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Electroweak interaction

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753: 46: 4145: 8620: 3681: 4140:{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}{\mathcal {L}}_{\mathrm {K} }=\sum _{f}{\overline {f}}(i\partial \!\!\!/\!\;-m_{f})\ f-{\frac {1}{4}}\ A_{\mu \nu }\ A^{\mu \nu }-{\frac {1}{2}}\ W_{\mu \nu }^{+}\ W^{-\mu \nu }+m_{W}^{2}\ W_{\mu }^{+}\ W^{-\mu }\\\qquad -{\frac {1}{4}}\ Z_{\mu \nu }Z^{\mu \nu }+{\frac {1}{2}}\ m_{Z}^{2}\ Z_{\mu }\ Z^{\mu }+{\frac {1}{2}}\ (\partial ^{\mu }\ H)(\partial _{\mu }\ H)-{\frac {1}{2}}\ m_{H}^{2}\ H^{2}~,\end{aligned}}} 3639: 8875: 1404: 6267: 776: 2429: 3432: 8887: 3299: 4884: 5982: 7261: 1229: 6028: 3411:
The Lagrangian reorganizes itself as the Higgs field acquires a non-vanishing vacuum expectation value dictated by the potential of the previous section. As a result of this rewriting, the symmetry breaking becomes manifest. In the history of the universe, this is believed to have happened shortly
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combination of the hypercharge and the weak isospin must interact with the Higgs. This causes an apparent separation between the weak force, which interacts with the Higgs, and electromagnetism, which does not. Mathematically, the electric charge is a specific combination of the hypercharge and
2170: 3634:{\displaystyle {\mathcal {L}}_{\mathrm {EW} }={\mathcal {L}}_{\mathrm {K} }+{\mathcal {L}}_{\mathrm {N} }+{\mathcal {L}}_{\mathrm {C} }+{\mathcal {L}}_{\mathrm {H} }+{\mathcal {L}}_{\mathrm {HV} }+{\mathcal {L}}_{\mathrm {WWV} }+{\mathcal {L}}_{\mathrm {WWVV} }+{\mathcal {L}}_{\mathrm {Y} }~.} 3032: 7434: 2702: 4495: 2015: 1841: 4682: 5791: 5330: 5673: 2957: 6732: 5118: 1399:{\displaystyle {\begin{pmatrix}\gamma \\Z^{0}\end{pmatrix}}={\begin{pmatrix}\cos \theta _{\text{W}}&\sin \theta _{\text{W}}\\-\sin \theta _{\text{W}}&\cos \theta _{\text{W}}\end{pmatrix}}{\begin{pmatrix}B\\W_{3}\end{pmatrix}},} 1707: 4975: 6262:{\displaystyle {\mathcal {L}}_{\mathrm {HV} }=\left(\ g\ m_{\mathrm {HV} }+{\frac {\ g^{2}\ }{4}}\;H^{2}\ \right)\left(\ W_{\mu }^{+}\ W^{-\mu }+{\frac {1}{\ 2\ \cos ^{2}\ \theta _{\mathrm {W} }\ }}\;Z_{\mu }\ Z^{\mu }\ \right)~.} 2424:{\displaystyle {\mathcal {L}}_{f}={\overline {Q}}_{j}iD\!\!\!\!/\;Q_{j}+{\overline {u}}_{j}iD\!\!\!\!/\;u_{j}+{\overline {d}}_{j}iD\!\!\!\!/\;d_{j}+{\overline {L}}_{j}iD\!\!\!\!/\;L_{j}+{\overline {e}}_{j}iD\!\!\!\!/\;e_{j},} 1577: 4343: 3294:{\displaystyle {\mathcal {L}}_{y}=-y_{u\ ij}\epsilon ^{ab}\ h_{b}^{\dagger }\ {\overline {Q}}_{ia}u_{j}^{c}-y_{d\ ij}\ h\ {\overline {Q}}_{i}d_{j}^{c}-y_{e\,ij}\ h\ {\overline {L}}_{i}e_{j}^{c}+\mathrm {h.c.} ~,} 6680: 2553: 1129: 3675:
contains all the quadratic terms of the Lagrangian, which include the dynamic terms (the partial derivatives) and the mass terms (conspicuously absent from the Lagrangian before symmetry breaking)
7310: 4879:{\displaystyle {\mathcal {L}}_{\mathrm {N} }=e\ J_{\mu }^{\mathrm {em} }\ A^{\mu }+{\frac {g}{\ \cos \theta _{W}\ }}\ (\ J_{\mu }^{3}-\sin ^{2}\theta _{W}\ J_{\mu }^{\mathrm {em} }\ )\ Z^{\mu }~,} 4351: 499: 6737: 3686: 1891: 1736: 7722: 7559: 5977:{\displaystyle {\mathcal {L}}_{\mathrm {H} }=-{\frac {\ g\ m_{\mathrm {H} }^{2}\,}{\ 4\ m_{\mathrm {W} }\ }}\;H^{3}-{\frac {\ g^{2}\ m_{\mathrm {H} }^{2}\ }{32\ m_{\mathrm {W} }^{2}}}\;H^{4}~.} 7302: 4674: 4635: 6724: 2568: 6308: 6020: 5200: 3401: 5783: 5014: 5376: 813:. The neutral Higgs field (circled) breaks the electroweak symmetry and interacts with other particles to give them mass. Three components of the Higgs field become part of the massive 5748: 3020: 4268: 870:, which describes the formal operations that can be applied to the electroweak gauge fields without changing the dynamics of the system. These fields are the weak isospin fields 3673: 2798: 2158: 1875: 4225: 4187: 5192: 2829: 2053: 8505: 3346: 61: 7590: 2121: 7256:{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}{\mathcal {L}}_{\mathrm {WWVV} }=-{\frac {\ g^{2}\ }{4}}\ {\Biggl \{}\ &{\Bigl }^{2}\\&-{\Bigl }^{2}\,{\Biggr \}}~.\end{aligned}}} 2488: 5365: 5154: 2764: 5702: 4589: 492: 2091: 5022: 2731: 730:. Initially rejecting such a particle as useless, he later realized his symmetries produced the electroweak force, and he proceeded to predict rough masses for the 8649: 747: 139: 4563: 4541: 8757: 4518: 2980: 2821: 1620: 485: 4892: 1160:(the symmetry group of electromagnetism only) is defined to be the group generated by this special linear combination, and the symmetry described by the 1139:. That is to say: the Higgs and the electromagnetic field have no effect on each other, at the level of the fundamental forces ("tree level"), while any 540:. Although these two forces appear very different at everyday low energies, the theory models them as two different aspects of the same force. Above the 8106:
Guralnik, G.S. (2009). "The history of the Guralnik, Hagen, and Kibble development of the theory of spontaneous symmetry breaking and gauge particles".
1512: 8634: 135: 8108: 7460: 8498: 1049:), an elaborate quantum-field-theoretic phenomenon that "spontaneously" alters the realization of the symmetry and rearranges degrees of freedom. 4273: 8752: 8835: 7820: 8491: 8891: 8659: 8318: 8295: 8276: 8245: 7883: 6316: 565: 165: 8840: 62: 2500: 7455: 1073: 752: 606:. The existence of the electroweak interactions was experimentally established in two stages, the first being the discovery of 7429:{\displaystyle {\mathcal {L}}_{\mathrm {Y} }=-\sum _{f}\ {\frac {\ g\ m_{f}\ }{2\ m_{\mathrm {W} }}}\;{\overline {f}}\ f\ H~.} 8800: 4490:{\displaystyle X_{\mu \nu }^{a}=\partial _{\mu }X_{\nu }^{a}-\partial _{\nu }X_{\mu }^{a}+gf^{abc}X_{\mu }^{b}X_{\nu }^{c}~,} 3304:
and generates their masses, manifest when the Higgs field acquires a nonzero vacuum expectation value, discussed next. The
2010:{\displaystyle {\mathcal {L}}_{g}=-{\tfrac {1}{4}}W_{a}^{\mu \nu }W_{\mu \nu }^{a}-{\tfrac {1}{4}}B^{\mu \nu }B_{\mu \nu },} 1836:{\displaystyle {\mathcal {L}}_{\mathrm {EW} }={\mathcal {L}}_{g}+{\mathcal {L}}_{f}+{\mathcal {L}}_{h}+{\mathcal {L}}_{y}~.} 8691: 8639: 2160:
is the kinetic term for the Standard Model fermions. The interaction of the gauge bosons and the fermions are through the
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boson of weak hypercharge, respectively, all of which are "initially" massless. These are not physical fields yet, before
723: 696: 461: 109: 65: 60: 2697:{\displaystyle \ D_{\mu }\equiv \partial _{\mu }-i\ {\frac {g'}{2}}\ Y\ B_{\mu }-i\ {\frac {g}{2}}\ T_{j}\ W_{\mu }^{j}.} 8850: 7667: 7500: 346: 7268: 5325:{\displaystyle J_{\mu }^{3}=\sum _{f}\ T_{f}^{3}\ {\overline {f}}\ \gamma _{\mu }\ {\frac {\ 1-\gamma ^{5}\ }{2}}\ f~,} 4640: 4601: 8913: 6687: 670: 66: 63: 6274: 55: 5989: 5668:{\displaystyle {\mathcal {L}}_{\mathrm {C} }=-{\frac {g}{\ {\sqrt {2\;}}\ }}\ \left\ W_{\mu }^{+}+\mathrm {h.c.} ~,} 3351: 73: 64: 5755: 2161: 71: 56: 4980: 8805: 1723: 903: 72: 568:
since before the quark epoch, and currently the highest human-made temperature in thermal equilibrium is around
8810: 7495: 930:) respectively. These then give rise to the gauge bosons that mediate the electroweak interactions – the three 630: 426: 356: 53: 8724: 50: 8366:
Y. Hayato; et al. (1999). "Search for Proton Decay through p → νK in a Large Water Cherenkov Detector".
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Due to its complexity, this Lagrangian is best described by breaking it up into several parts as follows.
