6421:
6416:
6411:
6410:
6406:
6404:
6398:
6394:
6390:
6388:
6385:
6382:
6378:
6375:
6372:
6368:
6365:
6362:
6361:
6356:
6352:
6348:
6344:
6340:
6336:
6333:
6330:
6326:
6323:
6322:9781439892497
6319:
6315:
6314:
6309:
6307:(2): 160–185.
6306:
6302:
6298:
6295:
6291:
6288:
6284:
6281:
6277:
6274:
6270:
6267:
6263:
6260:
6259:
6254:
6251:
6248:
6247:1-84014-008-9
6244:
6240:
6236:
6233:
6229:
6228:Agnew, Robert
6226:
6225:
6221:
6213:
6207:
6199:
6192:
6189:
6184:
6180:
6176:
6172:
6165:
6162:
6156:
6153:
6148:
6142:
6134:
6130:
6126:
6120:
6116:
6115:
6107:
6104:
6099:
6093:
6085:
6078:
6075:
6070:
6066:
6062:
6058:
6051:
6048:
6042:
6039:
6033:
6030:
6018:
6014:
6007:
6004:
5992:
5988:
5982:
5979:
5967:
5963:
5957:
5954:
5949:
5945:
5941:
5937:
5933:
5929:
5925:
5918:
5916:
5912:
5907:
5903:
5899:
5895:
5891:
5887:
5882:
5877:
5873:
5869:
5862:
5860:
5858:
5856:
5852:
5847:
5843:
5839:
5835:
5831:
5827:
5820:
5818:
5816:
5814:
5810:
5805:
5801:
5797:
5793:
5789:
5785:
5781:
5777:
5770:
5768:
5766:
5764:
5762:
5760:
5756:
5753:
5747:
5744:
5741:
5735:
5732:
5729:
5723:
5720:
5714:
5711:
5706:
5699:
5696:
5688:
5684:
5680:
5673:
5666:
5663:
5658:
5654:
5650:
5646:
5639:
5636:
5631:
5624:
5621:
5615:
5612:
5606:
5603:
5597:
5594:
5588:
5585:
5580:
5574:
5570:
5563:
5560:
5555:
5549:
5545:
5538:
5535:
5530:
5526:
5522:
5518:
5514:
5510:
5503:
5500:
5495:
5491:
5487:
5483:
5479:
5475:
5471:
5467:
5460:
5457:
5451:
5448:
5443:
5436:
5433:
5428:
5424:
5420:
5416:
5411:
5406:
5402:
5398:
5391:
5389:
5385:
5380:
5374:
5369:
5368:
5359:
5356:
5343:
5339:
5332:
5329:
5316:
5312:
5305:
5302:
5297:
5291:
5272:
5265:
5258:
5255:
5250:
5244:
5240:
5233:
5231:
5227:
5222:
5216:
5212:
5205:
5203:
5199:
5195:
5194:
5189:
5184:
5181:
5177:
5176:
5171:
5166:
5163:
5158:
5152:
5148:
5141:
5138:
5133:
5129:
5125:
5121:
5117:
5113:
5106:
5103:
5098:
5091:
5088:
5083:
5077:
5073:
5066:
5063:
5058:
5051:
5048:
5043:
5039:
5035:
5031:
5027:
5023:
5016:
5013:
5008:
5004:
5000:
4996:
4992:
4988:
4984:
4980:
4973:
4970:
4965:
4958:
4956:
4952:
4947:
4943:
4939:
4935:
4928:
4925:
4920:
4916:
4912:
4906:
4903:
4898:
4892:
4888:
4881:
4878:
4872:
4869:
4864:
4858:
4854:
4847:
4845:
4841:
4836:
4830:
4826:
4819:
4816:
4811:
4805:
4801:
4794:
4791:
4786:
4780:
4776:
4769:
4766:
4761:
4755:
4751:
4744:
4741:
4736:
4732:
4728:
4724:
4721:(3): 517–60.
