1686:, Si tubes as well as Si sheets. As a result, composite hierarchical Si anodes have become the major technology for future applications in lithium-ion batteries. In the early 2020s, technology is reaching commercial levels with factories being built for mass production of anodes in the United States. Furthermore, metallic lithium is another possible candidate for the anode. It boasts a higher specific capacity than silicon, however, does come with the drawback of working with the highly unstable metallic lithium. Similarly to graphite anodes, dendrite formation is another major limitation of metallic lithium, with the solid electrolyte interphase being a major design challenge. In the end, if stabilized, metallic lithium would be able to produce batteries that hold the most charge, while being the lightest.
1695:
environment. During standard operation, the incorporation of ions into electrodes leads to a change in volume. This is well exemplified by Si electrodes in lithium-ion batteries expanding around 300% during lithiation. Such change may lead to the deformations in the lattice and, therefore stresses in the material. The origin of stresses may be due to geometric constraints in the electrode or inhomogeneous plating of the ion. This phenomenon is very concerning as it may lead to electrode fracture and performance loss. Thus, mechanical properties are crucial to enable the development of new electrodes for long lasting batteries. A possible strategy for measuring the mechanical behavior of electrodes during operation is by using
38:
397:
462:
100:
1636:. Manganese has similar advantages and a lower cost, however there are some problems associated with using manganese. The main problem is that manganese tends to dissolve into the electrolyte over time. For this reason, cobalt is still the most common element which is used in the lithium compounds. There is much research being done into finding new materials which can be used to create cheaper and longer lasting Li-ion batteries
1577:
3638:
405:
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1607:
in 1913. In the following century these electrodes were used to create and study the first Li-ion batteries. Li-ion batteries are very popular due to their great performance. Applications include mobile phones and electric cars. Due to their popularity, much research is being done to reduce the cost
1556:
These properties can be influenced in the production of the electrodes in a number of manners. The most important step in the manufacturing of the electrodes is creating the electrode slurry. As can be seen above, the important properties of the electrode all have to do with the even distribution of
1702:
More than just affecting the electrode's morphology, stresses are also able to impact electrochemical reactions. While the chemical driving forces are usually higher in magnitude than the mechanical energies, this is not true for Li-ion batteries. A study by Dr. Larché established a direct relation
1668:
has the second largest market share of anodes, due to its stability and good rate capability, but with challenges such as low capacity. During the early 2000s, silicon anode research began picking up pace, becoming one of the decade's most promising candidates for future lithium-ion battery anodes.
469:
The potential energy of the system is a function of the translational, rotational, and vibrational coordinates of the reacting species and the molecules of the surrounding medium, collectively called the reaction coordinates. The abscissa the figure to the right represents these. From the classical
208:
The cathode is in many ways the opposite of the anode. The name (also coined by
Whewell) comes from the Greek words ÎșÎŹÏÏ (kato), 'downwards' and áœÎŽÏÏ (hodĂłs), 'a way'. It is the positive electrode, meaning the electrons flow from the electrical circuit through the cathode into the non-metallic part
904:
of the system. It is possible to look at the overlap in the wavefunctions of both the reactants and the products (the right and the left side of the chemical reaction) and therefore when their energies are the same and allow for electron transfer. As touched on before this must happen because only
452:
and explains the rate at which an electron can move from one chemical species to another, for this article this can be seen as 'jumping' from the electrode to a species in the solvent or vice versa. We can represent the problem as calculating the transfer rate for the transfer of an electron from
1681:
as well as a high volumetric one. Furthermore, Silicon has the advantage of operating under a reasonable open circuit voltage without parasitic lithium reactions. However, silicon anodes have a major issue of volumetric expansion during lithiation of around 360%. This expansion may pulverize the
1310:
The physical properties of electrodes are mainly determined by the material of the electrode and the topology of the electrode. The properties required depend on the application and therefore there are many kinds of electrodes in circulation. The defining property for a material to be used as an
1551:
The density of the active material. A balance should be found between the amount of active material, the conductive agent and the binder. Since the active material is the important factor in the electrode, the slurry should be designed such that the density of the active material is as high as
1694:
A common failure mechanism of batteries is mechanical shock, which breaks either the electrode or the system's container, leading to poor conductivity and electrolyte leakage. However, the relevance of mechanical properties of electrodes goes beyond the resistance to collisions due to its
1824:
corresponds to the mean stress felt by the system. The result of this equation is that diffusion, which is dependent on chemical potential, gets impacted by the added stress and, therefore changes the battery's performance. Furthermore, mechanical stresses may also impact the electrode's
478:). One important thing to note, and was noted by Marcus when he came up with the theory, the electron transfer must abide by the law of conservation of energy and the Frank-Condon principle. Doing this and then rearranging this leads to the expression of the free energy activation (
1656:). Graphite anodes have been successfully implemented in many modern commercially available batteries due to its cheap price, longevity and high energy density. However, it presents issues of dendrite growth, with risks of shorting the battery and posing a safety issue. Li
195:
surmised that the electrical flow moved from positive to negative. The electrons flow away from the anode and the conventional current towards it. From both can be concluded that the charge of the anode is negative. The electron entering the anode comes from the
1849:) the anode is the positive (+) electrode and the cathode the negative (â). The electrons enter the device through the cathode and exit the device through the anode. Many devices have other electrodes to control operation, e.g., base, gate, control grid.
1047:
1608:
and increase the safety of Li-ion batteries. An integral part of the Li-ion batteries are their anodes and cathodes, therefore much research is being done into increasing the efficiency, safety and reducing the costs of these electrodes specifically.
1703:
between the applied stress and the chemical potential of the electrode. Though it neglects multiple variables such as the variation of elastic constraints, it subtracts from the total chemical potential the elastic energy induced by the stress.
1892:. For a direct current system, the weld rod or stick may be a cathode for a filling type weld or an anode for other welding processes. For an alternating current arc welder, the welding electrode would not be considered an anode or cathode.
1825:
solid-electrolyte-interphase layer. The interface which regulates the ion and charge transfer and can be degraded by stress. Thus, more ions in the solution will be consumed to reform it, diminishing the overall efficiency of the system.
1537:
For a given selection of constituents of the electrode, the final efficiency is determined by the internal structure of the electrode. The important factors in the internal structure in determining the performance of the electrode are:
1332:
which improve the conductivity of the electrode and binders which are used to contain the active particles within the electrode. The efficiency of electrochemical cells is judged by a number of properties, important quantities are the
1278:
2476:
Konda, Kumari; Moodakare, Sahana B.; Kumar, P. Logesh; Battabyal, Manjusha; Seth, Jyoti R.; Juvekar, Vinay A.; Gopalan, Raghavan (2020). "Comprehensive effort on electrode slurry preparation for better electrochemical performance of
1557:
the components of the electrode. Therefore, it is very important that the electrode slurry be as homogeneous as possible. Multiple procedures have been developed to improve this mixing stage and current research is still being done.
222:
2610:
1784:
618:
1361:. Of course, for technological applications, the cost of the material is also an important factor. The values of these properties at room temperature (T = 293 K) for some commonly used materials are listed in the table below.
379:
The ZnO is prone to clumping and will give less efficient discharge if recharged again. It is possible to recharge these batteries but is due to safety concerns advised against by the manufacturer. Other primary cells include
1327:
can therefore be used as an electrode. Often electrodes consist of a combination of materials, each with a specific task. Typical constituents are the active materials which serve as the particles which oxidate or reduct,
719:
233:
is a battery designed to be used once and then discarded. This is due to the electrochemical reactions taking place at the electrodes in the cell not being reversible. An example of a primary cell is the discardable
1904:, the electrodes are the connections from the circuitry to the object to be acted upon by the electric current but are not designated anode or cathode because the direction of flow of the electrons changes
1699:. The method is able to analyze how the stresses evolve during the electrochemical reactions, being a valuable tool in evaluating possible pathways for coupling mechanical behavior and electrochemistry.
1525:
The electrode slurry above is coated onto a conductor which acts as the current collector in the electrochemical cell. Typical current collectors are copper for the cathode and aluminum for the anode.
910:
225:
Various disposable batteries: two 9-volt, two "AAA", two "AA", and one each of "C", "D", a cordless phone battery, a camcorder battery, a 2-meter handheld ham radio battery, and a button battery.