2459: 595: 376: 261: 201: 131: 7475: 2952:{\displaystyle {\mathcal {L}}_{h}=|D_{\mu }h|^{2}-\lambda \left(|h|^{2}-{\frac {v^{2}}{2}}\right)^{2}\ ,} 854: 51: 8845: 8719: 8686: 3647: 2772: 2132: 2124: 1849: 577: 548:, they would merge into a single force. Thus, if the temperature is high enough – approximately 10  251: 4191: 4153: 688:
and one achiral, and combined them such that their overall symmetry was unbroken. This did not yield a
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are the left-handed doublet, right-handed singlet up, and right handed singlet down quark fields; and
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proved that spontaneously broken gauge symmetries are renormalizable even with massive gauge bosons.
634: 525: 161: 101: 552:– then the electromagnetic force and weak force merge into a combined electroweak force. During the 49: 8762: 7725: 685: 599: 436: 396: 211: 196: 79: 7568: 2096: 67: 8790: 8560: 8470: 8455: 8403: 8377: 8206: 8170: 8143: 8117: 7798: 3023: 2559: 286: 57: 7924: 2464: 735: 371: 8415:
J. Hucks (1991). "Global structure of the standard model, anomalies, and charge quantization".
7875: 7869: 5338: 5126: 5113:{\displaystyle J_{\mu }^{\mathrm {em} }=\sum _{f}\ q_{f}\ {\overline {f}}\ \gamma _{\mu }\ f~,} 2736: 598:
for their contributions to the unification of the weak and electromagnetic interaction between
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D. P. Roy (1999). "Basic Constituents of Matter and their Interactions – A Progress Report".
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components of the Lagrangian contain the interactions between the fermions and gauge bosons,
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where the sum runs over all the fermions of the theory (quarks and leptons), and the fields
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in the weak coupling formulas: These factors are deliberately inserted to expunge any left-
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D'Onofrio, Michela; Rummukainen, Kari (2016). "Standard model cross-over on the lattice".
7465: 1702:{\displaystyle W^{\pm }={\frac {1}{\sqrt {2\,}}}\,{\bigl (}\,W_{1}\mp iW_{2}\,{\bigr )}~.} 1042: 972: 711: 689: 681: 607: 591: 583: 451: 336: 326: 321: 311: 271: 266: 226: 113: 466: 8430: 8391: 8350: 8184: 8131: 8082: 8039: 7996: 7940: 7839: 7786: 4545: 4523: 8815: 8514: 8253: 7470: 4503: 2965: 2806: 2491: 983: 979: 731: 642: 623: 391: 361: 306: 296: 281: 191: 97: 33: 8907: 8785: 8744: 8407: 8358: 8310: 8234: 8210: 7948: 7730: 911: 863: 654: 411: 366: 331: 186: 8147: 7802: 8767: 8698: 8607: 8565: 8555: 4970:{\displaystyle ~e=g\ \sin \theta _{\mathrm {W} }=g'\ \cos \theta _{\mathrm {W} }~.} 3419: 915: 867: 780: 692: 471: 441: 416: 386: 256: 231: 216: 105: 1572:{\displaystyle m_{\text{Z}}={\frac {m_{\text{W}}}{\,\cos \theta _{\text{W}}\,}}~.} 1426:. The axes representing the particles have essentially just been rotated, in the ( 7728:
components of the spinor fields. This is why electroweak theory is said to be a '
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The electric charge arises as the particular linear combination (nontrivial) of
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bosons coalesce into two different physical bosons with different masses – the
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Mathematically, electromagnetism is unified with the weak interactions as a
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contains the Yukawa interactions between the fermions and the Higgs field,
734:. Significantly, he suggested this new theory was renormalizable. In 1971, 17: 7753:
Glashow, S. (1959). "The renormalizability of vector meson interactions."
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are the left-handed doublet and right-handed singlet electron fields. The
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with a manually broken symmetry. Later around 1967, while investigating
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were awarded the Nobel prize for showing that the electroweak theory is
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determines the mixing between mass and weak eigenstates of the quarks.
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contains the Higgs three-point and four-point self interaction terms,
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and the covariant derivative (excluding the gluon gauge field for the
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for the electroweak interactions is divided into four parts before
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with no formal mathematics. Very thorough on the weak interaction.
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first experimented with introducing two different symmetries, one
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Unified description of electromagnetism and the weak interaction
8487: 7773:; Ward, J. C. (1959). "Weak and electromagnetic interactions". 3412:
after the hot big bang, when the universe was at a temperature
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bosons, in turn, combine to produce the charged massive bosons
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Deep Down Things: The Breathtaking Beauty of Particle Physics
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is the fermions' electric charges. The neutral weak current
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by the structure constants of the appropriate gauge group.
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contains the Higgs interactions with gauge vector bosons,
2548:{\displaystyle D\!\!\!\!/\equiv \gamma ^{\mu }\ D_{\mu },} 1448:. This also introduces a mismatch between the mass of the 1124:{\displaystyle Q=T_{3}+{\tfrac {1}{2}}\,Y_{\mathrm {W} }} 8454:
S. F. Novaes (2000). "Standard Model: An Introduction".
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for the weak isospin and weak hypercharge gauge fields.
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Although electromagnetism – e.g. the photon – does not
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The charged current part of the Lagrangian is given by
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and its interactions with itself and the gauge bosons,
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The particular number 246 GeV is taken to be the
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collaboration in 1973, and the second in 1983 by the
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Guralnik, G.S.; Hagen, C.R.; Kibble, T.W.B. (1964).
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is the right-handed singlet neutrino field, and the