4720:
4716:
4709:
4706:
4701:
4697:
4693:
4689:
4682:
4680:
4678:
4674:
4669:
4663:
4659:
4652:
4649:
4645:
4639:
4636:
4624:
4620:
4613:
4610:
4594:
4587:
4580:
4577:
4572:
4570:0-930390-69-5
4566:
4562:
4555:
4552:
4539:
4535:
4529:
4526:
4521:
4514:
4511:
4506:
4500:
4496:
4489:
4486:
4481:
4477:
4473:
4469:
4465:
4461:
4454:
4447:
4444:
4439:
4435:
4431:
4427:
4423:
4419:
4412:
4409:
4405:
4402:
4389:
4387:9781305446090
4383:
4379:
4378:
4369:
4366:
4361:
4354:
4351:
4346:
4340:
4336:
4329:
4326:
4321:
4314:
4311:
4306:
4300:
4284:
4280:
4274:
4271:
4266:
4262:
4258:
4254:
4250:
4246:
4239:
4236:
4231:
4227:
4223:
4219:
4215:
4211:
4207:
4203:
4199:
4195:
4188:
4181:
4178:
4173:
4169:
4165:
4161:
4157:
4153:
4146:
4143:
4138:
4134:
4130:
4123:
4120:
4115:
4111:
4107:
4103:
4099:
4095:
4088:
4085:
4080:
4076:
4072:
4068:
4064:
4060:
4056:
4052:
4045:
4042:
4037:
4033:
4028:
4023:
4019:
4015:
4011:
4004:
4001:
3996:
3992:
3988:
3984:
3980:
3976:
3969:
3966:
3961:
3957:
3953:
3949:
3945:
3941:
3937:
3936:
3935:Legal Studies
3931:
3924:
3921:
3917:
3912:
3909:
3896:
3892:
3888:
3882:
3879:
3874:
3867:
3864:
3859:
3853:
3850:
3845:
3839:
3836:
3831:
3825:
3821:
3814:
3811:
3806:
3802:
3796:
3793:
3788:
3784:
3780:
3776:
3772:
3768:
3764:
3760:
3753:
3750:
3745:
3739:
3735:
3728:
3725:
3721:
3715:
3712:
3708:
3702:
3699:
3694:
3688:
3685:
3679:
3674:
3670:
3667:
3665:
3662:
3660:
3657:
3655:
3652:
3650:
3649:
3645:
3643:
3640:
3638:
3635:
3633:
3630:
3628:
3625:
3623:
3620:
3618:
3617:Crime science
3615:
3613:
3610:
3609:
3605:
3599:
3594:
3591:
3585:
3580:
3577:
3569:
3565:
3562:
3560:
3557:
3555:
3552:
3550:
3547:
3545:
3542:
3540:
3539:Fear of crime
3537:
3534:
3531:
3529:
3526:
3524:
3521:
3518:
3515:
3513:
3510:
3508:
3505:
3502:
3501:
3500:
3494:
3492:
3490:
3489:postmodernism
3486:
3482:
3474:
3470:
3466:
3462:
3458:
3454:
3450:
3447:
3444:
3440:
3437:
3436:
3435:
3428:
3426:
3424:
3420:
3413:
3411:
3405:
3397:
3395:
3393:
3389:
3385:
3381:
3376:
3373:
3366:
3364:
3362:
3358:
3354:
3349:
3347:
3338:
3336:
3332:
3328:
3322:
3319:
3316:
3312:
3309:
3308:
3307:
3305:
3297:
3295:
3291:
3289:
3281:
3279:
3277:
3273:
3269:
3265:
3261:
3257:
3253:
3249:
3247:
3243:
3239:
3235:
3231:
3225:
3217:
3215:
3212:
3210:
3206:
3202:
3201:catecholamine
3198:
3194:
3190:
3188:
3183:
3179:
3175:
3171:
3166:
3159:
3157:
3155:
3148:
3140:
3138:
3136:
3133:to theft by
3132:
3128:
3124:
3123:neoliberalism
3119:
3117:
3113:
3107:
3105:
3101:
3096:
3094:
3088:
3086:
3082:
3078:
3074:
3070:
3065:
3063:
3060:, as well as
3059:
3058:death penalty
3055:
3051:
3047:
3046:
3041:
3037:
3033:
3024:
3019:
3011:
3009:
3007:
3006:Why They Kill
3003:
2999:
2998:Lonnie Athens
2991:
2989:
2987:
2986:Malcolm Klein
2983:
2976:
2968:
2966:
2964:
2960:
2959:AIDS epidemic
2956:
2952:
2948:
2947:Stanley Cohen
2944:
2940:
2939:Howard Becker
2936:
2932:
2928:
2924:
2920:
2917:, as well as
2916:
2912:
2908:
2907:phenomenology
2902:
2894:
2892:
2890:
2886:
2882:
2878:
2877:Sander Gilman
2873:
2869:
2865:
2864:Sigmund Freud
2861:
2857:
2853:
2848:
2840:
2838:
2836:
2832:
2831:Gresham Sykes
2828:
2824:
2820:
2815:
2811:
2809:
2804:
2800:
2796:
2788:
2786:
2784:
2780:
2775:
2773:
2768:
2764:
2762:
2757:
2753:
2749:
2746:
2742:
2741:Sigmund Freud
2738:
2734:
2732:
2728:
2724:
2720:
2714:
2706:
2704:
2702:
2698:
2694:
2690:
2686:
2681:
2677:
2673:
2672:
2667:
2666:
2661:
2660:Robert Merton
2655:
2647:
2645:
2643:
2639:
2635:
2626:
2624:
2622:
2618:
2614:
2613:heterogeneity
2610:
2606:
2597:
2595:
2593:
2585:
2583:
2581:
2577:
2573:
2569:
2568:postmodernism
2565:
2561:
2557:
2553:
2549:
2548:functionalism
2545:
2540:
2538:
2533:
2531:
2527:
2523:
2519:
2515:
2510:
2508:
2504:
2500:
2496:
2492:
2488:
2484:
2480:
2476:
2472:
2464:
2462:
2460:
2456:
2452:
2448:
2440:
2438:
2436:
2432:
2431:
2426:
2422:
2418:
2414:
2410:
2406:
2402:
2398:
2394:
2389:
2385:
2381:
2374:
2372:
2370:
2366:
2362:
2358:
2354:
2350:
2346:
2342:
2338:
2331:
2329:
2322:
2320:
2316:
2313:
2311:
2307:
2306:psychological
2303:
2298:
2290:
2288:
2286:
2282:
2278:
2270:
2267:
2264:
2261:
2260:
2259:
2257:
2256:
2251:
2247:
2246:
2241:
2237:
2233:
2222:
2219:
2211:
2201:
2197:
2191:
2190:
2186:
2180:
2171:
2170:
2164:
2162:
2160:
2156:
2152:
2148:
2144:
2140:
2136:
2128:
2126:
2122:
2121:
2119:
2114:
2113:Paul Topinard
2110:
2108:
2103:
2099:
2095:
2086:
2084:
2081:
2076:
2071:
2067:
2065:
2061:
2057:
2056:jurisprudence
2053:
2049:
2045:
2041:
2037:
2036:psychiatrists
2033:
2029:
2028:psychologists
2025:
2021:
2017:
2013:
2009:
2005:
2001:
1997:
1993:
1990:, from λόγος
1989:
1980:
1979:Ancient Greek
1975:
1971:
1967:
1956:
1951:
1949:
1944:
1942:
1937:
1936:
1934:
1933:
1928:
1923:
1918:
1917:
1916:
1915:
1908:
1905:
1903:
1900:
1898:
1895:
1893:
1892:Organizations
1890:
1888:
1885:
1883:
1880:
1878:
1875:
1874:
1871:
1866:
1865:
1860:
1856:
1852:
1848:
1844:
1841: ·
1840:
1837: ·
1836:
1832:
1828:
1824:
1820:
1816:
1812:
1808:
1804:
1800:
1797: ·
1796:
1793:
1790:
1788:
1784:
1780:
1776:
1772:
1768:
1764:
1760:
1756:
1752:
1748:
1744:
1740:
1736:
1732:
1729: ·
1728:
1724:
1721:
1714:
1710:
1707:
1704:
1703:
1700:
1695:
1694:
1687:
1684:
1682:
1679:
1677:
1674:
1672:
1669:
1667:
1664:
1662:
1659:
1657:
1654:
1652:
1649:
1647:
1646:Computational
1644:
1642:
1639:
1637:
1634:
1632:
1629:
1628:
1625:
1620:
1619:
1612:
1609:
1607:
1604:
1602:
1599:
1597:
1594:
1592:
1589:
1587:
1584:
1582:
1579:
1577:
1574:
1572:
1569:
1567:
1564:
1562:
1559:
1557:
1554:
1551:
1547:
1544:
1542:
1539:
1537:
1534:
1532:
1529:
1527:
1524:
1522:
1519:
1517:
1514:
1512:
1509:
1507:
1504:
1502:
1499:
1497:
1494:
1492:
1489:
1487:
1484:
1482:
1479:
1477:
1474:
1472:
1469:
1467:
1464:
1462:
1459:
1457:
1454:
1452:
1449:
1447:
1444:
1442:
1439:
1437:
1434:
1432:
1429:
1427:
1424:
1422:
1419:
1417:
1414:
1412:
1409:
1407:
1404:
1402:
1399:
1397:
1394:
1392:
1391:Environmental
1389:
1386:
1382:
1379:
1377:
1374:
1372:
1369:
1367:
1364:
1362:
1359:
1357:
1354:
1352:
1349:
1347:
1344:
1342:
1341:Consciousness
1339:
1337:
1334:
1332:
1329:
1327:
1324:
1322:
1319:
1317:
1314:
1312:
1309:
1308:
1305:
1300:
1299:
1292:
1289:
1287:
1284:
1282:
1279:
1277:
1274:
1272:
1269:
1267:
1264:
1262:
1259:
1258:
1255:
1250:
1249:
1242:
1239:
1237:
1234:
1232:
1229:
1227:
1224:
1222:
1221:Social equity
1219:
1217:
1214:
1212:
1209:
1207:
1204:
1202:
1199:
1197:
1193:
1189:
1185:
1183:
1180:
1178:
1175:
1173:
1170:
1168:
1167:Globalization
1165:
1163:
1160:
1159:
1153:
1152:
1147:
1144:
1142:
1139:
1137:
1134:
1133:
1132:
1131:
1127:
1123:
1122:
1119:
1115:
1111:
1110:
1100:
1095:
1093:
1088:
1086:
1081:
1080:
1078:
1077:
1070:
1067:
1065:
1064:Organizations
1062:
1060:
1057:
1055:
1052:
1051:
1045:
1044:
1037:
1034:
1032:
1029:
1027:
1024:
1022:
1019:
1017:
1014:
1012:
1011:Environmental
1009:
1007:
1004:
1002:
999:
997:
994:
992:
989:
987:
984:
982:
979:
977:
974:
972:
969:
967:
964:
962:
959:
958:
952:
951:
942:
939:
937:
934:
933:
931:
929:
928:Postmodernist
926:
924:
921:
919:
918:Neo-classical
916:
914:
911:
909:
906:
904:
901:
899:
896:
894:
893:Environmental
891:
889:
886:
884:
881:
879:
876:
874:
871:
869:
866:
865:
859:
858:
847:
844:
842:
839:
837:
834:
832:
829:
827:
824:
822:
821:Participatory
819:
818:
817:
816:
812:
808:
803:
800:
798:
795:
791:
788:
786:
783:
782:
781:
778:
774:
771:
769:
766:
764:
761:
760:
759:
756:
754:
751:
749:
746:
744:
741:
739:
736:
735:
734:
733:
728:
723:
722:
715:
712:
710:
707:
705:
702:
700:
697:
695:
692:
690:
687:
684:
683:Crime mapping
681:
679:
676:
674:
671:
669:
666:
664:
661:
659:
656:
655:
649:
648:
641:
638:
636:
633:
631:
630:Transnational
628:
626:
623:
621:
618:
616:
611:
609:
606:
604:
601:
599:
598:International
596:
594:
591:
589:
586:
582:
579:
578:
577:
574:
570:
567:
565:
562:
561:
559:
555:
552:
550:
547:
545:
542:
541:
539:
538:
535:
529:
528:
521:
518:
516:
513:
511:
508:
506:
503:
502:
496:
495:
488:
485:
483:
480:
478:
475:
473:
470:
468:
465:
463:
460:
458:
455:
453:
450:
448:
445:
443:
440:
438:
435:
433:
430:
428:
425:
423:
420:
418:
415:
413:
410:
408:
405:
403:
400:
398:
395:
393:
390:
389:
383:
382:
378:
374:
373:
370:
366:
362:
352:
347:
345:
340:
338:
333:
332:
330:
329:
324:
321:
319:
318:Organizations
316:
314:
311:
309:
306:
304:
301:
300:
299:
298:
293:
288:
285:
283:
280:
278:
275:
273:
270:
268:
265:
263:
262:Environmental
260:
258:
255:
253:
250:
248:
245:
243:
240:
238:
235:
233:
230:
228:
225:
223:
220:
218:
215:
213:
210:
209:
208:
207:
202:
197:
194:
192:
189:
187:
184:
182:
179:
177:
174:
172:
169:
167:
166:Crime mapping
164:
162:
159:
157:
154:
152:
149:
147:
144:
142:
139:
138:
137:
136:
131:
126:
123:
121:
118:
116:
113:
111:
108:
106:
103:
101:
98:
96:
93:
91:
88:
87:
86:
85:
82:Main Theories
80:
76:
72:
71:
68:
64:
58:
54:
49:
45:
41:
37:
33:
19:
7120:
7096:
7084:
7054:
6861:Food studies
6825:
6801:Area studies
6742:
6554:mathematical
6549:econometrics
6507:Anthropology
6418:
6402:
6396:
6380:
6370:
6358:
6342:
6328:
6312:
6304:
6293:
6286:
6279:
6272:
6265:
6261:(1763–1764).
6256:
6238:
6231:
6222:Bibliography
6197:
6191:
6174:
6170:
6164:
6155:
6113:
6106:
6083:
6077:
6060:
6056:
6050:
6041:
6032:
6020:. Retrieved
6016:
6006:
5994:. Retrieved
5990:
5981:
5969:. Retrieved
5965:
5956:
5931:
5927:
5871:
5867:
5829:
5825:
5779:
5775:
5746:
5734:
5722:
5713:
5704:
5698:
5685:(1): 50–60.
5682:
5678:
5665:
5648:
5644:
5638:
5629:
5623:
5614:
5605:
5596:
5587:
5568:
5562:
5543:
5537:
5512:
5508:
5502:
5469:
5465:
5459:
5450:
5441:
5435:
5400:
5396:
5366:
5358:
5346:. Retrieved
5331:
5319:. Retrieved
5304:
5278:. Retrieved
5271:the original
5257:
5238:
5210:
5191:
5183:
5173:
5165:
5146:
5140:
5118:(1): 47–79.