1628:. The best choice of compound usually depends on the application of the battery. Advantages for cobalt-based compounds over manganese-based compounds are their high specific heat capacity, high
1506:
The various constituents of the electrode are mixed into a solvent. This mixture is designed such that it improves the performance of the electrodes. Common components of this mixture are:
905:
then conservation of energy is abided by. Skipping over a few mathematical steps the probability of electron transfer can be calculated (albeit quite difficult) using the following formula
1542:
Clustering of the active material and the conductive agent. In order for all the components of the slurry to perform their task, they should all be spread out evenly within the electrode.
860:
1620:
lithium compound (a layered material consisting of layers of molecules composed of lithium and other elements). A common element which makes up part of the molecules in the compound is
1632:, low self-discharge rate, high discharge voltage and high cycle durability. There are however also drawbacks in using cobalt-based compounds such as their high cost and their low
1139:
1134:
506:
823:
With A being the pre-exponential factor which is usually experimentally determined, although a semi classical derivation provides more information as will be explained below.
135:-soaked paper disks. Due to fluctuation in the voltage provided by the voltaic cell, it was not very practical. The first practical battery was invented in 1839 and named the
819:
374:
286:
4098:
543:
536:
209:
of the electrochemical cell. At the cathode, the reduction reaction takes place with the electrons arriving from the wire connected to the cathode and are absorbed by the
2981:
1880:, an electrode is used to conduct current through a workpiece to fuse two pieces together. Depending upon the process, the electrode is either consumable, in the case of
862:. For a more extensive mathematical treatment one could read the paper by Newton. An interpretation of this result and what a closer look at the physical meaning of the
880:
640:
329:
1951:
Electrodes are used to provide current through nonmetal objects to alter them in numerous ways and to measure conductivity for numerous purposes. Examples include:
1490:
The surface topology of the electrode plays an important role in determining the efficiency of an electrode. The efficiency of the electrode can be reduced due to
1098:
4060:
1300:
1069:
650:
2884:
Li, Xiaolin; Gu, Meng; Hu, Shenyang; Kennard, Rhiannon; Yan, Pengfei; Chen, Xilin; Wang, Chongmin; Sailor, Michael J.; Zhang, Ji-Guang; Liu, Jun (2014-07-08).
1682:
anode, resulting in poor performance. To fix this problem, scientists looked into varying the dimensionality of the Si. Many studies have been developed in
1708:
474:(probability of reaction) can be calculated, if a non-adiabatic process and parabolic potential energy are assumed, by finding the point of intersection (Q
889:
is allowed. This is needed in order to explain why even at near-zero Kelvin there still are electron transfers, in contradiction to the classical theory.
3284:"Large Plastic Deformation in High-Capacity Lithium-Ion Batteries Caused by Charge and Discharge: Large Plastic Deformation in Lithium-Ion Batteries"
3567:
1345:. The physical properties of the electrodes play an important role in determining these quantities. Important properties of the electrodes are: the
1346:
4091:
3489:
1548:
The adherence of the electrode to the current collectors. The adherence makes sure that the electrode does not dissolve into the electrolyte.
1282:
The main difference is now the pre-exponential factor has now been described by more physical parameters instead of the experimental factor
3451:
1545:
An even distribution of the conductive agent over the active material. This makes sure that the conductivity of the electrode is optimal.
1302:. One is once again revered to the sources as listed below for a more in-depth and rigorous mathematical derivation and interpretation.
3838:
3725:
1644:
The anodes used in mass-produced Li-ion batteries are either carbon based (usually graphite) or made out of spinel lithium titanate (Li
2149:
4084:
4053:
2119:
3878:
3888:
2312:
Newton, Marshall D. (1991). "Quantum chemical probes of electron-transfer kinetics: The nature of donor-acceptor interactions".
3507:
Doeff, MM; Chen, G; Cabana, J; Richardson, TJ; Mehta, A; Shirpour, M; Duncan, H; Kim, C; Kam, KC; Conry, T (11 November 2013).
826:
This classically derived result qualitatively reproduced observations of a maximum electron transfer rate under the conditions
3235:"Operando Nanoindentation: A New Platform to Measure the Mechanical Properties of Electrodes during Electrochemical Reactions"
37:
3816:
461:
3898:
3009:
1920:
3509:"Characterization of electrode materials for lithium ion and sodium ion batteries using synchrotron radiation techniques"
1494:. To create an efficient electrode it is therefore important to design it such that it minimizes the contact resistance.
4236:
4046:
3560:
1136:, and making some substitution an expression is obtained very similar to the classically derived formula, as expected.
3863:
885:
the situation at hand can be more accurately described by using the displaced harmonic oscillator model, in this model
4181:
3730:
2049:
1071:
being the electronic coupling constant describing the interaction between the two states (reactants and products) and
3903:
3873:
3858:
3826:
1580:
A typical flow battery consists of two tanks of liquids which are pumped past a membrane held between two electrodes.
728:
429:
4158:
1885:
42:
3918:
3665:
829:
385:
4173:
1974:
1617:
3933:
433:
4148:
3831:
1889:
1629:
1584:
Furthermore, a Li-ion battery is an example of a secondary cell since it is rechargeable. It can both act as a
238:
commonly used in flashlights. Consisting of a zinc anode and a manganese oxide cathode in which ZnO is formed.
3938:
3883:
3868:
3801:
3760:
3735:
3715:
3695:
2886:"Mesoporous silicon sponge as an anti-pulverization structure for high-performance lithium-ion battery anodes"
1943:, and transportive properties. These electrodes are used for advanced purposes in research and investigation.
1042:{\displaystyle w_{ET}={\frac {|J|^{2}}{\hbar ^{2}}}\int _{-\infty }^{+\infty }dt\,e^{-i\Delta Et/\hbar -g(t)}}
381:
2377:
DeVault, D. (1984) Quantum
Mechanical Tunneling in Biological Systems; Cambridge University Press: Cambridge.
2221:
4375:
4123:
3821:
3553:
2174:
Ross, S. (30 November 1961). "Faraday consults the scholars: the origins of the terms of electrochemistry".
2074:
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4138:
4027:
3928:
1962:
1528:
After the slurry has been applied to the conductor it is dried and then pressed to the required thickness.
1350:
893:
471:
425:
420:. This type of battery is still the most widely used in among others automobiles. The cathode consists of
31:
3789:
1107:
481:
413:
4216:
4211:
4186:
4163:
4143:
3893:
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2674:
Zhao, Qiang; Hao, Xiaoge; Su, Shiming; Ma, Jiabin; Hu, Yi; Liu, Yong; Kang, Feiyu; He, Yan-Bing (2019).
1881:
901:
396:
140:
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1342:
1338:
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2628:
2426:"Electrode manufacturing for lithium-ion batteriesâAnalysis of current and next generation processing"
99:
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3326:
3155:
2537:
2490:
2352:
2033:
2016:
180:
176:
53:
2208:
Conventional
Current Flow and Electron Flow. (2021, September 12). Mohawk Valley Community College.
360:
272:
4401:
4191:
3923:
3908:
3843:
3811:
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3622:
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2010:
1905:
1901:
1853:
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1354:
1101:
897:
175:
words áŒÎœÎż (ano), 'upwards' and áœÎŽÏÏ (hodĂłs), 'a way'. The anode is the electrode through which the
147:
have been developed using various materials. The basis of all these is still using two electrodes,
3144:"In situ measurement of mechanical property and stress evolution in a composite silicon electrode"
511:
4308:
4246:
4221:
4196:
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1805:
1604:
1491:
643:
88:
57:
3448:
2676:"Expanded-graphite embedded in lithium metal as dendrite-free anode of lithium metal batteries"
1856:, is used only to make a connection to the electrolyte so that a current can be applied to the
1592:. Li-ion batteries use lithium ions as the solute in the electrolyte which are dissolved in an
4350:
4345:
3987:
3705:
3675:
3534:
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3430:
3389:
3342:
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2447:
2145:
2022:
1985:
1966:
1924:
1857:
1589:
886:
865:
625:
449:
192:
144:
440:. The last of which will be explained more thoroughly in this article due to its importance.