8828: 8776: 8743: 8712: 8669: 8658: 8627: 8521: 3423:(assuming the Standard Model of particle physics). 8233: 8022:"Broken symmetries and the masses of gauge bosons" 7717:{\displaystyle ~{\tfrac {1}{2}}\ (1-\gamma ^{5})~} 7716: 7584: 7554:{\displaystyle v=(G_{\text{F}}{\sqrt {2}})^{-1/2}} 7553: 7428: 7296: 7255: 6718: 6674: 6310:contains the gauge three-point self interactions, 6302: 6261: 6014: 5976: 5777: 5742: 5696: 5667: 5359: 5324: 5186: 5148: 5112: 5008: 4969: 4878: 4668: 4629: 4583: 4557: 4535: 4512: 4489: 4337: 4262: 4219: 4181: 4139: 3667: 3633: 3395: 3340: 3293: 3014: 2974: 2951: 2815: 2792: 2758: 2725: 2696: 2547: 2482: 2423: 2152: 2115: 2085: 2047: 2009: 1869: 1835: 1701: 1571: 1398: 1174:The above spontaneous symmetry breaking makes the 1123: 622:collaborations that involved the discovery of the 8335:E. S. Abers; B. W. Lee (1973). "Gauge theories". 8065:"Global conservation laws and massless particles" 7964:Particle Physics and Introduction to Field Theory 7297:{\displaystyle \ {\mathcal {L}}_{\mathrm {Y} }\ } 7238: 7224: 6976: 6953: 6815: 6801: 6726:contains the gauge four-point self interactions, 4669:{\displaystyle \ {\mathcal {L}}_{\mathrm {C} }\ } 4630:{\displaystyle \ {\mathcal {L}}_{\mathrm {N} }\ } 3745: 3739: 3738: 3737: 2510: 2509: 2508: 2507: 2490:means the contraction of the 4-gradient with the 2474: 2473: 2472: 2471: 2401: 2400: 2399: 2398: 2355: 2354: 2353: 2352: 2309: 2308: 2307: 2306: 2263: 2262: 2261: 2260: 2217: 2216: 2215: 2214: 1877:term describes the interaction between the three 629:in proton–antiproton collisions at the converted 6719:{\displaystyle {\mathcal {L}}_{\mathrm {WWVV} }} 699:was known, but it predicted a new particle, the 6303:{\displaystyle {\mathcal {L}}_{\mathrm {WWV} }} 48: 8650:Mathematical formulation of the Standard Model 7814: 7812: 6015:{\displaystyle {\mathcal {L}}_{\mathrm {HV} }} 3396:{\displaystyle \ k\in \{\mathrm {u,d,e} \}\ ,} 748:Mathematical formulation of the Standard Model 534:electromagnetism (electromagnetic interaction) 8499: 5778:{\displaystyle {\mathcal {L}}_{\mathrm {H} }} 2438:sums over the three generations of fermions; 1688: 1653: 493: 8: 5009:{\displaystyle \;J_{\mu }^{\mathrm {em} }\;} 3384: 3364: 714:had the same idea, but predicted a massless 566:not been seen widely throughout the universe 8666: 8506: 8492: 8484: 7397: 6660: 6365: 6221: 6111: 5957: 5876: 5605: 5573: 5500: 5416: 5005: 4984: 3746: 2407: 2361: 2315: 2269: 2223: 763:, and relation between coupling constants 500: 486: 29: 8474: 8459: 8381: 8200: 8174: 8121: 8109:International Journal of Modern Physics A 8090: 8047: 8004: 7702: 7674: 7669: 7576: 7570: 7541: 7534: 7523: 7517: 7502: 7461:Standard Model (mathematical formulation) 7398: 7387: 7386: 7365: 7349: 7340: 7323: 7322: 7316: 7315: 7312: 7284: 7283: 7277: 7276: 7270: 7237: 7236: 7235: 7229: 7223: 7222: 7203: 7202: 7183: 7169: 7168: 7149: 7122: 7121: 7102: 7088: 7087: 7068: 7047: 7042: 7029: 7024: 7011: 7006: 6993: 6988: 6975: 6974: 6958: 6952: 6951: 6941: 6927: 6926: 6907: 6893: 6892: 6873: 6851: 6838: 6833: 6814: 6813: 6800: 6799: 6781: 6771: 6749: 6748: 6742: 6741: 6736: 6734: 6700: 6699: 6693: 6692: 6689: 6645: 6644: 6622: 6608: 6607: 6585: 6564: 6559: 6546: 6541: 6519: 6518: 6499: 6485: 6484: 6465: 6439: 6431: 6415: 6399: 6386: 6378: 6329: 6328: 6322: 6321: 6318: 6287: 6286: 6280: 6279: 6276: 6239: 6226: 6208: 6207: 6191: 6172: 6160: 6147: 6142: 6116: 6096: 6086: 6073: 6072: 6041: 6040: 6034: 6033: 6030: 6002: 6001: 5995: 5994: 5991: 5962: 5948: 5942: 5941: 5920: 5914: 5913: 5900: 5890: 5881: 5863: 5862: 5846: 5840: 5834: 5833: 5817: 5804: 5803: 5797: 5796: 5793: 5768: 5767: 5761: 5760: 5757: 5727: 5726: 5718: 5712: 5683: 5645: 5636: 5631: 5610: 5590: 5574: 5567: 5554: 5544: 5534: 5514: 5513: 5505: 5485: 5469: 5460: 5447: 5437: 5411: 5402: 5389: 5388: 5382: 5381: 5378: 5351: 5346: 5340: 5295: 5279: 5270: 5253: 5244: 5239: 5226: 5213: 5208: 5202: 5175: 5170: 5161: 5137: 5128: 5092: 5075: 5066: 5053: 5036: 5035: 5030: 5024: 4995: 4994: 4989: 4982: 4954: 4953: 4922: 4921: 4894: 4864: 4841: 4840: 4835: 4822: 4809: 4796: 4791: 4766: 4747: 4738: 4721: 4720: 4715: 4695: 4694: 4688: 4687: 4684: 4656: 4655: 4649: 4648: 4642: 4617: 4616: 4610: 4609: 4603: 4575: 4569: 4547: 4525: 4505: 4475: 4470: 4460: 4455: 4439: 4423: 4418: 4408: 4395: 4390: 4380: 4367: 4359: 4353: 4326: 4316: 4308: 4292: 4284: 4275: 4248: 4240: 4231: 4202: 4193: 4164: 4155: 4121: 4108: 4103: 4086: 4068: 4046: 4026: 4017: 4004: 3991: 3986: 3969: 3957: 3944: 3927: 3910: 3897: 3892: 3879: 3874: 3855: 3842: 3834: 3817: 3805: 3789: 3772: 3754: 3740: 3718: 3712: 3698: 3697: 3691: 3690: 3685: 3683: 3659: 3653: 3652: 3649: 3618: 3617: 3611: 3610: 3590: 3589: 3583: 3582: 3565: 3564: 3558: 3557: 3543: 3542: 3536: 3535: 3524: 3523: 3517: 3516: 3505: 3504: 3498: 3497: 3486: 3485: 3479: 3478: 3467: 3466: 3460: 3459: 3445: 3444: 3438: 3437: 3434: 3367: 3353: 3323: 3318: 3309: 3271: 3262: 3257: 3247: 3237: 3218: 3214: 3201: 3196: 3186: 3176: 3151: 3138: 3133: 3120: 3110: 3100: 3095: 3079: 3060: 3044: 3038: 3037: 3034: 3003: 2997: 2996: 2990: 2967: 2937: 2921: 2915: 2906: 2901: 2892: 2874: 2869: 2859: 2850: 2841: 2835: 2834: 2831: 2808: 2784: 2778: 2777: 2774: 2747: 2738: 2712: 2685: 2680: 2667: 2650: 2635: 2607: 2592: 2579: 2570: 2536: 2523: 2511: 2502: 2475: 2466: 2412: 2402: 2386: 2376: 2366: 2356: 2340: 2330: 2320: 2310: 2294: 2284: 2274: 2264: 2248: 2238: 2228: 2218: 2202: 2192: 2182: 2176: 2175: 2172: 2144: 2138: 2137: 2134: 2104: 2098: 2060: 2036: 2031: 2025: 1995: 1982: 1966: 1957: 1949: 1936: 1931: 1915: 1903: 1897: 1896: 1893: 1861: 1855: 1854: 1851: 1821: 1815: 1814: 1804: 1798: 1797: 1787: 1781: 1780: 1770: 1764: 1763: 1749: 1748: 1742: 1741: 1738: 1687: 1686: 1685: 1679: 1663: 1658: 1652: 1651: 1650: 1646: 1637: 1628: 1622: 1559: 1553: 1542: 1535: 1529: 1520: 1514: 1379: 1360: 1346: 1328: 1305: 1287: 1269: 1252: 1233: 1231: 1114: 1113: 1108: 1096: 1087: 1075: 665:, a search began for a way to relate the 2766:are the components of the weak isospin. 1029:of the electroweak symmetry SU(2) Ă— U(1) 7925:"Electromagnetic and weak interactions" 7923:Salam, A.; Ward, J.C. (November 1964). 7746: 7487: 5743:{\displaystyle M_{ij}^{\mathrm {CKM} }} 982:, the observed physical particles, the 32: 4520:to be replaced by the relevant field ( 3015:{\displaystyle \ {\mathcal {L}}_{y}\ } 4263:{\displaystyle \ W_{\mu \nu }^{-}\ ,} 1167:group is unbroken, since it does not 7: 8886: 8269:Introduction to Elementary Particles 1718:Before electroweak symmetry breaking 3407:After electroweak symmetry breaking 8307:Modern Elementary Particle Physics 8240:. Johns Hopkins University Press. 7623:are distinct instances of generic 7388: 7324: 7285: 7204: 7170: 7123: 7089: 6928: 6894: 6759: 6756: 6753: 6750: 6710: 6707: 6704: 6701: 6646: 6609: 6520: 6486: 6336: 6333: 6330: 6294: 6291: 6288: 6209: 6077: 6074: 6045: 6042: 6006: 6003: 5943: 5915: 5864: 5835: 5805: 5769: 5734: 5731: 5728: 5652: 5646: 5521: 5518: 5515: 5390: 5040: 5037: 4999: 4996: 4955: 4923: 4845: 4842: 4725: 4722: 4696: 4657: 4618: 4405: 4377: 4065: 4043: 3734: 3699: 3668:{\displaystyle {\mathcal {L}}_{K}} 3619: 3600: 3597: 3594: 3591: 3572: 3569: 3566: 3547: 3544: 3525: 3506: 3487: 3468: 3449: 3446: 3403:are matrices of Yukawa couplings. 