5115:
5111:
5105:
5096:
5090:
5071:
5065:
5056:
5050:
5025:
5021:
5015:
4982:
4978:
4972:
4963:
4937:
4933:
4927:
4918:
4905:
4886:
4880:
4871:
4852:
4824:
4818:
4799:
4793:
4774:
4768:
4749:
4743:
4718:
4714:
4708:
4691:
4687:
4657:
4651:
4643:
4638:
4626:. Retrieved
4622:
4612:
4600:. Retrieved
4593:the original
4579:
4560:
4554:
4542:. Retrieved
4538:the original
4528:
4519:
4513:
4494:
4488:
4463:
4459:
4446:
4421:
4417:
4411:
4398:
4391:. Retrieved
4376:
4368:
4359:
4353:
4334:
4328:
4319:
4313:
4287:. Retrieved
4273:
4248:
4244:
4238:
4200:(1): 56–62.
4197:
4193:
4180:
4155:
4151:
4145:
4136:
4132:
4122:
4097:
4093:
4087:
4054:
4050:
4044:
4017:
4013:
4003:
3978:
3974:
3968:
3939:
3933:
3923:
3911:
3899:. Retrieved
3895:the original
3890:
3881:
3872:
3866:
3852:
3838:
3819:
3813:
3804:
3795:
3762:
3758:
3752:
3733:
3727:
3719:
3714:
3706:
3701:
3687:
3646:
3498:
3478:
3465:criminal law
3439:Natural laws
3432:
3417:
3408:
3384:World War II
3377:
3370:
3361:ethnographer
3350:
3342:
3333:
3329:
3326:
3301:
3292:
3285:
3254:
3250:
3246:Hans Eysenck
3241:
3227:
3213:
3191:
3163:
3150:
3120:
3108:
3097:
3093:surveillance
3089:
3084:
3076:
3066:
3043:
3029:
3005:
2995:
2978:
2943:Edwin Lemert
2904:
2880:
2871:
2867:
2850:
2816:
2812:
2808:self-control
2798:
2792:
2776:
2769:
2765:
2761:minimum wage
2750:
2735:
2716:
2697:Robert Agnew
2689:gang members
2669:
2663:
2657:
2638:middle-class
2630:
2621:social order
2601:
2589:
2560:econometrics
2541:
2534:
2522:institutions
2511:
2481:, and other
2468:
2444:
2428:
2425:ethnographic
2417:Henry Mayhew
2378:
2365:Enrico Ferri
2335:
2326:
2317:
2314:
2294:
2274:
2253:
2243:
2242:, author of
2238:philosophy.
2229:
2214:
2208:January 2013
2205:
2183:
2132:
2123:
2118:Criminologie
2116:
2107:Criminologia
2105:
2093:
2090:
2072:
2068:
2032:philosophers
2012:sociologists
1991:
1987:
1965:
1964:
1877:Bibliography
1791:
1719:
1718:
1705:
1671:Mathematical
1651:Ethnographic
1631:Quantitative
1335:
1316:Architecture
1254:Perspectives
1226:Social power
1016:Experimental
980:
738:Denunciation
704:Quantitative
614:Public-order
569:White-collar
510:Hans Eysenck
364:
303:Bibliography
267:Experimental
231:
181:Quantitative
66:
44:
7144:Criminology
7122:Wikiversity
7013:Social work
6901:Linguistics
6826:Criminology
6743:criminology
6726:personality
6684:comparative
6662:Linguistics
6655:private law
6512:archaeology
6430:Criminology
6413:‹ The
6022:10 December
5996:10 December
5971:10 December
5170:Gary Becker
5149:. Vintage.
4715:Criminology
4688:Criminology
4466:: 155–189.
4289:26 December
4100:(1): 7–19.
3975:Criminology
3946:: 191–204.
3901:12 November
3564:Victimology
3485:culturalism
3353:masculinity
3317:individuals
3256:State crime
3135:Mike Sutton
3073:Gary Becker
3032:utilitarian
2951:moral panic
2827:David Matza
2823:chaperonage
2756:Lloyd Ohlin
2731:fragmenting
2725:'s idea of
2707:Subcultural
2609:social norm
2505:focused on
2499:Henry McKay
2459:subcultures
2447:association
2405:crime rates
2341:criminology
2248:(1763–64),
2236:utilitarian
2098:Italian law
2094:criminology
2004:behavioural
1966:Criminology
1882:Terminology
1851:Baudrillard
1727:Tocqueville
1641:Comparative
1636:Qualitative
1606:Victimology
1436:Immigration
1421:Generations
1336:Criminology
1006:Development
981:Criminology
903:Integrative
841:Utilitarian
836:Retributive
826:Restorative
813:in penology
699:Qualitative
673:Ethnography
658:Comparative
564:Blue-collar
487:Victimology
442:Psychopathy
365:Criminology
257:Development
232:Criminology
176:Qualitative
156:Ethnography
141:Comparative
67:Criminology
7138:Categories
7067:Humanities
7001:historical
6934:psychology
6906:Management
6748:demography
6706:Psychology
6689:philosophy
6650:public law
6581:integrated
6373:(1), 1–13.