408:
Electric current and electrons directions for a secondary battery during discharge and charge
316:
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2734:
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2640:
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2545:
2498:
2437:
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2321:
2270:
2183:
1683:
1600:
1593:
1329:
1273:{\displaystyle w_{ET}={\frac {|J|^{2}}{\hbar }}{\sqrt {\frac {\pi }{\lambda kT}}}\exp \left}
417:
252:
235:
116:
112:
73:
2847:"Silicon-based materials as high capacity anodes for next generation lithium ion batteries"
404:
4318:
3720:
3647:
3455:
3142:
Li, Dawei; Wang, Yikai; Hu, Jiazhi; Lu, Bo; Cheng, Yang-Tse; Zhang, Junqian (2017-10-31).
2026:
1932:
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1633:
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210:
168:
164:
76:
that can consist of a variety of materials (chemicals) depending on the type of battery.
3330:
3282:
Zhao, Kejie; Pharr, Matt; Cai, Shengqiang; Vlassak, Joost J.; Suo, Zhigang (June 2011).
3159:
2541:
2494:
2356:
4313:
4277:
3956:
3610:
3529:
3508:
2808:"A review of the electrochemical performance of alloy anodes for lithium-ion batteries"
2164:
Bellis, Mary. Biography of
Alessandro Volta â Stored Electricity and the First Battery.
2104:
1998:
1992:
1669:
Silicon has one of the highest gravimetric capacities when compared to graphite and Li
1502:
The production of electrodes for Li-ion batteries is done in various steps as follows:
1334:
1285:
1054:
172:
3369:
3078:
2982:"Ex-Tesla Engineer Building Silicon Anode Plant As U.S. Amps Up EV Battery Production"
1923:
are electrodes that have their surfaces chemically modified to change the electrode's
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4287:
4251:
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4133:
3590:
3499:
3385:
3354:
3299:
3268:
2707:
2660:
2510:
2459:
2195:
2094:
1978:
1970:
1838:
1779:{\displaystyle \mu =\mu ^{o}+k\cdot T\cdot \log(\gamma \cdot x)+\Omega \cdot \sigma }
1585:
1316:
613:{\displaystyle \Delta G^{\dagger }={\frac {1}{4\lambda }}(\Delta G^{0}+\lambda )^{2}}
104:
80:
61:
3128:
892:
Without going into too much detail on how the derivation is done, it rests on using
4272:
4241:
4069:
3794:
3750:
3685:
3627:
3605:
3168:
3143:
2862:
2823:
2502:
2389:"Electrodes and Electrode Materials Selection Guide: Types, Features, Applications"
2114:
2039:
1846:
1570:
421:
230:
136:
120:
84:
2723:"Li 4 Ti 5 O 12 spinel anode: Fundamentals and advances in rechargeable batteries"
2629:"Graphite as anode materials: Fundamental mechanism, recent progress and advances"
1816:
is the ratio of the ion to the total composition of the electrode. The novel term
1576:
412:
Contrary to the primary cell a secondary cell can be recharged. The first was the
2784:
2721:
Zhang, Hao; Yang, Yang; Xu, Hong; Wang, Li; Lu, Xia; He, Xiangming (April 2022).
4323:
4115:
4022:
4007:
3745:
3670:
3051:
3034:
2935:"Three-Dimensional Metal Scaffold Supported Bicontinuous Silicon Battery Anodes"
2109:
2004:
1877:
1861:
1834:
437:
65:
2644:
1552:
possible, without the conductive agent and the binder not functioning properly.
4370:
4365:
3966:
3700:
3680:
3425:
3408:
3338:
2627:
Zhang, Hao; Yang, Yang; Ren, Dongsheng; Wang, Li; He, Xiangming (2021-04-01).
2442:
2425:
2364:
2290:
1940:
1312:
3449:
Chemically modified electrodes: Recommended terminology and definitions (PDF)
3434:
3393:
3346:
3260:
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3112:
3060:
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2934:
2911:
2870:
2831:
2792:
2748:
2699:
2652:
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642:
is the reorganisation energy. Filling this result in the classically derived
27:
Electrical conductor used to make contact with nonmetallic parts of a circuit
4360:
4355:
4012:
3992:
3961:
3617:
3314:
3094:
2767:
Zuo, Xiuxia; Zhu, Jin; MĂŒller-Buschbaum, Peter; Cheng, Ya-Jun (2017-01-01).
2209:
1956:
1625:
1379:
3538:
3120:
2966:
2919:
2187:
3481:
2769:"Silicon based lithium-ion battery anodes: A chronicle perspective review"
714:{\displaystyle k=A\,\exp \left({\frac {-\Delta G^{\dagger }}{kT}}\right),}
143:. It still made use of the zincâcopper electrode combination. Since then,
17:
3690:
3251:
3234:
2526:"Review Article: Flow battery systems with solid electroactive materials"
2043:
1928:
1865:
1397:
1358:
1320:
188:
3545:
3409:"Understanding the role of mechanics in energy materials: A perspective"
3103:
2590:
2325:
1860:. The counter electrode is usually made of an inert material, such as a
4380:
4340:
3997:
2902:
2885:
2739:
2722:
2691:
2675:
1936:
1596:
1373:
1324:
152:
3370:"A linear theory of thermochemical equilibrium of solids under stress"
3211:
2950:
2550:
2525:
2451:
221:
2275:
1621:
1515:
A conductive agent used to improve the conductivity of the electrode.
1385:
124:
69:
3195:
2574:
3447:
Durst, R., Baumner, A., Murray, R., Buck, R., & Andrieux, C., "
3196:"Electrochemomechanics of Electrodes in Li-Ion Batteries: A Review"
2142:
Brain, Mind and
Medicine: Essays in eighteenth-century neuroscience
3982:
3520:
2084:
2055:
1909:
1842:
1575:
460:
403:
395:
220:
197:
184:
148:
132:
98:
36:
2615:
Sigma-Aldrich
Technical Documents: Lab & Production Materials
2341:"Electron transfer reactions in chemistry. Theory and experiment"
2240:"Electron Transfer Reactions in Chemistry: Theory and Experiment"
448:
Marcus theory is a theory originally developed by Nobel laureate
1391:
128:
4080:
4042:
4038:
3549:
1852:
In a three-electrode cell, a counter electrode, also called an
4017:
3476:(First ed.). Boca Raton: CRC Press/Taylor & Francis.
2266:
2088:
3233:
de
Vasconcelos, Luize Scalco; Xu, Rong; Zhao, Kejie (2017).
3010:"In the battery materials world, the anode's time has come"
465:
Potential energy surface for the donor and the acceptor as
2406:
1104:. Taking the classical limit of this expression, meaning
3200:
3072:
3070:
1512:
A binder used to contain the active electrode particles.
424:(PbO2) and the anode of solid lead. Other commonly used
1820:
is the partial molar volume of the ion in the host and
508:) in terms of the overall free energy of the reaction (
1520:
The mixture created is known as an âelectrode slurryâ.
3474:
Electrode materials for energy storage and conversion
1711:
1288:
1142:
1110:
1077:
1057:
913:
868:
832:
731:
653:
628:
546:
514:
484:
363:
319:
275:
87:, was an early version of an electrode used to study
4301:
4260:
4172:
4114:
3975:
3947:
3769:
3645:
3583:
115:. The first electrochemical battery was devised by
3472:Kebede, Mesfin A.; Ezema, Fabian I., eds. (2022).
2845:Liang, Bo; Liu, Yanping; Xu, Yunhua (2014-12-01).
2471:
2469:
2032:Nanoelectrodes for high-precision measurements in
1778:
1569:(Li-ion batteries). A Li-ion battery is a kind of
1294:
1272:
1128:
1092:
1063:
1041:
874:
854:
813:
713:
634:
612:
530:
500:
368:
323:
280:
56:used to make contact with a nonmetallic part of a
2222:"The 4 Types of Rechargeable Batteries Explained"
3033:Liu, Bin; Zhang, Ji-Guang; Xu, Wu (2018-05-16).
2176:Notes and Records of the Royal Society of London
470:electron transfer theory, the expression of the
2611:"Electrode Materials for Lithium Ion Batteries"
2573:Lewis, Gilbert N.; Keyes, Frederick G. (1913).