3380: 3374: 3368: 3278: 3272: 2793:{\displaystyle {\mathcal {L}}_{h}} 2589: 2153:{\displaystyle {\mathcal {L}}_{f}} 1870:{\displaystyle {\mathcal {L}}_{g}} 1753: 1750: 1115: 25: 8288:Gauge Theory of Weak Interactions 7900:"The Nobel Prize in Physics 1979" 7871:The Equations: Icons of knowledge 4220:{\displaystyle \ Z_{\mu \nu }\ ,} 4182:{\displaystyle \ A_{\mu \nu }\ ,} 2982:is the vacuum expectation value. 891:, and the weak hypercharge field 166:Physics beyond the Standard Model 8885: 8874: 8873: 8618: 5187:{\displaystyle \ J_{\mu }^{3}\ } 2733:is the weak hypercharge and the 2048:{\displaystyle W_{a}^{\mu \nu }} 7977:Englert, F.; Brout, R. (1964). 7456:History of quantum field theory 5367:is the fermions' weak isospin. 3923: 3341:{\displaystyle \ y_{k}^{ij}\ ,} 8801:Causal dynamical triangulation 8286:W. Greiner; B. MĂĽller (2000). 7708: 7689: 7531: 7510: 6938: 6863: 4854: 4781: 4323: 4301: 4080: 4061: 4058: 4039: 3760: 3728: 2902: 2893: 2870: 2851: 895:. This invariance is known as 610:in neutrino scattering by the 1: 8640:Spontaneous symmetry breaking 1728:electroweak symmetry breaking 1027:spontaneous symmetry breaking 969:spontaneous symmetry breaking 756:Weinberg's weak mixing angle 724:spontaneous symmetry breaking 110:Spontaneous symmetry breaking 8359:10.1016/0370-1573(73)90027-6 7949:10.1016/0031-9163(64)90711-5 7585:{\displaystyle G_{\text{F}}} 7403: 5549: 5442: 5258: 5080: 4977:The electromagnetic current 3723: 3242: 3181: 3115: 2381: 2335: 2289: 2243: 2197: 2116:{\displaystyle B^{\mu \nu }} 671:electromagnetic interactions 8400:10.1103/PhysRevLett.83.1529 7848:10.1103/PhysRevLett.19.1264 1070:component of weak isospin ( 1063:(weak hypercharge) and the 1025:, are produced through the 544:, on the order of 246  8930: 8193:10.1103/PhysRevD.93.025003 8092:10.1103/PhysRevLett.13.585 8049:10.1103/PhysRevLett.13.508 8006:10.1103/PhysRevLett.13.321 2483:{\displaystyle D\!\!\!\!/} 2162:gauge covariant derivative 771:. Adapted from Lee (1981). 745: 140:Standard Model mathematics 8869: 8806:Canonical quantum gravity 8616: 8271:. John Wiley & Sons. 8140:10.1142/S0217751X09045431 5360:{\displaystyle T_{f}^{3}} 5149:{\displaystyle \ q_{f}\ } 2759:{\displaystyle \ T_{j}\ } 1171:interact with the Higgs. 528:of two of the four known 8811:Superfluid vacuum theory 8439:10.1103/PhysRevD.43.2709 8267:D. J. Griffiths (1987). 7496:vacuum expectation value 5697:{\displaystyle \ \nu \ } 4584:{\displaystyle W^{\pm }} 1151:outlined in the figure. 934:bosons of weak isospin ( 631:Super Proton Synchrotron 530:fundamental interactions 8593:Quantum electrodynamics 8583:Electroweak interaction 8369:Physical Review Letters 8070:Physical Review Letters 8027:Physical Review Letters 7984:Physical Review Letters 7594:Fermi coupling constant 2086:{\displaystyle a=1,2,3} 1203:boson, and the photon ( 518:electroweak interaction 128:Electroweak interaction 8571:Quantum chromodynamics 7718: 7586: 7555: 7430: 7298: 7257: 6720: 6676: 6304: 6263: 6016: 5978: 5779: 5744: 5698: 5669: 5361: 5326: 5188: 5150: 5114: 5010: 4971: 4880: 4670: 4631: 4585: 4559: 4537: 4514: 4491: 4339: 4264: 4221: 4183: 4141: 3669: 3635: 3397: 3342: 3295: 3016: 2976: 2953: 2817: 2794: 2760: 2727: 2698: 2549: 2484: 2425: 2154: 2125:field strength tensors 2117: 2087: 2049: 2011: 1881:vector bosons and the 1871: 1837: 1703: 1573: 1484:particles (denoted as 1437:) plane, by the angle 1400: 1125: 850: 772: 596:Nobel Prize in Physics 594:were awarded the 1979 132:Quantum chromodynamics 76: 8687:Cosmological constant 8232:B. A. Schumm (2004). 7719: 7587: 7556: 7431: 7299: 7258: 6721: 6677: 6305: 6264: 6017: 5979: 5780: 5745: 5699: 5670: 5362: 5327: 5189: 5151: 5115: 5011: 4972: 4881: 4671: 4632: 4586: 4560: 4538: 4515: 4492: 4340: 4265: 4222: 4184: 4142: 3670: 3636: 3398: 3343: 3296: 3017: 2977: 2954: 2818: 2795: 2761: 2728: 2726:{\displaystyle \ Y\ } 2699: 2550: 2485: 2426: 2155: 2118: 2088: 2050: 2012: 1872: 1838: 1704: 1574: 1401: 1126: 778: 755: 697:spontaneous mechanism 604:Weinberg–Salam theory 578:Large Hadron Collider 162:Neutrino oscillations 82:of the Standard Model 75: 8796:Loop quantum gravity 8735:Theory of everything 8730:Grand Unified Theory 8704:Neutrino oscillation 8551:Quantum field theory 8252:Conveys much of the 8020:Higgs, P.W. (1964). 7904:The Nobel Foundation 7821:"A Model of Leptons" 7819:Weinberg, S (1967). 7668: 7650:quantum fluctuations 7569: 7501: 7311: 7269: 6733: 6688: 6317: 6275: 6029: 5990: 5792: 5756: 5711: 5682: 5377: 5339: 5201: 5160: 5127: 5023: 4981: 4893: 4683: 4641: 4637:and charged current 4602: 4598:The neutral current 4568: 4546: 4524: 4504: 4352: 4274: 4230: 4192: 4154: 3682: 3648: 3433: 3352: 3308: 3033: 3026:with the fermions, 2989: 2966: 2830: 2807: 2773: 2737: 2711: 2569: 2501: 2465: 2434:where the subscript 2171: 2133: 2097: 2059: 2024: 1892: 1850: 1737: 1621: 1513: 1466:and the mass of the 1230: 1074: 897:electroweak symmetry 600:elementary particles 102:Quantum field theory 80:Elementary particles 8763:Split supersymmetry 8725:Kaluza–Klein theory 8598:Fermi's interaction 8431:1991PhRvD..43.2709H 8392:1999PhRvL..83.1529H 8351:1973PhR.....9....1A 8305:G. L. Kane (1987). 8185:2016PhRvD..93b5003D 8132:2009IJMPA..24.2601G 8083:1964PhRvL..13..585G 8040:1964PhRvL..13..508H 7997:1964PhRvL..13..321E 7941:1964PhL....13..168S 7840:1967PhRvL..19.1264W 7787:1959NCim...11..568S 7644:, it does interact 7052: 7034: 7016: 6998: 6843: 6569: 6551: 6444: 6391: 6152: 5953: 5925: 5845: 5739: 5641: 5526: 5356: 5249: 5218: 5180: 5045: 5004: 4850: 4801: 4730: 4480: 4465: 4428: 4400: 4372: 4321: 4297: 4253: 4113: 3996: 3902: 3884: 3847: 3331: 3267: 3206: 3143: 3105: 3022:term describes the 2800:term describes the 2690: 2044: 1962: 1944: 971:and the associated 914:are given the name 657:in 1956 discovered 556:(shortly after the 526:unified description 8914:Electroweak theory 8791:Superstring theory 8561:Strong interaction 7962:Lee, T.D. (1981). 7795:10.1007/BF02726525 7714: 7684: 7640:interact with the 7582: 7551: 7451:Fundamental forces 7426: 7345: 7294: 7253: 7251: 7038: 7020: 7002: 6984: 6829: 6716: 6672: 6555: 6537: 6427: 6374: 6300: 6259: 6138: 6012: 5974: 5937: 5909: 5829: 5775: 5740: 5714: 5694: 5665: 5627: 5501: 5357: 5342: 5322: 5235: 5231: 5204: 5184: 5166: 5146: 5110: 5058: 5026: 5006: 4985: 4967: 4876: 4831: 4787: 4711: 4666: 4627: 4581: 4558:{\displaystyle Z,} 4555: 4536:{\displaystyle A,} 4533: 4510: 4487: 4466: 4451: 4414: 4386: 4355: 4335: 4304: 4280: 4260: 4236: 4217: 4179: 4137: 4135: 4099: 3982: 3888: 3870: 3830: 3717: 3665: 3631: 3393: 3338: 3314: 3291: 3253: 3192: 3129: 3091: 3024:Yukawa interaction 3012: 2972: 2949: 2813: 2790: 2756: 2723: 2694: 2676: 2560:strong interaction 2545: 2480: 2421: 2150: 2113: 2083: 2045: 2027: 2007: 1976: 1945: 1927: 1925: 1867: 1833: 1730:becomes manifest, 1699: 1569: 1396: 1387: 1354: 1260: 1121: 1106: 1041:, effected by the 851: 773: 718:and three massive 542:unification energy 77: 8901: 8900: 8824: 8823: 8699:Strong CP problem 8677:Hierarchy problem 8418:Physical Review D 8116:(14): 2601–2627. 