6133:1121441683
5022:The Lancet
4602:3 November
4544:23 January
4158:: 98–101.
3675:References
3604:Law portal
3533:Evaluation
3443:common law
3357:femininity
3238:Jock Young
3234:Ian Taylor
3112:panopticon
2455:antisocial
2353:phrenology
2302:biological
2291:Positivist
2263:Punishment
2255:panopticon
2185:neutrality
2139:Positivist
2100:professor
2044:biologists
2020:economists
1907:By country
1661:Historical
1586:Technology
1526:Punishment
1511:Philosophy
1486:Mathematic
1476:Literature
1441:Industrial
1431:Historical
1356:Demography
1276:Positivism
1201:Popularity
1156:Key themes
1001:Demography
923:Positivist
802:Recidivism
743:Deterrence
635:Victimless
477:Subculture
252:Demography
196:Recidivism
6945:Planning
6924:economics
6841:Education
6738:Sociology
6716:cognitive
6667:semiotics
6618:political
6576:technical
6561:Geography
6534:Economics
6282:, 13 (3).
6206:cite book
6141:cite book
6092:cite book
5991:Study.com
5906:145282153
5898:1362-4806
5876:CiteSeerX
5846:0360-0572
5804:144923174
5796:1362-4806
5529:144374302
5486:1477-3708
5405:CiteSeerX
5132:145574605
5072:Outsiders
4438:144091497
4372:Compare:
4265:0047-2352
4222:1099-0984
4172:0191-8869
4114:0191-8869
4071:0010-440X
4036:1098-2337
3995:1745-9125
3960:143514280
3787:144144251
3779:0007-0955
3495:Subtopics
3388:standards
3315:cisgender
3264:genocides
3199:systems,
3197:serotonin
2680:dichotomy
2421:empirical
2349:atavistic
2196:talk page
2135:Classical
1723:Martineau
1666:Interview
1591:Terrorism
1571:Sociology
1516:Political
1456:Knowledge
1376:Education
1118:Sociology
1026:Political
955:Subfields
878:Classical
868:Anarchist
763:abolition
663:Profiling
608:Political
603:Organized
588:Corporate
576:Cold case
532:Types of
277:Political
151:Profiling
7086:Category
6954:regional
6949:land use
6784:business
6753:internet
6711:abnormal
6613:military
6603:economic
6593:cultural
6566:physical
6527:physical
6517:cultural
6415:template
6379:(2012),
6341:(1990).
6230:(2005).
5948:55729100
5687:Archived
5657:29768063
5494:53587552
5342:Archived
5315:Archived
5290:cite web
5042:54300709
5007:42339687
4999:24372131
4917:(1990).
4735:14549621
4628:30 April
4480:10473754
4299:cite web
4283:Archived
4230:53060482
4139:: 38–62.
4079:15224270
3570:See also
3554:Penology
3457:cannabis
3449:Statutes
3445:systems.
3404:Poaching
3339:Cultural
3154:nuisance
3050:penology
2933:in the "
2887:and the
2676:Durkheim
2277:penology
2189:disputed
2075:etiology
2066:system.
2062:and the
1902:Timeline
1887:Journals
1855:Bourdieu
1847:Habermas
1843:Luhmann
1839:Foucault
1783:Mannheim
1763:Durkheim
1536:Religion
1496:Military
1461:Language
1446:Internet
1401:Feminist
1385:Jealousy
1371:Economic
1366:Disaster
1361:Deviance
1304:Branches
1182:Identity
1059:Journals
986:Critical
976:Conflict
961:American
932:Realism
898:Feminist
888:Critical
883:Conflict
780:Prisoner
727:Penology
593:Juvenile
544:Humanity
540:Against
427:Deviance
369:penology
313:Journals
237:Critical
227:Conflict
212:American
7098:Commons
6929:history
6919:science
6854:studies
6588:History
6500:Primary
6486:History
6481:Outline
6417:below (
6200:. Sage.
5427:2094589
3282:Convict
3218:Marxist
3062:torture
2927:meaning
2789:Control
2685:deviant
2634:working
2582:, etc.
2556:Marxism
2485:at the
2465:Chicago
2391:crime.