1616:In Li-ion batteries, the cathode consists of a
3003:
3001:
2267:"The IUPAC Compendium of Chemical Terminology"
1981:(recording and delivering cardiac stimulation)
4092:
4054:
3561:
3077:PalacĂn, M. R.; de Guibert, A. (2016-02-05).
2933:Zhang, Huigang; Braun, Paul V. (2012-06-13).
2524:Qi, Zhaoxiang; Koenig, Gary M. (2017-05-12).
1573:which can be seen in the image on the right.
8:
2530:Journal of Vacuum Science & Technology B
855:{\displaystyle \Delta G^{\dagger }=\lambda }
191:then flow to the other side of the battery.
3315:"A survey of energies in materials science"
1599:. Lithium electrodes were first studied by
72:or air). Electrodes are essential parts of
4099:
4085:
4077:
4061:
4047:
4039:
3568:
3554:
3546:
3189:
3187:
1315:. Any conducting material such as metals,
443:
95:Anode and cathode in electrochemical cells
3528:
3424:
3250:
3167:
3102:
3050:
2901:
2738:
2549:
2441:
2274:
2210:https://eng.libretexts.org/@go/page/25106
1961:Electrodes for medical purposes, such as
1812:inside the logarithm is the activity and
1722:
1710:
1565:A modern application of electrodes is in
1287:
1243:
1218:
1188:
1176:
1171:
1162:
1159:
1147:
1141:
1109:
1076:
1056:
1014:
998:
993:
978:
970:
958:
947:
942:
933:
930:
918:
912:
867:
840:
831:
784:
768:
752:
741:
730:
687:
674:
663:
652:
627:
604:
588:
563:
554:
545:
522:
513:
492:
483:
362:
318:
274:
179:enters from the electrical circuit of an
2604:
2602:
2600:
2579:Journal of the American Chemical Society
2575:"The Potential of the Lithium Electrode"
1792:represents the chemical potential, with
1363:
111:Electrodes are an essential part of any
3288:Journal of the American Ceramic Society
2407:"Online Materials Information Resource"
2144:. New York, NY: Springer. p. 140.
2132:
1183:
1111:
1019:
955:
416:, invented in 1859 by French physicist
123:. This battery consisted of a stack of
3239:Journal of the Electrochemical Society
2424:Hawley, W. Blake; Li, Jianlin (2019).
200:reaction that takes place next to it.
2762:
2760:
2758:
2291:"Marcus Theory for Electron Transfer"
1624:. Another frequently used element is
7:
3368:Larché, F; Cahn, J. W (1973-08-01).
3194:Xu, Rong; Zhao, Kejie (2016-12-12).
3407:Zhao, Kejie; Cui, Yi (2016-12-01).
3035:"Advancing Lithium Metal Batteries"
1561:Electrodes in lithium ion batteries
1129:{\displaystyle \hbar \omega \ll kT}
501:{\displaystyle \Delta G^{\dagger }}
444:Marcus' theory of electron transfer
1767:
1227:
1005:
982:
974:
882:one can read the paper by Marcus.
833:
761:
680:
581:
547:
515:
485:
25:
3513:Journal of Visualized Experiments
3415:. Mechanics of Energy Materials.
2609:Kam, Kinson C.; Doeff, Marca M.,
2120:Reversible charge injection limit
1988:techniques in biomedical research
1900:For electrical systems which use
3636:
3300:10.1111/j.1551-2916.2011.04432.x
2680:Journal of Materials Chemistry A
1991:Electrodes for execution by the
1977:(electrical brain stimulation),
1965:(for recording brain activity),
1888:, or non-consumable, such as in
4159:Shielded metal (Stick/MMA/SMAW)
4149:Gas tungsten (Heliarc/TIG/GTAW)
1800:stands for the temperature and
1509:The active electrode particles.
1464:Specific heat capacity (J/(gK))
814:{\displaystyle k=A\,\exp \left}
365:
364:
320:
277:
276:
4144:Gas metal (Microwire/MIG/GMAW)
3169:10.1016/j.jpowsour.2017.09.004
2863:10.1016/j.jpowsour.2014.05.096
2824:10.1016/j.jpowsour.2010.07.020
2503:10.1016/j.jpowsour.2020.228837
1921:Chemically modified electrodes
1916:Chemically modified electrodes
1896:Alternating current electrodes
1868:, to keep it from dissolving.
1761:
1749:
1240:
1224:
1172:
1163:
1087:
1081:
1034:
1028:
943:
934:
781:
758:
601:
578:
388:, and lithium iron disulfide.
369:{\displaystyle \qquad \qquad }
281:{\displaystyle \qquad \qquad }
1:
3458:", IUPAC, 1997, pp 1317â1323.
2806:Zhang, Wei-Jun (2011-01-01).
171:'s request, derived from the
4124:Atomic hydrogen (Athydo/AHW)
3386:10.1016/0001-6160(73)90021-7
3313:Spaepen *, F. (2005-09-11).
3008:Alex Scott (April 7, 2019).
2785:10.1016/j.nanoen.2016.11.013
1365:Common electrode properties
531:{\displaystyle \Delta G^{0}}
3052:10.1016/j.joule.2018.03.008
2339:Marcus, Rudolph A. (1993).
2050:Membrane electrode assembly
1796:being its reference value.
4423:
2645:10.1016/j.ensm.2020.12.027
2265:Gold, Victor, ed. (2019).
1886:shielded metal arc welding
1533:Structure of the electrode
43:shielded metal arc welding
29:
4336:
4182:Electric resistance (ERW)
4076:
3726:Metalâair electrochemical
3634:
3426:10.1016/j.eml.2016.10.003
3413:Extreme Mechanics Letters
3339:10.1080/14786430500155080
2443:10.1016/j.est.2019.100862
2430:Journal of Energy Storage
2365:10.1103/RevModPhys.65.599
2345:Reviews of Modern Physics
1829:Other anodes and cathodes
3148:Journal of Power Sources
3079:"Why do batteries fail?"
2851:Journal of Power Sources
2812:Journal of Power Sources
2633:Energy Storage Materials
2483:Journal of Power Sources
2140:Whitaker, Harry (2007).
1890:gas tungsten arc welding
1630:volumetric heat capacity
1311:electrode is that it be
875:{\displaystyle \lambda }
635:{\displaystyle \lambda }
241:The half-reactions are:
131:electrodes separated by
119:and was aptly named the
103:Schematic of a voltaic (
3095:10.1126/science.1253292
2075:Gas diffusion electrode
1847:electrolytic capacitors
1424:Electrode potential (V)
324:{\displaystyle \qquad }
183:(battery) into the non-
4028:Semipermeable membrane
3817:Lithiumâironâphosphate
3319:Philosophical Magazine
2188:10.1098/rsnr.1961.0038
1780:
1581:
1351:specific heat capacity
1347:electrical resistivity
1296:
1274:
1130:
1094:
1065:
1043:
876:
856:
815:
715:
636:
614:
532:
502:
472:reaction rate constant
466:
453:donor to an acceptor
426:rechargeable batteries
409:
401:
400:Rechargeable Batteries
370:
325:
282:
226:
163:'Anode' was coined by
108:
45:
4376:Tools and terminology
3899:Rechargeable alkaline
3577:Electrochemical cells
3482:10.1201/9781003145585
2890:Nature Communications
2038:Inert electrodes for
1882:gas metal arc welding
1781:
1690:Mechanical properties
1579:
1567:lithium-ion batteries
1297:
1275:
1131:
1095:
1066:
1044:
877:
857:
816:
716:
637:
615:
533:
503:
464:
407:
399:
371:
326:
283:
224:
141:John Frederic Daniell
102:
40:
30:For the Pokémon, see
3879:Nickelâmetal hydride
3325:(26â27): 2979â2987.
3252:10.1149/2.1411714jes
2034:nanoelectrochemistry
1709:
1286:
1140:
1108:
1093:{\displaystyle g(t)}
1075:
1055:
911:
896:from time-dependent
866:
830:
729:
651:
626:
544:
512:
482:
434:nickelâmetal hydride
361:
317:
273:
181:electrochemical cell
177:conventional current
54:electrical conductor
4212:Friction stir (FSW)
4187:Electron-beam (EBW)
3889:Polysulfideâbromide
3731:Nickel oxyhydroxide
3623:Thermogalvanic cell
3331:2005PMag...85.2979S
3245:(14): A3840âA3847.