7713: 7688: 7683: 7673: 7664:Note the factors 7579: 7528: 7520: 7476:Yang–Mills theory 7422: 7416: 7410: 7406: 7395: 7381: 7373: 7360: 7354: 7348: 7336: 7293: 7274: 7245: 7220: 7212: 7191: 7157: 7144: 7131: 7110: 7076: 7063: 7037: 7001: 6983: 6949: 6936: 6915: 6881: 6868: 6846: 6828: 6822: 6808: 6798: 6794: 6789: 6776: 6668: 6654: 6633: 6596: 6580: 6572: 6554: 6528: 6507: 6473: 6460: 6447: 6426: 6394: 6373: 6359: 6353: 6255: 6247: 6234: 6219: 6217: 6202: 6186: 6180: 6155: 6137: 6124: 6109: 6104: 6091: 6067: 6061: 5970: 5955: 5936: 5928: 5908: 5895: 5874: 5872: 5857: 5851: 5828: 5822: 5693: 5687: 5661: 5626: 5618: 5603: 5598: 5579: 5562: 5552: 5529: 5498: 5493: 5474: 5468: 5455: 5445: 5435: 5427: 5423: 5421: 5417: 5410: 5318: 5312: 5308: 5303: 5284: 5278: 5265: 5261: 5252: 5234: 5222: 5183: 5165: 5145: 5132: 5106: 5100: 5087: 5083: 5074: 5061: 5049: 4963: 4942: 4910: 4898: 4872: 4859: 4853: 4830: 4786: 4780: 4776: 4774: 4755: 4733: 4710: 4665: 4646: 4626: 4607: 4513:{\displaystyle X} 4483: 4334: 4279: 4256: 4235: 4213: 4197: 4175: 4159: 4129: 4116: 4098: 4094: 4076: 4054: 4038: 4034: 4012: 3999: 3981: 3977: 3939: 3935: 3905: 3887: 3850: 3829: 3825: 3800: 3784: 3780: 3765: 3726: 3708: 3644:The kinetic term 3627: 3389: 3357: 3334: 3313: 3287: 3245: 3235: 3229: 3184: 3174: 3168: 3157: 3118: 3108: 3090: 3066: 3011: 2994: 2975:{\displaystyle v} 2945: 2930: 2816:{\displaystyle h} 2755: 2742: 2722: 2716: 2675: 2662: 2658: 2649: 2630: 2624: 2620: 2606: 2574: 2531: 2384: 2338: 2292: 2246: 2200: 1975: 1924: 1829: 1695: 1648: 1647: 1565: 1561: 1556: 1538: 1523: 1506:, respectively), 1423:weak mixing angle 1349: 1331: 1308: 1290: 1105: 811:weak mixing angle 635:Gerardus 't Hooft 522:electroweak force 510: 509: 158:Hierarchy problem 154:Strong CP problem 16:(Redirected from 8921: 8889: 8888: 8877: 8876: 8667: 8622: 8621: 8603:Weak hypercharge 8588:Weak interaction 8529:Particle physics 8508: 8501: 8494: 8485: 8480: 8478: 8465: 8463: 8450: 8425:(8): 2709–2717. 8411: 8385: 8376:(8): 1529–1533. 8362: 8324: 8301: 8282: 8251: 8239: 8215: 8214: 8204: 8178: 8158: 8152: 8151: 8125: 8103: 8097: 8096: 8094: 8060: 8054: 8053: 8051: 8017: 8011: 8010: 8008: 7974: 7968: 7967: 7959: 7953: 7952: 7920: 7914: 7913: 7911: 7910: 7896: 7890: 7889: 7868:S. Bais (2005). 7865: 7859: 7858: 7856: 7850:. Archived from 7825: 7816: 7807: 7806: 7767: 7761: 7751: 7735: 7723: 7721: 7720: 7715: 7711: 7707: 7706: 7686: 7685: 7676: 7671: 7662: 7653: 7634: 7628: 7626: 7619: 7614: 7613: 7608: 7603: 7597: 7591: 7589: 7588: 7583: 7581: 7580: 7577: 7560: 7558: 7557: 7552: 7550: 7549: 7545: 7529: 7524: 7522: 7521: 7518: 7492: 7446:Electroweak star 7435: 7433: 7432: 7427: 7420: 7414: 7408: 7407: 7399: 7396: 7394: 7393: 7392: 7391: 7379: 7374: 7371: 7370: 7369: 7358: 7352: 7350: 7346: 7344: 7329: 7328: 7327: 7321: 7320: 7303: 7301: 7300: 7295: 7291: 7290: 7289: 7288: 7282: 7281: 7272: 7262: 7260: 7259: 7254: 7252: 7243: 7242: 7241: 7234: 7233: 7228: 7227: 7218: 7217: 7213: 7210: 7209: 7208: 7207: 7189: 7188: 7187: 7175: 7174: 7173: 7155: 7154: 7153: 7142: 7136: 7132: 7129: 7128: 7127: 7126: 7108: 7107: 7106: 7094: 7093: 7092: 7074: 7073: 7072: 7061: 7051: 7046: 7035: 7033: 7028: 7015: 7010: 6999: 6997: 6992: 6981: 6980: 6979: 6967: 6963: 6962: 6957: 6956: 6947: 6946: 6945: 6934: 6933: 6932: 6931: 6913: 6912: 6911: 6899: 6898: 6897: 6879: 6878: 6877: 6866: 6859: 6858: 6844: 6842: 6837: 6826: 6820: 6819: 6818: 6806: 6805: 6804: 6796: 6795: 6790: 6787: 6786: 6785: 6774: 6772: 6764: 6763: 6762: 6747: 6746: 6725: 6723: 6722: 6717: 6715: 6714: 6713: 6698: 6697: 6681: 6679: 6678: 6673: 6666: 6665: 6661: 6659: 6655: 6652: 6651: 6650: 6649: 6631: 6630: 6629: 6614: 6613: 6612: 6594: 6593: 6592: 6578: 6570: 6568: 6563: 6552: 6550: 6545: 6533: 6529: 6526: 6525: 6524: 6523: 6505: 6504: 6503: 6491: 6490: 6489: 6471: 6470: 6469: 6458: 6452: 6448: 6445: 6443: 6438: 6424: 6423: 6422: 6407: 6406: 6392: 6390: 6385: 6371: 6357: 6351: 6341: 6340: 6339: 6327: 6326: 6309: 6307: 6306: 6301: 6299: 6298: 6297: 6285: 6284: 6268: 6266: 6265: 6260: 6253: 6252: 6248: 6245: 6244: 6243: 6232: 6231: 6230: 6220: 6218: 6215: 6214: 6213: 6212: 6200: 6196: 6195: 6184: 6178: 6173: 6168: 6167: 6153: 6151: 6146: 6135: 6129: 6125: 6122: 6121: 6120: 6110: 6105: 6102: 6101: 6100: 6089: 6087: 6082: 6081: 6080: 6065: 6059: 6050: 6049: 6048: 6039: 6038: 6021: 6019: 6018: 6013: 6011: 6010: 6009: 6000: 5999: 5983: 5981: 5980: 5975: 5968: 5967: 5966: 5956: 5954: 5952: 5947: 5946: 5934: 5929: 5926: 5924: 5919: 5918: 5906: 5905: 5904: 5893: 5891: 5886: 5885: 5875: 5873: 5870: 5869: 5868: 5867: 5855: 5849: 5847: 5844: 5839: 5838: 5826: 5820: 5818: 5810: 5809: 5808: 5802: 5801: 5784: 5782: 5781: 5776: 5774: 5773: 5772: 5766: 5765: 5749: 5747: 5746: 5741: 5738: 5737: 5725: 5703: 5701: 5700: 5695: 5691: 5685: 5674: 5672: 5671: 5666: 5659: 5658: 5640: 5635: 5624: 5623: 5619: 5616: 5615: 5614: 5604: 5599: 5596: 5595: 5594: 5577: 5575: 5572: 5571: 5560: 5559: 5558: 5553: 5545: 5539: 5538: 5527: 5525: 5524: 5512: 5499: 5494: 5491: 5490: 5489: 5472: 5470: 5466: 5465: 5464: 5453: 5452: 5451: 5446: 5438: 5433: 5425: 5424: 5422: 5419: 5418: 5412: 5408: 5403: 5395: 5394: 5393: 5387: 5386: 5366: 5364: 5363: 5358: 5355: 5350: 5331: 5329: 5328: 5323: 5316: 5310: 5309: 5304: 5301: 5300: 5299: 5282: 5280: 5276: 5275: 5274: 5263: 5262: 5254: 5250: 5248: 5243: 5232: 5230: 5217: 5212: 5193: 5191: 5190: 5185: 5181: 5179: 5174: 5163: 5155: 5153: 5152: 5147: 5143: 5142: 5141: 5130: 5119: 5117: 5116: 5111: 5104: 5098: 5097: 5096: 5085: 5084: 5076: 5072: 5071: 5070: 5059: 5057: 5044: 5043: 5034: 5015: 5013: 5012: 5007: 5003: 5002: 4993: 4976: 4974: 4973: 4968: 4961: 4960: 4959: 4958: 4940: 4939: 4928: 4927: 4926: 4908: 4896: 4885: 4883: 4882: 4877: 4870: 4869: 4868: 4857: 4851: 4849: 4848: 4839: 4828: 4827: 4826: 4814: 4813: 4800: 4795: 4784: 4778: 4777: 4775: 4772: 4771: 4770: 4753: 4748: 4743: 4742: 4731: 4729: 4728: 4719: 4708: 4701: 4700: 4699: 4693: 4692: 4675: 4673: 4672: 4667: 4663: 4662: 4661: 4660: 4654: 4653: 4644: 4636: 4634: 4633: 4628: 4624: 4623: 4622: 4621: 4615: 4614: 4605: 4594: 4590: 4588: 4587: 4582: 4580: 4579: 4564: 4562: 4561: 4556: 4542: 4540: 4539: 4534: 4519: 4517: 4516: 4511: 4496: 4494: 4493: 4488: 4481: 4479: 4474: 4464: 4459: 4450: 4449: 4427: 4422: 4413: 4412: 4399: 4394: 4385: 4384: 4371: 4366: 4344: 4342: 4341: 4336: 4332: 4331: 4330: 4320: 4315: 4296: 4291: 4277: 4269: 4267: 4266: 4261: 4254: 4252: 4247: 4233: 4226: 4224: 4223: 4218: 4211: 4210: 4209: 4195: 4188: 4186: 4185: 4180: 4173: 4172: 4171: 4157: 4146: 4144: 4143: 4138: 4136: 4127: 4126: 4125: 4114: 4112: 4107: 4096: 4095: 4087: 4074: 4073: 4072: 4052: 4051: 4050: 4036: 4035: 4027: 4022: 4021: 4010: 4009: 4008: 3997: 3995: 3990: 3979: 3978: 3970: 3965: 3964: 3952: 3951: 3937: 