2384:poverty
2355:and by
2332:Italian
2143:Chicago
1859:Giddens
1857:·
1853:·
1845:·
1833:·
1831:Goffman
1827:Schoeck
1813:·
1805:·
1781:·
1779:Du Bois
1777:·
1769:·
1765:·
1757:·
1751:Tönnies
1749:·
1735:Spencer
1733:·
1711:·
1624:Methods
1601:Utopian
1546:Science
1491:Medical
1481:Marxist
1471:Leisure
1381:Emotion
1346:Culture
1162:Society
1141:Outline
1136:History
991:Culture
913:Marxist
908:Italian
873:Chicago
862:Schools
811:Justice
652:Methods
581:Perfect
242:Culture
133:Methods
53:pillory
6789:public
6731:social
6623:social
6522:social
6434:Curlie
6420:Curlie
6349:
6320:
6245:
6131:
6121:
6017:Forbes
5946:
5904:
5896:
5878:
5844:
5802:
5794:
5655:
5575:
5550:
5527:
5492:
5484:
5425:
5407:
5375:
5348:11 May
5321:14 May
5280:11 May
5245:
5217:
5153:
5130:
5078:
5040:
5005:
4997:
4893:
4859:
4831:
4806:
4781:
4756:
4733:
4664:
4567:
4501:
4478:
4436:
4393:29 May
4384:
4341:
4263:
4228:
4220:
4170:
4112:
4077:
4069:
4034:
3993:
3958:
3826:
3785:
3777:
3740:
3487:, and
3469:ruling
3414:Public
3270:, and
3209:stress
3176:, and
2931:actors
2860:trauma
2671:anomie
2648:Strain
2141:, and
1988:-logia
1983:-λογία
1974:crimen
1968:(from
1897:People
1835:Bauman
1815:Nisbet
1811:Merton
1803:Gehlen
1799:Adorno
1792:1900s:
1767:Addams
1759:Simmel
1755:Veblen
1747:Pareto
1739:Le Bon
1720:1800s:
1713:Sieyès
1706:1700s:
1686:Survey
1611:Visual
1521:Public
1426:Health
1416:Gender
1406:Fiscal
1396:Family
1069:People
1048:Browse
1031:Public
773:reform
758:Prison
560:Class
549:Person
472:Strain
392:Anomie
386:Theory
323:People
295:Browse
282:Public
59:, 1875
6959:urban
6763:urban
6758:rural
6608:human
6571:human
6491:Index
6353:(see
6296:, 30.
5944:S2CID
5902:S2CID
5800:S2CID
5690:(PDF)
5675:(PDF)
5653:JSTOR
5525:S2CID
5490:S2CID
5423:JSTOR
5274:(PDF)
5267:(PDF)
5128:S2CID
5038:S2CID
5003:S2CID
4731:S2CID
4596:(PDF)
4589:(PDF)
4476:S2CID
4456:(PDF)
4434:S2CID
4226:S2CID
4190:(PDF)
3956:S2CID
3918:>.
3783:S2CID
3680:Notes
3654:Taboo
3461:state
3453:mores
3398:Rural
3298:Queer
2885:brain
2819:peers
2772:class
2693:hobos
2419:used
2395:used
1996:crime
1992:logos
1970:Latin
1870:Lists
1819:Mills
1795:Fromm
1787:Elias
1775:Weber
1709:Comte
1596:Urban
1581:Sport
1576:Space
1541:Rural
1501:Music
1451:Jewry
1351:Death
1311:Aging
1146:Index
1054:Index
996:Cyber
941:Right
753:Trial
714:NIBRS
620:State
554:State
534:crime
308:Index
247:Cyber
191:NIBRS
57:China
7027:List
6347:ISBN
6337:and
6318:ISBN
6243:ISBN
6212:link
6147:link
6129:OCLC
6119:ISBN
6098:link
6024:2018
5998:2018
5973:2018
5894:ISSN
5842:ISSN
5792:ISSN
5573:ISBN
5548:ISBN
5482:ISSN
5373:ISBN
5350:2010
5323:2010
5296:link
5282:2010
5243:ISBN
5215:ISBN
5151:ISBN
5076:ISBN
4995:PMID
4891:ISBN
4857:ISBN
4829:ISBN
4804:ISBN
4779:ISBN
4754:ISBN
4662:ISBN
4630:2019
4604:2011
4565:ISBN
4546:2007
4499:ISBN
4395:2015
4382:ISBN
4339:ISBN
4305:link
4291:2015
4261:ISSN
4218:ISSN
4168:ISSN
4110:ISSN
4075:PMID
4067:ISSN
4032:ISSN
3991:ISSN
3903:2019
3824:ISBN
3775:ISSN
3738:ISBN
3355:and
3304:LGBT
3079:and
2961:and
2941:and
2921:and
2913:and
2858:and
2829:and
2754:and
2695:").