3160:2017JPS...366...80L
2686:(26): 15871â15879.
2591:10.1021/ja02193a004
2542:2017JVSTB..35d0801Q
2495:2020JPS...48028837K
2357:1993RvMP...65..599M
2326:10.1021/cr00005a007
2100:Electron microscope
2080:Cellulose electrode
2070:Reference electrode
2058:electroshock weapon
2011:cathodic protection
1902:alternating current
1854:auxiliary electrode
1366:
1355:electrode potential
1102:line shape function
986:
898:perturbation theory
894:Fermi's golden rule
145:many more batteries
41:Electrodes used in
32:Electrode (Pokémon)
4309:Heat-affected zone
4237:Oxyacetylene (OAW)
3652:(non-rechargeable)
3596:Concentration cell
3454:2014-02-01 at the
2903:10.1038/ncomms5105
2740:10.1002/inf2.12228
2692:10.1039/C9TA04240G
2393:www.globalspec.com
2293:. 12 December 2020
1872:Welding electrodes
1806:Boltzmann constant
1788:In this equation,
1776:
1605:Frederick G. Keyes
1582:
1492:contact resistance
1364:
1292:
1270:
1126:
1090:
1061:
1039:
966:
872:
852:
811:
711:
644:Arrhenius equation
632:
610:
528:
498:
467:
410:
402:
366:
334:Overall reaction:
321:
278:
227:
109:
89:static electricity
46:
4389:
4388:
4332:
4331:
4192:Electroslag (ESW)
4139:Flux-cored (FCAW)
4036:
4035:
3491:978-0-367-70304-2
3374:Acta Metallurgica
3212:10.1115/1.4035310
3089:(6273): 1253292.
2951:10.1021/nl204551m
2551:10.1116/1.4983210
2246:. 8 December 1992
2023:chemical analysis
1986:electrophysiology
1858:working electrode
1841:having polarity (
1590:electrolytic cell
1483:
1482:
1343:cycle performance
1339:discharge voltage
1330:conductive agents
1295:{\displaystyle A}
1264:
1206:
1205:
1186:
1064:{\displaystyle J}
964:
887:quantum tunneling
805:
702:
576:
450:Rudolph A. Marcus
414:leadâacid battery
193:Benjamin Franklin
16:(Redirected from
4414:
4222:Laser beam (LBW)
4129:Electrogas (EGW)
4101:
4094:
4087:
4078:
4063:
4056:
4049:
4040:
3832:Lithiumâtitanate
3777:
3653:
3640:
3601:Electric battery
3570:
3563:
3556:
3547:
3542:
3532:
3503:
3459:
3445:
3439:
3438:
3428:
3404:
3398:
3397:
3380:(8): 1051â1063.
3365:
3359:
3358:
3310:
3304:
3303:
3279:
3273:
3272:
3254:
3230:
3224:
3223:
3191:
3182:
3181:
3171:
3139:
3133:
3132:
3106:
3074:
3065:
3064:
3054:
3030:
3024:
3023:
3021:
3020:
3005:
2996:
2995:
2993:
2992:
2977:
2971:
2970:
2945:(6): 2778â2783.
2930:
2924:
2923:
2905:
2881:
2875:
2874:
2842:
2836:
2835:
2803:
2797:
2796:
2764:
2753:
2752:
2742:
2718:
2712:
2711:
2671:
2665:
2664:
2624:
2618:
2617:
2606:
2595:
2594:
2570:
2564:
2563:
2553:
2521:
2515:
2514:
2473:
2464:
2463:
2445:
2421:
2415:
2414:
2403:
2397:
2396:
2387:Engineering360.
2384:
2378:
2375:
2369:
2368:
2336:
2330:
2329:
2314:Chemical Reviews
2309:
2303:
2302:
2300:
2298:
2287:
2281:
2280:
2278:
2276:10.1351/goldbook
2262:
2256:
2255:
2253:
2251:
2236:
2230:
2229:
2218:
2212:
2206:
2200:
2199:
2171:
2165:
2162:
2156:
2155:
2137:
2093:Electron versus
1910:times per second
1785:
1783:
1782:
1777:
1727:
1726:
1601:Gilbert N. Lewis
1404:Resistivity (Ωm)
1367:
1301:
1299:
1298:
1293:
1279:
1277:
1276:
1271:
1269:
1265:
1263:
1249:
1248:
1247:
1219:
1207:
1204:
1190:
1189:
1187:
1182:
1181:
1180:
1175:
1166:
1160:
1155:
1154:
1135:
1133:
1132:
1127:
1099:
1097:
1096:
1091:
1070:
1068:
1067:
1062:
1048:
1046:
1045:
1040:
1038:
1037:
1018:
985:
977:
965:
963:
962:
953:
952:
951:
946:
937:
931:
926:
925:
881:
879:
878:
873:
861:
859:
858:
853:
845:
844:
820:
818:
817:
812:
810:
806:
804:
790:
789:
788:
773:
772:
753:
720:
718:
717:
712:
707:
703:
701:
693:
692:
691:
675:
641:
639:
638:
633:
619:
617:
616:
611:
609:
608:
593:
592:
577:
575:
564:
559:
558:
537:
535:
534:
529:
527:
526:
507:
505:
504:
499:
497:
496:
375:
373:
372:
367:
330:
328:
327:
322:
287:
285:
284:
279:
236:alkaline battery
117:Alessandro Volta
21:
4422:
4421:
4417:
4416:
4415:
4413:
4412:
4411:
4392:
4391:
4390:
4385:
4328:
4319:Residual stress
4297:
4256:
4174:Other processes
4168:
4164:Submerged (SAW)
4110:
4105:
4072:
4067:
4037:
4032:
3971:
3950:
3943:
3864:Nickelâhydrogen
3822:Lithiumâpolymer
3778:
3775:
3774:
3765:
3654:
3651:
3650:
3641:
3632:
3579:
3574:
3506:
3492:
3471:
3468:
3466:Further reading
3463:
3462:
3456:Wayback Machine
3446:
3442:
3406:
3405:
3401:
3367:
3366:
3362:
3312:
3311:
3307:
3281:
3280:
3276:
3232:
3231:
3227:
3193:
3192:
3185:
3141:
3140:
3136:
3076:
3075:
3068:
3032:
3031:
3027:
3018:
3016:
3007:
3006:
2999:
2990:
2988:
2980:Ohnsman, Alan.