3936: 3928: 3918: 3917: 3903: 3901: 3896: 3885: 3883: 3878: 3866: 3865: 3848: 3846: 3841: 3827: 3826: 3818: 3813: 3812: 3798: 3797: 3796: 3782: 3781: 3773: 3763: 3759: 3758: 3744: 3727: 3719: 3716: 3704: 3703: 3702: 3696: 3695: 3674: 3672: 3671: 3666: 3664: 3663: 3658: 3657: 3640: 3638: 3637: 3632: 3625: 3624: 3623: 3622: 3616: 3615: 3605: 3604: 3603: 3588: 3587: 3577: 3576: 3575: 3563: 3562: 3552: 3551: 3550: 3541: 3540: 3530: 3529: 3528: 3522: 3521: 3511: 3510: 3509: 3503: 3502: 3492: 3491: 3490: 3484: 3483: 3473: 3472: 3471: 3465: 3464: 3454: 3453: 3452: 3443: 3442: 3422: 3417: 3402: 3400: 3399: 3394: 3387: 3383: 3355: 3347: 3345: 3344: 3339: 3332: 3330: 3322: 3311: 3300: 3298: 3297: 3292: 3285: 3284: 3266: 3261: 3252: 3251: 3246: 3238: 3233: 3227: 3226: 3225: 3205: 3200: 3191: 3190: 3185: 3177: 3172: 3166: 3165: 3164: 3155: 3142: 3137: 3128: 3127: 3119: 3111: 3106: 3104: 3099: 3088: 3087: 3086: 3074: 3073: 3064: 3049: 3048: 3043: 3042: 3021: 3019: 3018: 3013: 3009: 3008: 3007: 3002: 3001: 2992: 2981: 2979: 2978: 2973: 2958: 2956: 2955: 2950: 2943: 2942: 2941: 2936: 2932: 2931: 2926: 2925: 2916: 2911: 2910: 2905: 2896: 2879: 2878: 2873: 2864: 2863: 2854: 2846: 2845: 2840: 2839: 2822: 2820: 2819: 2814: 2799: 2797: 2796: 2791: 2789: 2788: 2783: 2782: 2765: 2763: 2762: 2757: 2753: 2752: 2751: 2740: 2732: 2730: 2729: 2724: 2720: 2714: 2703: 2701: 2700: 2695: 2689: 2684: 2673: 2672: 2671: 2660: 2659: 2651: 2647: 2640: 2639: 2628: 2622: 2621: 2616: 2608: 2604: 2597: 2596: 2584: 2583: 2572: 2562:) is defined as 2554: 2552: 2551: 2546: 2541: 2540: 2529: 2528: 2527: 2515: 2489: 2487: 2486: 2481: 2479: 2457: 2453: 2449: 2445: 2441: 2437: 2430: 2428: 2427: 2422: 2417: 2416: 2406: 2391: 2390: 2385: 2377: 2371: 2370: 2360: 2345: 2344: 2339: 2331: 2325: 2324: 2314: 2299: 2298: 2293: 2285: 2279: 2278: 2268: 2253: 2252: 2247: 2239: 2233: 2232: 2222: 2207: 2206: 2201: 2193: 2187: 2186: 2181: 2180: 2159: 2157: 2156: 2151: 2149: 2148: 2143: 2142: 2122: 2120: 2119: 2114: 2112: 2111: 2092: 2090: 2089: 2084: 2054: 2052: 2051: 2046: 2043: 2035: 2016: 2014: 2013: 2008: 2003: 2002: 1990: 1989: 1977: 1968: 1961: 1956: 1943: 1935: 1926: 1917: 1908: 1907: 1902: 1901: 1884: 1880: 1876: 1874: 1873: 1868: 1866: 1865: 1860: 1859: 1842: 1840: 1839: 1834: 1827: 1826: 1825: 1820: 1819: 1809: 1808: 1803: 1802: 1792: 1791: 1786: 1785: 1775: 1774: 1769: 1768: 1758: 1757: 1756: 1747: 1746: 1708: 1706: 1705: 1700: 1693: 1692: 1691: 1684: 1683: 1668: 1667: 1657: 1656: 1649: 1642: 1638: 1633: 1632: 1613: 1612: 1611: 1604: 1603: 1592: 1585: 1578: 1576: 1575: 1570: 1563: 1562: 1560: 1558: 1557: 1554: 1540: 1539: 1536: 1530: 1525: 1524: 1521: 1504: 1503: 1498: 1493: 1492: 1487: 1483: 1482: 1481: 1474: 1473: 1465: 1464: 1463: 1456: 1455: 1446: 1445: 1440: 1436: 1429: 1418: 1417: 1412: 1405: 1403: 1402: 1397: 1392: 1391: 1384: 1383: 1359: 1358: 1351: 1350: 1347: 1333: 1332: 1329: 1310: 1309: 1306: 1292: 1291: 1288: 1265: 1264: 1257: 1256: 1222: 1221: 1220: 1219: 1212: 1211: 1202: 1201: 1200: 1193: 1192: 1184: 1177: 1163: 1156: 1147: 1130: 1128: 1127: 1122: 1120: 1119: 1118: 1107: 1098: 1092: 1091: 1066: 1061: 1060: 1055: 1035: 1034: 1018: 1017: 1016: 1009: 1008: 1000: 999: 998: 991: 990: 966: 957: 948: 939: 933: 929: 924:weak hypercharge 921: 894: 887: 880: 873: 866: 855:Yang–Mills field 848: 847: 846: 839: 838: 830: 829: 828: 821: 820: 808: 803: 802: 797: 792:weak hypercharge 786: 770: 766: 759: 678:Julian Schwinger 675:doctoral advisor 673:. Extending his 663:weak interaction 659:parity violation 639:Martinus Veltman 608:neutral currents 575: 573: 538:weak interaction 514:particle physics 502: 495: 488: 94:Particle physics 47: 38:particle physics 30: 21: 8929: 8928: 8924: 8923: 8922: 8920: 8919: 8918: 8904: 8903: 8902: 8897: 8865: 8820: 8778:Quantum gravity 8772: 8739: 8708: 8661: 8654: 8645:Higgs mechanism 8623: 8619: 8614: 8517: 8512: 8468: 8453: 8414: 8365: 8338:Physics Reports 8334: 8331: 8321: 8304: 8298: 8285: 8279: 8266: 8263: 8248: 8231: 8228: 8226:General readers 8223: 8221:Further reading 8218: 8160: 8159: 8155: 8105: 8104: 8100: 8077:(20): 585–587. 8062: 8061: 8057: 8034:(16): 508–509. 8019: 8018: 8014: 7976: 7975: 7971: 7961: 7960: 7956: 7929:Physics Letters 7922: 7921: 7917: 7908: 7906: 7898: 7897: 7893: 7886: 7867: 7866: 7862: 7854: 7834:(21): 1264–66. 7828:Phys. Rev. Lett 7823: 7818: 7817: 7810: 7769: 7768: 7764: 7752: 7748: 7744: 7739: 7738: 7698: 7666: 7665: 7663: 7656: 7635: 7631: 7624: 7622: 7617: 7615: 7611: 7610: 7606: 7604: 7600: 7572: 7567: 7566: 7530: 7513: 7499: 7498: 7493: 7489: 7484: 7466:Unitarity gauge 7442: 7382: 7375: 7361: 7351: 7314: 7309: 7308: 7275: 7267: 7266: 7250: 7249: 7221: 7198: 7179: 7164: 7145: 7141: 7137: 7117: 7098: 7083: 7064: 7060: 7056: 6965: 6964: 6950: 6937: 6922: 6903: 6888: 6869: 6847: 6809: 6777: 6773: 6740: 6731: 6730: 6691: 6686: 6685: 6640: 6618: 6603: 6581: 6577: 6573: 6514: 6495: 6480: 6461: 6457: 6453: 6411: 6395: 6370: 6366: 6364: 6360: 6320: 6315: 6314: 6278: 6273: 6272: 6235: 6222: 6203: 6187: 6177: 6156: 6134: 6130: 6112: 6092: 6088: 6068: 6058: 6054: 6032: 6027: 6026: 5993: 5988: 5987: 5958: 5930: 5896: 5892: 5877: 5858: 5848: 5819: 5795: 5790: 5789: 5759: 5754: 5753: 5709: 5708: 5680: 5679: 5606: 5586: 5576: 5563: 5543: 5530: 5481: 5471: 5456: 5436: 5432: 5428: 5407: 5380: 5375: 5374: 5337: 5336: 5291: 5281: 5266: 5199: 5198: 5158: 5157: 5133: 5125: 5124: 5088: 5062: 5021: 5020: 4979: 4978: 4949: 4932: 4917: 4891: 4890: 4860: 4818: 4805: 4762: 4752: 4734: 4686: 4681: 4680: 4647: 4639: 4638: 4608: 4600: 4599: 4592: 4571: 4566: 4565: 4544: 4543: 4522: 4521: 4502: 4501: 4435: 4404: 4376: 4350: 4349: 4322: 4272: 4271: 4228: 4227: 4198: 4190: 4189: 4160: 4152: 4151: 4134: 4133: 4117: 4064: 4042: 4013: 4000: 3953: 3940: 3920: 3919: 3906: 3851: 3801: 3785: 3750: 3689: 3680: 3679: 3651: 3646: 3645: 3609: 3581: 3556: 3534: 3515: 3496: 3477: 3458: 3436: 3431: 3430: 3415: 3413: 3409: 3350: 3349: 3306: 3305: 3236: 3210: 3175: 3147: 3109: 3075: 3056: 3036: 3031: 3030: 2995: 2987: 2986: 2964: 2963: 2917: 2900: 2891: 2887: 2886: 2868: 2855: 2833: 2828: 2827: 2805: 2804: 2776: 2771: 2770: 2743: 2735: 2734: 2709: 2708: 2663: 2631: 2609: 2588: 2575: 2567: 2566: 2532: 2519: 2499: 2498: 2463: 2462: 2455: 2451: 2447: 2443: 2439: 2435: 2408: 2375: 2362: 2329: 2316: 2283: 2270: 2237: 2224: 2191: 2174: 2169: 2168: 2136: 2131: 2130: 2100: 2095: 2094: 2057: 2056: 2022: 2021: 1991: 1978: 1895: 1890: 1889: 1885:vector boson, 1882: 1878: 1853: 1848: 1847: 1813: 1796: 1779: 1762: 1740: 1735: 1734: 1720: 1715: 1675: 1659: 1624: 1619: 1618: 1610: 1608: 1607: 1606: 1602: 1600: 1599: 1598: 1597: 1595: 1590: 1588: 1583: 1549: 1541: 1531: 1516: 1511: 1510: 1505: 1501: 1500: 1496: 1494: 1490: 1489: 1485: 1480: 1478: 1477: 1476: 1472: 1470: 1469: 1468: 1467: 1462: 1460: 1459: 1458: 1454: 1452: 1451: 1450: 1449: 1447: 1443: 1442: 1438: 1434: 1432: 1427: 1419: 1415: 1414: 1410: 1386: 1385: 1375: 1372: 1371: 1361: 1353: 1352: 1342: 1334: 1324: 1312: 