2636:and
2520:and
2501:and
2469:The
2403:and
2308:and
2295:The
2230:The
2182:The
2054:and
2006:and
1998:and
1823:Bell
1807:Aron
1771:Mead
1743:Ward
1731:Marx
1411:Food
1331:Body
936:Left
768:open
367:and
6630:Law
6432:at
6179:doi
6065:doi
5936:doi
5886:doi
5834:doi
5784:doi
5517:doi
5474:doi
5415:doi
5120:doi
5030:doi
5026:372
4987:doi
4942:doi
4723:doi
4696:doi
4468:doi
4426:doi
4253:doi
4210:hdl
4202:doi
4160:doi
4102:doi
4059:doi
4022:doi
3983:doi
3948:doi
3767:doi
3272:war
3168:as
3054:sin
2965:).
2909:of
2799:not
2743:'s
2359:'s
2104:as
2052:law
1466:Law
1321:Art
709:BJS
640:War
186:BJS
7140::
6395:.
6303:,
6255:,
6208:}}
6204:{{
6173:.
6143:}}
6139:{{
6127:.
6094:}}
6090:{{
6059:.
6015:.
5989:.
5964:.
5942:.
5932:11
5930:.
5926:.
5914:^
5900:.
5892:.
5884:.
5870:.
5854:^
5840:.
5830:25
5828:.
5812:^
5798:.
5790:.
5778:.
5758:^
5683:11
5681:.
5677:.
5649:28
5647:.
5523:.
5513:36
5511:.
5488:.
5480:.
5468:.
5421:.
5413:.
5401:44
5399:.
5387:^
5340:.
5292:}}
5288:{{
5229:^
5201:^
5126:.
5116:13
5114:.
5036:.
5024:.
5001:.
4993:.
4983:94
4981:.
4954:^
4938:20
4936:.
4913:;
4843:^
4729:.
4719:39
4717:.
4692:26
4690:.
4676:^
4621:.
4474:.
4464:94
4462:.
4458:.
4432:.
4422:92
4420:.
4397:.
4301:}}
4297:{{
4281:.
4259:.
4249:39
4247:.
4224:.
4216:.
4208:.
4198:26
4196:.
4192:.
4166:.
4156:68
4154:.
4135:.
4131:.
4108:.
4098:39
4096:.
4073:.
4065:.
4055:45
4053:.
4030:.
4018:29
4016:.
4012:.
3989:.
3979:39
3977:.
3954:.
3938:.
3932:.
3889:.
3803:.
3781:.
3773:.
3763:40
3761:.
3483:,
3266:,
3189:.
3172:,
3071:,
3004:'
2984:.
2837:.
2703:.
2578:,
2574:,
2570:,
2566:,
2562:,
2558:,
2554:,
2550:,
2546:,
2532:.
2477:,
2433:.
2312:.
2304:,
2287:.
2157:,
2153:,
2149:,
2137:,
2046:,
2042:,
2038:,
2034:,
2030:,
2026:,
2022:,
2018:,
2014:,
1986:,
1849:·
1829:·
1825:·
1821:·
1817:·
1809:·
1801:·
1785:·
1773:·
1761:·
1753:·
1745:·
1741:·
1737:·
1725:·
1194:/
1190:/
55:,
6462:e
6455:t
6448:v
6324:.
6249:.
6214:)
6185:.
6181::
6175:9
6149:)
6135:.
6100:)
6071:.
6067::
6061:9
6026:.
6000:.
5975:.
5950:.
5938::
5908:.
5888::
5872:8
5848:.
5836::
5806:.
5786::
5780:8
5659:.
5581:.
5556:.
5531:.
5519::
5496:.
5476::
5470:2
5429:.
5417::
5381:.
5352:.
5325:.
5298:)
5284:.
5251:.
5223:.
5159:.
5134:.
5122::
5084:.
5044:.
5032::
5009:.
4989::
4948:.
4944::
4899:.
4865:.
4837:.
4812:.
4787:.
4762:.
4737:.
4725::
4702:.
4698::
4670:.
4632:.
4606:.
4573:.
4548:.
4507:.
4482:.
4470::
4440:.
4428::
4347:.
4307:)
4293:.
4267:.
4255::
4232:.
4212::
4204::
4174:.
4162::
4137:2
4116:.
4104::
4081:.
4061::
4038:.
4024::
3997:.
3985::
3962:.
3950::
3940:5
3905:.
3875:.
3860:.
3846:.
3832:.
3789:.
3769::
3746:.
3695:.
3406:.
2221:)
2215:(
2210:)
2206:(
2202:.
2192:.
2120:.
2109:.
1954:e
1947:t
1940:v
1552:)
1548:(
1387:)
1383:(
1196:5
1192:4
1188:3
1098:e
1091:t
1084:v
685:]
350:e
343:t
336:v
42:.
20:)
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.