2979:
2978:
2974:
2932:
2931:
2927:
2883:
2882:
2878:
2844:
2843:
2839:
2805:
2804:
2800:
2766:
2765:
2756:
2720:
2719:
2715:
2673:
2672:
2668:
2626:
2625:
2621:
2608:
2607:
2598:
2572:
2571:
2567:
2523:
2522:
2518:
2480:
2475:
2474:
2467:
2423:
2422:
2418:
2405:
2404:
2400:
2386:
2385:
2381:
2376:
2372:
2338:
2337:
2333:
2311:
2310:
2306:
2296:
2294:
2289:
2288:
2284:
2264:
2263:
2259:
2249:
2247:
2238:
2237:
2233:
2220:
2219:
2215:
2207:
2203:
2173:
2172:
2168:
2163:
2159:
2152:
2139:
2138:
2134:
2129:
2124:
2065:
2054:Electrodes for
2027:electrochemical
2021:Electrodes for
2015:Electrodes for
2009:Electrodes for
2003:Electrodes for
1997:Electrodes for
1984:Electrodes for
1955:Electrodes for
1949:
1933:electrochemical
1918:
1908:, usually many
1898:
1874:
1831:
1718:
1707:
1706:
1697:nanoindentation
1692:
1680:
1676:
1672:
1667:
1663:
1659:
1655:
1651:
1647:
1642:
1634:thermostability
1614:
1563:
1535:
1500:
1488:
1486:Surface effects
1308:
1284:
1283:
1250:
1239:
1220:
1214:
1194:
1170:
1161:
1143:
1138:
1137:
1106:
1105:
1073:
1072:
1053:
1052:
994:
954:
941:
932:
914:
909:
908:
864:
863:
836:
828:
827:
791:
780:
764:
754:
748:
727:
726:
694:
683:
676:
670:
649:
648:
624:
623:
600:
584:
568:
550:
542:
541:
518:
510:
509:
488:
480:
479:
477:
446:
394:
359:
358:
357:
353:
349:
345:
341:
315:
314:
313:
309:
305:
301:
297:
293:
271:
270:
268:
264:
260:
256:
248:
219:
211:oxidizing agent
206:
169:Michael Faraday
165:William Whewell
161:
97:
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
4420:
4418:
4410:
4409:
4404:
4394:
4393:
4387:
4386:
4384:
4383:
4378:
4373:
4368:
4363:
4358:
4353:
4348:
4343:
4337:
4334:
4333:
4330:
4329:
4327:
4326:
4321:
4316:
4314:Photokeratitis
4311:
4305:
4303:
4299:
4298:
4296:
4295:
4290:
4285:
4280:
4275:
4270:
4264:
4262:
4258:
4257:
4255:
4254:
4249:
4244:
4239:
4234:
4232:Magnetic pulse
4229:
4224:
4219:
4214:
4209:
4204:
4199:
4194:
4189:
4184:
4178:
4176:
4170:
4169:
4167:
4166:
4161:
4156:
4151:
4146:
4141:
4136:
4131:
4126:
4120:
4118:
4112:
4111:
4106:
4104:
4103:
4096:
4089:
4081:
4074:
4073:
4068:
4066:
4065:
4058:
4051:
4043:
4034:
4033:
4031:
4030:
4025:
4020:
4015:
4010:
4005:
4000:
3995:
3990:
3985:
3979:
3977:
3973:
3972:
3970:
3969:
3964:
3959:
3957:Atomic battery
3953:
3951:
3948:
3945:
3944:
3942:
3941:
3936:
3931:
3929:Vanadium redox
3926:
3921:
3916:
3911:
3906:
3904:Silverâcadmium
3901:
3896:
3891:
3886:
3881:
3876:
3874:Nickelâlithium
3871:
3866:
3861:
3859:Nickelâcadmium
3856:
3851:
3846:
3841:
3836:
3835:
3834:
3829:
3827:Lithiumâsulfur
3824:
3819:
3814:
3804:
3799:
3798:
3797:
3787:
3781:
3779:
3776:(rechargeable)
3772:Secondary cell
3770:
3767:
3766:
3764:
3763:
3758:
3753:
3748:
3743:
3738:
3733:
3728:
3723:
3718:
3713:
3708:
3703:
3698:
3696:EdisonâLalande
3693:
3688:
3683:
3678:
3673:
3668:
3663:
3657:
3655:
3646:
3643:
3642:
3635:
3633:
3631:
3630:
3625:
3620:
3615:
3614:
3613:
3611:Trough battery
3608:
3598:
3593:
3587:
3585:
3581:
3580:
3575:
3573:
3572:
3565:
3558:
3550:
3544:
3543:
3515:(81): e50594.
3504:
3490:
3467:
3464:
3461:
3460:
3440:
3399:
3360:
3305:
3274:
3225:
3183:
3134:
3066:
3045:(5): 833â845.
3025:
2997:
2972:
2925:
2876:
2837:
2798:
2754:
2713:
2666:
2619:
2596:
2585:(4): 340â344.
2565:
2516:
2478:
2465:
2416:
2411:www.matweb.com
2398:
2379:
2370:
2351:(3): 599â610.
2331:
2320:(5): 767â792.
2304:
2282:
2257:
2231:
2228:. 2 June 2020.
2213:
2201:
2182:(2): 187â220.
2166:
2157:
2151:978-0387709673
2150:
2131:
2130:
2128:
2125:
2123:
2122:
2117:
2112:
2107:
2105:Tafel equation
2102:
2097:
2091:
2082:
2077:
2072:
2066:
2064:
2061:
2060:
2059:
2052:
2047:
2036:
2030:
2019:
2013:
2007:
2001:
1999:electroplating
1995:
1993:electric chair
1989:
1982:
1959:
1948:
1945:
1917:
1914:
1897:
1894:
1873:
1870:
1830:
1827:
1775:
1772:
1769:
1766:
1763:
1760:
1757:
1754:
1751:
1748:
1745:
1742:
1739:
1736:
1733:
1730:
1725:
1721:
1717:
1714:
1691:
1688:
1678:
1674:
1670:
1665:
1661:
1657:
1653:
1649:
1645:
1641:
1638:
1613:
1610:
1562:
1559:
1554:
1553:
1549:
1546:
1543:
1534:
1531:
1530:
1529:
1526:
1523:
1522:
1521:
1517:
1516:
1513:
1510:
1499:
1496:
1487:
1484:
1481:
1480:
1477:
1474:
1471:
1468:
1465:
1461:
1460:
1457:
1454:
1451:
1448:
1445:
1441:
1440:
1437:
1434:
1431:
1428:
1425:
1421:
1420:
1417:
1414:
1411:
1408:
1405:
1401:
1400:
1395:
1389:
1383:
1377:
1371:
1335:self-discharge
1323:or conductive
1317:semiconductors
1307:
1304:
1291:
1268:
1262:
1259:
1256:
1253:
1246:
1242:
1238:
1235:
1232:
1229:
1226:
1223:
1217:
1213:
1210:
1203:
1200:
1197:
1193:
1185:
1179:
1174:
1169:
1165:
1158:
1153:
1150:
1146:
1125:
1122:
1119:
1116:
1113:
1089:
1086:
1083:
1080:
1060:
1036:
1033:
1030:
1027:
1024:
1021:
1017:
1013:
1010:
1007:
1004:
1001:
997:
992:
989:
984:
981:
976:
973:
969:
961:
957:
950:
945:
940:
936:
929:
924:
921:
917:
900:with the full
871:
851:
848:
843:
839:
835:
809:
803:
800:
797:
794:
787:
783:
779:
776:
771:
767:
763:
760:
757:
751:
747:
744:
740:
737:
734:
710:
706:
700:
697:
690:
686:
682:
679:
673:
669:
666:
662:
659:
656:
631:
607:
603:
599:
596:
591:
587:
583:
580:
574:
571:
567:
562:
557:
553:
549:
525:
521:
517:
495:
491:
487:
475:
459:
458:
445:
442:
430:nickelâcadmium
393:
392:Secondary cell
390:
377:
376:
355:
351:
347:
343:
339:
332:
331:
311:
307:
303:
299:
295:
291:
288:
266:
262:
258:
250:
246:
218:
215:
205:
202:
160:
157:
96:
93:
83:, invented by
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4419:
4408:
4405:
4403:
4400:
4399:
4397:
4382:
4379:
4377:
4374:
4372:
4369:
4367:
4364:
4362:
4359:
4357:
4354:
4352:
4349:
4347:
4344:
4342:
4339:
4338:
4335:
4325:
4322:
4320:
4317:
4315:
4312:
4310:
4307:
4306:
4304:
4302:Related terms
4300:
4294:
4293:Shielding gas
4291:
4289:
4286:
4284:
4281:
4279:
4276:
4274:
4271:
4269:
4266:
4265:
4263:
4259:
4253:
4250:
4248:
4245:
4243:
4240:
4238:
4235:
4233:
4230:
4228:
4225:
4223:
4220:
4218:
4217:Friction stud
4215:
4213:
4210:
4208:
4205:
4203:
4200:
4198:
4195:
4193:
4190:
4188:
4185:
4183:
4180:
4179:
4177:
4175:
4171:
4165:
4162:
4160:
4157:
4155:
4152:
4150:
4147:
4145:
4142:
4140:
4137:
4135:
4132:
4130:
4127:
4125:
4122:
4121:
4119:
4117:
4113:
4109:
4102:
4097:
4095:
4090:
4088:
4083:
4082:
4079:
4075:
4071:
4064:
4059:
4057:
4052:
4050:
4045:
4044:
4041:
4029:
4026:
4024:
4021:
4019:
4016:
4014:
4011:
4009:
4006:
4004:
4001:
3999:
3996:
3994:
3991:
3989:
3986:
3984:
3981:
3980:
3978:
3974:
3968:
3965:
3963:
3960:
3958:
3955:
3954:
3952:
3946:
3940:
3937:
3935:
3932:
3930:
3927:
3925:
3922:
3920:
3919:Sodiumâsulfur
3917:
3915:
3912:
3910:
3907:
3905:
3902:
3900:
3897:
3895:
3894:Potassium ion
3892:
3890:
3887:
3885:
3882:
3880:
3877:
3875:
3872:
3870:
3867:
3865:
3862:
3860:
3857:
3855:
3852:
3850:
3847:
3845:
3842:
3840:
3837:
3833:
3830:
3828:
3825:
3823:
3820:
3818:
3815:
3813:
3810:
3809:
3808:
3805:
3803:
3800:
3796:
3793:
3792:
3791:
3788:
3786:
3783:
3782:
3780:
3773:
3768:
3762:
3759:
3757:
3754:
3752:
3749:
3747:
3744:
3742:
3739:
3737:
3734:
3732:
3729:
3727:
3724:
3722:
3719:
3717:
3714:
3712:
3711:Lithium metal
3709:
3707:
3704:
3702:
3699:
3697:
3694:
3692:
3689:
3687:
3684:
3682:
3679:
3677:
3674:
3672:
3669:
3667:
3666:Aluminiumâair
3664:
3662:
3659:
3658:
3656:
3649:
3644:
3639:
3629:
3626:
3624:
3621:
3619:
3616:
3612:
3609:
3607:
3604:
3603:
3602:
3599:
3597:
3594:
3592:
3591:Galvanic cell
3589:
3588:
3586:
3582:
3578:
3571:
3566:
3564:
3559:
3557:
3552:
3551:
3548:
3540:
3536:
3531:
3526:
3522:
3521:10.3791/50594
3518:
3514:
3510:
3505:
3501:
3497:
3493:
3487:
3483:
3479:
3475:
3470:
3469:
3465:
3457:
3453:
3450:
3444:
3441:
3436:
3432:
3427:
3422:
3418:
3414:
3410:
3403:
3400:
3395:
3391:
3387:
3383:
3379:
3375:
3371:
3364:
3361:
3356:
3352:
3348:
3344:
3340:
3336:
3332:
3328:
3324:
3320:
3316:
3309:
3306:
3301:
3297:
3294:: s226âs235.