1311: 1301: 1293: 1283: 1270: 1259: 1258: 1248: 1245: 1244: 1234: 1228: 1227: 1218: 1216: 1215: 1214: 1210: 1208: 1207: 1206: 1205: 1204: 1199: 1197: 1196: 1195: 1191: 1189: 1188: 1187: 1186: 1182: 1180: 1175: 1166: 1161: 1159: 1154: 1150: 1145: 1109: 1083: 1072: 1071: 1069: 1064: 1062: 1058: 1057: 1053: 1043:Higgs mechanism 1040: 1036: 1032: 1031: 1015: 1013: 1012: 1011: 1007: 1005: 1004: 1003: 1002: 997: 995: 994: 993: 989: 987: 986: 985: 984: 973:Higgs mechanism 962: 960: 953: 951: 944: 942: 935: 931: 927: 919: 892: 890: 885: 883: 878: 876: 871: 858: 845: 843: 842: 841: 837: 835: 834: 833: 832: 827: 825: 824: 823: 819: 817: 816: 815: 814: 806: 804: 800: 799: 795: 789: 784: 779:The pattern of 768: 764: 762: 757: 750: 744: 736:Gerard 't Hooft 712:John Clive Ward 682:Sheldon Glashow 651: 602:, known as the 592:Steven Weinberg 584:Sheldon Glashow 571: 569: 506: 477: 476: 177: 169: 168: 164: 160: 156: 151: 143: 142: 138: 134: 130: 125: 117: 116: 114:Higgs mechanism 112: 108: 104: 100: 96: 91: 83: 74: 45: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 8927: 8925: 8917: 8916: 8906: 8905: 8899: 8898: 8896: 8895: 8883: 8870: 8867: 8866: 8864: 8863: 8858: 8853: 8848: 8843: 8838: 8832: 8830: 8826: 8825: 8822: 8821: 8819: 8818: 8816:Twistor theory 8813: 8808: 8803: 8798: 8793: 8788: 8782: 8780: 8774: 8773: 8771: 8770: 8765: 8760: 8755: 8749: 8747: 8741: 8740: 8738: 8737: 8732: 8727: 8722: 8716: 8714: 8710: 8709: 8707: 8706: 8701: 8696: 8695: 8694: 8684: 8679: 8673: 8671: 8664: 8662:Standard Model 8656: 8655: 8653: 8652: 8647: 8642: 8637: 8631: 8629: 8625: 8624: 8617: 8615: 8613: 8612: 8611: 8610: 8605: 8600: 8595: 8590: 8580: 8579: 8578: 8573: 8568: 8558: 8553: 8548: 8547: 8546: 8541: 8536: 8525: 8523: 8519: 8518: 8515:Standard Model 8513: 8511: 8510: 8503: 8496: 8488: 8482: 8481: 8476:hep-ph/9912523 8466: 8461:hep-ph/0001283 8451: 8412: 8383:hep-ex/9904020 8363: 8330: 8327: 8326: 8325: 8319: 8302: 8296: 8283: 8277: 8262: 8259: 8258: 8257: 8254:Standard Model 8246: 8227: 8224: 8222: 8219: 8217: 8216: 8153: 8098: 8055: 8012: 7991:(9): 321–323. 7969: 7954: 7935:(2): 168–171. 7915: 7891: 7884: 7860: 7857:on 2012-01-12. 7808: 7781:(4): 568–577. 7762: 7745: 7743: 7740: 7737: 7736: 7710: 7705: 7701: 7697: 7694: 7691: 7682: 7679: 7654: 7629: 7620: 7609: 7598: 7575: 7548: 7544: 7540: 7537: 7533: 7527: 7516: 7512: 7509: 7506: 7486: 7485: 7483: 7480: 7479: 7478: 7473: 7471:Weinberg angle 7468: 7463: 7458: 7453: 7448: 7441: 7438: 7437: 7436: 7425: 7419: 7413: 7405: 7402: 7390: 7385: 7378: 7368: 7364: 7357: 7343: 7339: 7335: 7332: 7326: 7319: 7287: 7280: 7264: 7263: 7248: 7240: 7232: 7226: 7216: 7206: 7201: 7197: 7194: 7186: 7182: 7178: 7172: 7167: 7163: 7160: 7152: 7148: 7140: 7135: 7125: 7120: 7116: 7113: 7105: 7101: 7097: 7091: 7086: 7082: 7079: 7071: 7067: 7059: 7055: 7050: 7045: 7041: 7032: 7027: 7023: 7019: 7014: 7009: 7005: 6996: 6991: 6987: 6978: 6973: 6970: 6968: 6966: 6961: 6955: 6944: 6940: 6930: 6925: 6921: 6918: 6910: 6906: 6902: 6896: 6891: 6887: 6884: 6876: 6872: 6865: 6862: 6857: 6854: 6850: 6841: 6836: 6832: 6825: 6817: 6812: 6810: 6803: 6793: 6784: 6780: 6770: 6767: 6761: 6758: 6755: 6752: 6745: 6739: 6738: 6712: 6709: 6706: 6703: 6696: 6683: 6682: 6671: 6664: 6658: 6648: 6643: 6639: 6636: 6628: 6625: 6621: 6617: 6611: 6606: 6602: 6599: 6591: 6588: 6584: 6576: 6567: 6562: 6558: 6549: 6544: 6540: 6536: 6532: 6522: 6517: 6513: 6510: 6502: 6498: 6494: 6488: 6483: 6479: 6476: 6468: 6464: 6456: 6451: 6442: 6437: 6434: 6430: 6421: 6418: 6414: 6410: 6405: 6402: 6398: 6389: 6384: 6381: 6377: 6369: 6363: 6356: 6350: 6347: 6344: 6338: 6335: 6332: 6325: 6296: 6293: 6290: 6283: 6270: 6269: 6258: 6251: 6242: 6238: 6229: 6225: 6211: 6206: 6199: 6194: 6190: 6183: 6176: 6171: 6166: 6163: 6159: 6150: 6145: 6141: 6133: 6128: 6119: 6115: 6108: 6099: 6095: 6085: 6079: 6076: 6071: 6064: 6057: 6053: 6047: 6044: 6037: 6008: 6005: 5998: 5985: 5984: 5973: 5965: 5961: 5951: 5945: 5940: 5933: 5923: 5917: 5912: 5903: 5899: 5889: 5884: 5880: 5866: 5861: 5854: 5843: 5837: 5832: 5825: 5816: 5813: 5807: 5800: 5771: 5764: 5736: 5733: 5730: 5724: 5721: 5717: 5690: 5676: 5675: 5664: 5657: 5654: 5651: 5648: 5644: 5639: 5634: 5630: 5622: 5613: 5609: 5602: 5593: 5589: 5585: 5582: 5570: 5566: 5557: 5551: 5548: 5542: 5537: 5533: 5523: 5520: 5517: 5511: 5508: 5504: 5497: 5488: 5484: 5480: 5477: 5463: 5459: 5450: 5444: 5441: 5431: 5415: 5406: 5401: 5398: 5392: 5385: 5354: 5349: 5345: 5333: 5332: 5321: 5315: 5307: 5298: 5294: 5290: 5287: 5273: 5269: 5260: 5257: 5247: 5242: 5238: 5229: 5225: 5221: 5216: 5211: 5207: 5178: 5173: 5169: 5140: 5136: 5121: 5120: 5109: 5103: 5095: 5091: 5082: 5079: 5069: 5065: 5056: 5052: 5048: 5042: 5039: 5033: 5029: 5001: 4998: 4992: 4988: 4966: 4957: 4952: 4948: 4945: 4938: 4935: 4931: 4925: 4920: 4916: 4913: 4907: 4904: 4901: 4887: 4886: 4875: 4867: 4863: 4856: 4847: 4844: 4838: 4834: 4825: 4821: 4817: 4812: 4808: 4804: 4799: 4794: 4790: 4783: 4769: 4765: 4761: 4758: 4751: 4746: 4741: 4737: 4727: 4724: 4718: 4714: 4707: 4704: 4698: 4691: 4659: 4652: 4620: 4613: 4578: 4574: 4554: 4551: 4532: 4529: 4509: 4498: 4497: 4486: 4478: 4473: 4469: 4463: 4458: 4454: 4448: 4445: 4442: 4438: 4434: 4431: 4426: 4421: 4417: 4411: 4407: 4403: 4398: 4393: 4389: 4383: 4379: 4375: 4370: 4365: 4362: 4358: 4329: 4325: 4319: 4314: 4311: 4307: 4303: 4300: 4295: 4290: 4287: 4283: 4259: 4251: 4246: 4243: 4239: 4216: 4208: 4205: 4201: 4178: 4170: 4167: 4163: 4148: 4147: 4132: 4124: 4120: 4111: 4106: 4102: 4093: 4090: 4085: 4082: 4079: 4071: 4067: 4063: 4060: 4057: 4049: 4045: 4041: 4033: 4030: 4025: 4020: 4016: 4007: 4003: 3994: 3989: 3985: 3976: 3973: 3968: 3963: 3960: 3956: 3950: 3947: 3943: 3934: 3931: 3926: 3922: 3921: 3916: 3913: 3909: 3900: 3895: 3891: 3882: 3877: 3873: 3869: 3864: 3861: 3858: 3854: 3845: 3840: 3837: 3833: 3824: 3821: 3816: 3811: 3808: 3804: 3795: 3792: 3788: 3779: 3776: 3771: 3768: 3762: 3757: 3753: 3749: 3743: 3736: 3733: 3730: 3725: 3722: 3715: 3711: 3707: 3701: 3694: 3688: 3687: 3662: 3656: 3642: 3641: 3630: 3621: 3614: 3608: 3602: 3599: 3596: 3593: 3586: 3580: 3574: 3571: 3568: 3561: 3555: 3549: 3546: 3539: 3533: 3527: 3520: 3514: 3508: 3501: 3495: 3489: 3482: 3476: 3470: 3463: 3457: 3451: 3448: 3441: 3408: 3405: 3392: 3386: 3382: 3379: 3376: 3373: 3370: 3366: 3363: 3360: 3337: 3329: 3326: 3321: 3317: 3302: 3301: 3290: 3283: 3280: 3277: 3274: 3270: 3265: 3260: 3256: 3250: 3244: 3241: 3232: 3224: 3221: 3217: 3213: 3209: 3204: 3199: 3195: 3189: 3183: 3180: 3171: 3163: 3160: 3154: 3150: 3146: 3141: 3136: 3132: 3126: 3123: 3117: 3114: 3103: 3098: 3094: 3085: 3082: 3078: 3072: 3069: 3063: 3059: 3055: 3052: 3047: 3041: 3006: 3000: 2971: 2960: 2959: 2948: 2940: 2935: 2929: 2924: 2920: 2914: 2909: 2904: 2899: 2895: 2890: 2885: 2882: 2877: 2872: 2867: 2862: 2858: 2853: 2849: 2844: 2838: 2812: 2787: 2781: 2750: 2746: 2719: 2705: 2704: 2693: 2688: 2683: 2679: 2670: 2666: 2657: 2654: 2646: 2643: 2638: 2634: 2627: 2619: 2615: 2612: 2603: 2600: 