3293:
3289:
3285:
3278:
3275:
3270:
3266:
3262:
3258:
3253:
3248:
3244:
3240:
3236:
3229:
3226:
3221:
3217:
3213:
3209:
3205:
3201:
3197:
3190:
3188:
3184:
3179:
3175:
3170:
3165:
3161:
3157:
3153:
3149:
3145:
3138:
3135:
3130:
3126:
3122:
3118:
3114:
3110:
3105:
3100:
3096:
3092:
3088:
3084:
3080:
3073:
3071:
3067:
3062:
3058:
3053:
3048:
3044:
3040:
3036:
3029:
3026:
3015:
3011:
3004:
3002:
2998:
2987:
2983:
2976:
2973:
2968:
2964:
2960:
2956:
2952:
2948:
2944:
2940:
2936:
2929:
2926:
2921:
2917:
2913:
2909:
2904:
2899:
2895:
2891:
2887:
2880:
2877:
2872:
2868:
2864:
2860:
2856:
2852:
2848:
2841:
2838:
2833:
2829:
2825:
2821:
2817:
2813:
2809:
2802:
2799:
2794:
2790:
2786:
2782:
2778:
2774:
2770:
2763:
2761:
2759:
2755:
2750:
2746:
2741:
2736:
2732:
2728:
2724:
2717:
2714:
2709:
2705:
2701:
2697:
2693:
2689:
2685:
2681:
2677:
2670:
2667:
2662:
2658:
2654:
2650:
2646:
2642:
2638:
2634:
2630:
2623:
2620:
2616:
2612:
2605:
2603:
2601:
2597:
2592:
2588:
2584:
2580:
2576:
2569:
2566:
2561:
2557:
2552:
2547:
2543:
2539:
2536:(4): 040801.
2535:
2531:
2527:
2520:
2517:
2512:
2508:
2504:
2500:
2496:
2492:
2488:
2484:
2472:
2470:
2466:
2461:
2457:
2453:
2449:
2444:
2439:
2435:
2431:
2427:
2420:
2417:
2412:
2408:
2402:
2399:
2394:
2390:
2383:
2380:
2374:
2371:
2366:
2362:
2358:
2354:
2350:
2346:
2342:
2335:
2332:
2327:
2323:
2319:
2315:
2308:
2305:
2292:
2286:
2283:
2277:
2272:
2268:
2261:
2258:
2245:
2244:Nobelstiftung
2241:
2235:
2232:
2227:
2223:
2217:
2214:
2211:
2205:
2202:
2197:
2193:
2189:
2185:
2181:
2177:
2170:
2167:
2161:
2158:
2153:
2147:
2143:
2136:
2133:
2126:
2121:
2118:
2116:
2113:
2111:
2108:
2106:
2103:
2101:
2098:
2096:
2095:electron hole
2092:
2090:
2086:
2083:
2081:
2078:
2076:
2073:
2071:
2068:
2067:
2062:
2057:
2053:
2051:
2048:
2045:
2041:
2037:
2035:
2031:
2028:
2024:
2020:
2018:
2014:
2012:
2008:
2006:
2002:
2000:
1996:
1994:
1990:
1987:
1983:
1980:
1979:defibrillator
1976:
1972:
1968:
1964:
1960:
1958:
1954:
1953:
1952:
1946:
1944:
1942:
1938:
1934:
1930:
1926:
1922:
1915:
1913:
1911:
1907:
1903:
1895:
1893:
1891:
1887:
1883:
1879:
1871:
1869:
1867:
1863:
1859:
1855:
1850:
1848:
1844:
1840:
1839:semiconductor
1836:
1828:
1826:
1823:
1819:
1815:
1811:
1807:
1803:
1799:
1795:
1791:
1786:
1773:
1770:
1764:
1758:
1755:
1752:
1746:
1743:
1740:
1737:
1734:
1731:
1728:
1723:
1719:
1715:
1712:
1704:
1700:
1698:
1689:
1687:
1685:
1639:
1637:
1635:
1631:
1627:
1623:
1619:
1611:
1609:
1606:
1602:
1598:
1595:
1591:
1587:
1578:
1574:
1572:
1568:
1560:
1558:
1550:
1547:
1544:
1541:
1540:
1539:
1532:
1527:
1524:
1519:
1518:
1514:
1511:
1508:
1507:
1505:
1504:
1503:
1498:Manufacturing
1497:
1495:
1493:
1485:
1478:
1475:
1472:
1469:
1466:
1463:
1462:
1458:
1455:
1452:
1449:
1446:
1444:Hardness (HV)
1443:
1442:
1438:
1435:
1432:
1429:
1426:
1423:
1422:
1418:
1415:
1412:
1409:
1406:
1403:
1402:
1399:
1396:
1393:
1390:
1387:
1384:
1381:
1378:
1375:
1372:
1369:
1368:
1362:
1360:
1356:
1352:
1348:
1344:
1340:
1336:
1331:
1326:
1322:
1318:
1314:
1305:
1303:
1289:
1280:
1266:
1260:
1257:
1254:
1251:
1244:
1236:
1233:
1230:
1221:
1215:
1211:
1208:
1201:
1198:
1195:
1191:
1177:
1167:
1156:
1151:
1148:
1144:
1123:
1120:
1117:
1114:
1103:
1084:
1078:
1058:
1049:
1031:
1025:
1022:
1015:
1011:
1008:
1002:
999:
995:
990:
987:
979:
971:
967:
959:
948:
938:
927:
922:
919:
915:
906:
903:
899:
895:
890:
888:
883:
869:
849:
846:
841:
837:
824:
821:
807:
801:
798:
795:
792:
785:
777:
774:
769:
765:
755:
749:
745:
742:
738:
735:
732:
724:
721:
708:
704:
698:
695:
688:
684:
677:
671:
667:
664:
660:
657:
654:
646:
645:
629:
622:In which the
620:
605:
597:
594:
589:
585:
572:
569:
565:
560:
555:
551:
539:
523:
519:
493:
489:
473:
463:
457:D + A â D + A
456:
455:
454:
451:
441:
439:
435:
431:
427:
423:
419:
418:Gaston Planté
415:
406:
398:
391:
389:
387:
386:zincâchloride
383:
337:
336:
335:
289:
254:
244:
243:
242:
239:
237:
232:
223:
216:
214:
212:
203:
201:
199:
194:
190:
186:
182:
178:
174:
170:
166:
158:
156:
154:
150:
146:
142:
138:
134:
130:
126:
122:
118:
114:
106:
101:
94:
92:
90:
86:
82:
77:
75:
71:
67:
63:
62:semiconductor
59:
55:
51:
44:
39:
33:
19:
4283:Power supply
4273:Filler metal
4267:
4227:Laser-hybrid
4154:Plasma (PAW)
4070:Metalworking
4002:
3934:Zincâbromine
3741:Silver oxide
3676:Chromic acid
3648:Primary cell
3628:Voltaic pile
3606:Flow battery
3512:
3473:
3443:
3416:
3412:
3402:
3377:
3373:
3363:
3322:
3318:
3308:
3291:
3287:
3277:
3242:
3238:
3228:
3203:
3199:
3151:
3147:
3137:
3104:10261/148077
3086:
3082:
3042:
3038:
3028:
3017:. Retrieved
3013:
2989:. Retrieved
2985:
2975:
2942:
2939:Nano Letters
2938:
2928:
2893:
2889:
2879:
2854:
2850:
2840:
2818:(1): 13â24.
2815:
2811:
2801:
2776:
2772:
2730:
2726:
2716:
2683:
2679:
2669:
2636:
2632:
2622:
2614:
2582:
2578:
2568:
2533:
2529:
2519:
2486:
2482:
2433:
2429:
2419:
2410:
2401:
2392:
2382:
2373:
2348:
2344:
2334:
2317:
2313:
2307:
2295:. Retrieved
2285:
2260:
2248:. Retrieved
2243:
2234:
2225:
2216:
2204:
2179:
2175:
2169:
2160:
2141:
2135:
2115:Cold cathode
2040:electrolysis
1950:
1919:
1906:periodically
1899:
1875:
1851:
1832:
1821:
1817:
1813:
1809:
1801:
1797:
1793:
1789:
1787:
1705:
1701:
1693:
1684:Si nanowires
1643:
1618:intercalated
1615:
1583:
1571:flow battery
1564:
1555:
1536:
1501:
1489:
1309:
1281:
1050:
907:
891:
884:
825:
822:
725:
722:
647:
621:
540:
468:
447:
422:lead dioxide
411:
378:
333:
240:
231:primary cell
228:
217:Primary cell
207:
162:
137:Daniell cell
121:Voltaic cell
110:
85:Johan Wilcke
81:electrophore
78:
49:
47:
4407:Electricity
4346:Fabrication
4324:Weldability
4116:Arc welding
4023:Salt bridge
4008:Electrolyte
3939:Zincâcerium
3924:Solid state
3909:Silverâzinc
3884:Nickelâzinc
3869:Nickelâiron
3844:Molten salt
3812:Dual carbon
3807:Lithium ion
3802:Lithiumâair
3761:Zincâcarbon
3736:Siliconâair
3716:Lithiumâair
3419:: 347â352.
3014:cen.acs.org
2896:(1): 4105.
2857:: 469â490.
2779:: 113â143.
2773:Nano Energy
2639:: 147â170.
2110:Hot cathode
2005:arc welding
1971:heart beats
1969:(recording
1878:arc welding
1862:noble metal
1835:vacuum tube
1808:. The term
1353:(c_p), the
902:Hamiltonian
438:Lithium-ion
382:zincâcarbon
204:Cathode (+)
66:electrolyte
4402:Electrodes
4396:Categories
4366:Metallurgy
4247:Ultrasonic
4242:Spot (RSW)
4197:Exothermic
3976:Cell parts
3967:Solar cell
3949:Other cell
3914:Sodium ion
3785:Automotive
3019:2022-11-19
2991:2022-11-19
2489:: 228837.
2481:battery".
2436:: 100862.
2297:24 January
2226:RB Battery
2127:References
1957:fuel cells
1941:electrical
1370:Properties
1337:time, the
1313:conductive
1306:Efficiency
1100:being the
187:cell. The
18:Electrodes
4361:Machining
4356:Jewellery
4268:Electrode
4261:Equipment
4013:Half-cell
4003:Electrode
3962:Fuel cell
3839:Metalâair
3790:Leadâacid
3706:Leclanché
3618:Fuel cell
3500:240536462
3435:2352-4316
3394:0001-6160
3355:220330377
3347:1478-6435
3269:102588028
3261:0013-4651
3220:2381-6872
3178:0378-7753
3154:: 80â85.
3113:0036-8075
3061:2542-4785
2959:1530-6984
2912:2041-1723
2871:0378-7753
2832:0378-7753
2793:2211-2855
2749:2567-3165
2708:195381622
2700:2050-7488
2661:233072977
2653:2405-8297
2560:2166-2746
2511:224980374
2460:201301519
2196:145600326
2042:(made of
2017:grounding
1774:σ
1771:⋅
1768:Ω
1756:⋅
1753:γ
1747:
1741:⋅
1735:⋅
1720:μ
1713:μ
1626:manganese
1380:Manganese
1255:λ
1237:λ
1228:Δ
1222:−
1212:
1196:λ
1192:π
1184:ℏ
1118:≪
1115:ω
1112:ℏ
1023:−
1020:ℏ
1006:Δ
1000:−
983:∞
975:∞
972:−
968:∫
956:ℏ
870:λ
850:λ
842:†
834:Δ
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762:Δ
756:−
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689:†
681:Δ
678:−
668:
630:λ
598:λ
582:Δ
573:λ
556:†
548:Δ
516:Δ
494:†
486:Δ
302:+ 2e â Mn
198:oxidation
189:electrons
159:Anode (-)
74:batteries
50:electrode
4371:Smithing
4207:Friction
3993:Catalyst
3854:Nanowire
3849:Nanopore
3795:gelâVRLA
3756:Zincâair
3661:Alkaline
3539:24300777
3452:Archived
3129:11534630
3121:26912708
2967:22582709
2920:25001098
2063:See also
2044:platinum
1929:chemical
1925:physical
1866:graphite
1612:Cathodes
1586:galvanic
1419:6.00e-6
1398:Graphite
1359:hardness
1357:and the
1341:and the
1325:polymers
1321:graphite
185:metallic
153:cathodes
105:galvanic
60:(e.g. a
4381:Welding
4351:Forming
4341:Casting
4108:Welding
3998:Cathode
3751:Zamboni
3721:Mercury
3686:Daniell
3530:3989498
3327:Bibcode
3156:Bibcode
3083:Science
2727:InfoMat
2538:Bibcode
2491:Bibcode
2452:1546514
2353:Bibcode
2250:2 April
2029:methods
1937:optical
1597:solvent
1594:organic
1416:5.92e-8
1413:1.70e-8
1410:1.44e-6
1407:8.40e-8
1374:Lithium
113:battery
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4278:Helmet
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3671:Bunsen
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2089:Cation
2025:using
1843:diodes
1640:Anodes
1622:cobalt
1479:0.707
1476:0.3898
1436:-0.760
1433:-0.340
1386:Copper
1349:, the
436:, and
342:+ 2MnO
149:anodes
139:after
125:copper
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70:vacuum
52:is an
4288:Robot
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4202:Forge
4134:Flash
3983:Anode
3701:Grove
3681:Clark
3584:Types
3496:S2CID
3351:S2CID
3265:S2CID
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2733:(4).
2704:S2CID
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2507:S2CID
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2192:S2CID
2085:Anion
2056:Taser
1837:or a
1833:In a
1473:0.385
1470:0.448
1467:2.997
1459:7-11
1447:<5
1430:-1.05
1427:-3.02
1051:With
346:â ZnO
310:+ 2OH
269:+ 2e
257:â ZnO
249:+ 2OH
173:Greek
133:brine
64:, an
4018:Ions
3535:PMID
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3343:ISSN
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2556:ISSN
2448:OSTI
2299:2021
2252:2007
2146:ISBN
2087:vs.
1947:Uses
1804:the
1603:and
1394:(Zn)
1392:Zinc
1388:(Cu)
1382:(Mn)
1376:(Li)
428:are
356:3(s)
350:+ Mn
344:2(s)
312:(aq)
308:3(s)
292:2(s)
290:2MnO
151:and
129:zinc
127:and
79:The
68:, a
3691:Dry
3525:PMC
3517:doi
3478:doi
3421:doi
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