2595: 2591: 2587: 2582: 2578: 2556: 2555: 2544: 2539: 2535: 2526: 2522: 2518: 2514: 2506: 2492:Dirac matrices 2478: 2470: 2432: 2431: 2420: 2415: 2411: 2405: 2397: 2394: 2389: 2383: 2380: 2374: 2369: 2365: 2359: 2351: 2348: 2343: 2337: 2334: 2328: 2323: 2319: 2313: 2305: 2302: 2297: 2291: 2288: 2282: 2277: 2273: 2267: 2259: 2256: 2251: 2245: 2242: 2236: 2231: 2227: 2221: 2213: 2210: 2205: 2199: 2196: 2190: 2185: 2179: 2147: 2141: 2110: 2107: 2103: 2082: 2079: 2076: 2073: 2070: 2067: 2064: 2042: 2039: 2034: 2030: 2018: 2017: 2006: 2001: 1998: 1994: 1988: 1985: 1981: 1974: 1971: 1965: 1960: 1955: 1952: 1948: 1942: 1939: 1934: 1930: 1923: 1920: 1914: 1911: 1906: 1900: 1864: 1858: 1844: 1843: 1832: 1824: 1818: 1812: 1807: 1801: 1795: 1790: 1784: 1778: 1773: 1767: 1761: 1755: 1752: 1745: 1719: 1716: 1714: 1711: 1710: 1709: 1698: 1690: 1682: 1678: 1674: 1671: 1666: 1662: 1655: 1645: 1641: 1636: 1631: 1627: 1609: 1601: 1593: 1586: 1580: 1579: 1568: 1552: 1548: 1545: 1534: 1528: 1519: 1499: 1488: 1479: 1471: 1461: 1453: 1441: 1430: 1413: 1407: 1406: 1395: 1390: 1382: 1378: 1374: 1373: 1370: 1367: 1366: 1364: 1357: 1345: 1341: 1338: 1335: 1327: 1323: 1320: 1317: 1314: 1313: 1304: 1300: 1297: 1294: 1286: 1282: 1279: 1276: 1275: 1273: 1268: 1263: 1255: 1251: 1247: 1246: 1243: 1240: 1239: 1237: 1217: 1209: 1198: 1190: 1178: 1164: 1157: 1148: 1135:couple to the 1117: 1112: 1104: 1101: 1095: 1090: 1086: 1082: 1079: 1067: 1056: 1038: 1030: 1014: 1006: 996: 988: 980:Standard Model 958: 949: 940: 888: 881: 874: 844: 836: 826: 818: 798: 787: 760: 746:Main article: 743: 740: 732:W and Z bosons 690:renormalizable 650: 647: 643:renormalizable 508: 507: 505: 504: 497: 490: 482: 479: 478: 475: 474: 469: 464: 459: 454: 449: 444: 439: 434: 429: 424: 419: 414: 409: 404: 399: 394: 389: 384: 379: 374: 369: 364: 359: 354: 349: 344: 339: 334: 329: 324: 319: 314: 309: 304: 299: 294: 289: 284: 279: 274: 269: 264: 259: 254: 249: 244: 239: 234: 229: 224: 219: 214: 209: 204: 199: 194: 189: 184: 178: 175: 174: 171: 170: 152: 149: 148: 145: 144: 126: 123: 122: 119: 118: 98:Standard Model 92: 89: 88: 85: 84: 78: 41: 40: 34:Standard Model 26: 24: 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 8926: 8915: 8912: 8911: 8909: 8894: 8893: 8884: 8882: 8881: 8872: 8871: 8868: 8862: 8859: 8857: 8854: 8852: 8849: 8847: 8844: 8842: 8839: 8837: 8834: 8833: 8831: 8827: 8817: 8814: 8812: 8809: 8807: 8804: 8802: 8799: 8797: 8794: 8792: 8789: 8787: 8786:String theory 8784: 8783: 8781: 8779: 8775: 8769: 8766: 8764: 8761: 8759: 8756: 8754: 8751: 8750: 8748: 8746: 8745:Supersymmetry 8742: 8736: 8733: 8731: 8728: 8726: 8723: 8721: 8718: 8717: 8715: 8711: 8705: 8702: 8700: 8697: 8693: 8690: 8689: 8688: 8685: 8683: 8680: 8678: 8675: 8674: 8672: 8668: 8665: 8663: 8657: 8651: 8648: 8646: 8643: 8641: 8638: 8636: 8633: 8632: 8630: 8626: 8609: 8606: 8604: 8601: 8599: 8596: 8594: 8591: 8589: 8586: 8585: 8584: 8581: 8577: 8574: 8572: 8569: 8567: 8564: 8563: 8562: 8559: 8557: 8554: 8552: 8549: 8545: 8542: 8540: 8537: 8535: 8532: 8531: 8530: 8527: 8526: 8524: 8520: 8516: 8509: 8504: 8502: 8497: 8495: 8490: 8489: 8486: 8477: 8472: 8467: 8462: 8457: 8452: 8448: 8444: 8440: 8436: 8432: 8428: 8424: 8420: 8419: 8413: 8409: 8405: 8401: 8397: 8393: 8389: 8384: 8379: 8375: 8371: 8370: 8364: 8360: 8356: 8352: 8348: 8344: 8340: 8339: 8333: 8332: 8328: 8322: 8320:0-201-11749-5 8316: 8312: 8311:Perseus Books 8308: 8303: 8299: 8297:3-540-67672-4 8293: 8289: 8284: 8280: 8278:0-471-60386-4 8274: 8270: 8265: 8264: 8260: 8255: 8249: 8247:0-8018-7971-X 8243: 8238: 8237: 8230: 8229: 8225: 8220: 8212: 8208: 8203: 8198: 8194: 8190: 8186: 8182: 8177: 8172: 8169:(2): 025003. 8168: 8164: 8157: 8154: 8149: 8145: 8141: 8137: 8133: 8129: 8124: 8119: 8115: 8111: 8110: 8102: 8099: 8093: 8088: 8084: 8080: 8076: 8072: 8071: 8066: 8059: 8056: 8050: 8045: 8041: 8037: 8033: 8029: 8028: 8023: 8016: 8013: 8007: 8002: 7998: 7994: 7990: 7986: 7985: 7980: 7973: 7970: 7965: 7958: 7955: 7950: 7946: 7942: 7938: 7934: 7930: 7926: 7919: 7916: 7905: 7901: 7895: 7892: 7887: 7885:0-674-01967-9 7881: 7877: 7873: 7872: 7864: 7861: 7853: 7849: 7845: 7841: 7837: 7833: 7829: 7822: 7815: 7813: 7809: 7804: 7800: 7796: 7792: 7788: 7784: 7780: 7776: 7775:Nuovo Cimento 7772: 7766: 7763: 7759: 7756: 7750: 7747: 7741: 7733: 7732: 7731:chiral theory 7727: 7703: 7699: 7695: 7692: 7680: 7677: 7661: 7659: 7655: 7651: 7647: 7643: 7639: 7633: 7630: 7602: 7599: 7595: 7573: 7564: 7546: 7542: 7538: 7535: 7525: 7514: 7507: 7504: 7497: 7491: 7488: 7481: 7477: 7474: 7472: 7469: 7467: 7464: 7462: 7459: 7457: 7454: 7452: 7449: 7447: 7444: 7443: 7439: 7423: 7417: 7411: 7400: 7383: 7376: 7366: 7362: 7355: 7341: 7337: 7333: 7330: 7307: 7306: 7305: 7246: 7230: 7214: 7199: 7195: 7192: 7184: 7180: 7176: 7165: 7161: 7158: 7150: 7146: 7138: 7133: 7118: 7114: 7111: 7103: 7099: 7095: 7084: 7080: 7077: 7069: 7065: 7057: 7053: 7048: 7043: 7039: 7030: 7025: 7021: 7017: 7012: 7007: 7003: 6994: 6989: 6985: 6971: 6969: 6959: 6942: 6923: 6919: 6916: 6908: 6904: 6900: 6889: 6885: 6882: 6874: 6870: 6860: 6855: 6852: 6848: 6839: 6834: 6830: 6823: 6811: 6791: 6782: 6778: 6768: 6765: 6729: 6728: 6727: 6669: 6662: 6656: 6641: 6637: 6634: 6626: 6623: 6619: 6615: 6604: 6600: 6597: 6589: 6586: 6582: 6574: 6565: 6560: 6556: 6547: 6542: 6538: 6534: 6530: 6515: 6511: 6508: 6500: 6496: 6492: 6481: 6477: 6474: 6466: 6462: 6454: 6449: 6440: 6435: 6432: 6428: 6419: 6416: 6412: 6408: 6403: 6400: 6396: 6387: 6382: 6379: 6375: 6367: 6361: 6354: 6348: 6345: 6342: 6313: 6312: 6311: 6256: 6249: 6240: 6236: 6227: 6223: 6204: 6197: 6192: 6188: 6181: 6174: 6169: 6164: 6161: 6157: 6148: 6143: 6139: 6131: 6126: 6117: 6113: 6106: 6097: 6093: 6083: 6069: 6062: 6055: 6051: 6025: 6024: 6023: 5971: 5963: 5959: 5949: 5938: 5931: 5921: 5910: 5901: 5897: 5887: 5882: 5878: 5859: 5852: 5841: 5830: 5823: 5814: 5811: 5788: 5787: 5786: 5751: 5722: 5719: 5715: 5707: 5688: 5662: 5655: 5649: 5642: 5637: 5632: 5628: 5620: 5611: 5607: 5600: 5591: 5587: 5583: 5580: 5568: 5564: 5555: 5546: 5540: 5535: 5531: 5509: 5506: 5502: 5495: 5486: 5482: 5478: 5475: 5461: 5457: 5448: 5439: 5429: 5413: 5404: 5399: 5396: 5373: 5372: 5371: 5368: 5352: 5347: 5343: 5319: 5313: 5305: 5296: 5292: 5288: 5285: 5271: 5267: 5255: 5245: 5240: 5236: 5227: 5223: 5219: 5214: 5209: 5205: 5197: 5196: 5195: 5176: 5171: 5167: 5138: 5134: 5107: 5101: 5093: 5089: 5077: 5067: 5063: 5054: 5050: 5046: 5031: 5027: 5019: 5018: 5017: 4990: 4986: 4964: 4950: 4946: 4943: 4936: 4933: 4929: 4918: 4914: 4911: 4905: 4902: 4899: 4873: 4865: 4861: 4836: 4832: 4823: 4819: 4815: 4810: 4806: 4802: 4797: 4792: 4788: 4767: 4763: 4759: 4756: 4749: 4744: 4739: 4735: 4716: 4712: 4705: 4702: 4679: 4678: 4677: 4596: 4576: 4572: 4552: 4549: 4530: 4527: 4507: 4484: 4476: 4471: 4467: 4461: 4456: 4452: 4446: 4443: 4440: 4436: 4432: 4429: 4424: 4419: 4415: 4409: 4401: 4396: 4391: 4387: 4381: 4373: 4368: 4363: 4360: 4356: 4348: 4347: 4346: 4345:are given as 4327: 4317: 4312: 4309: 4305: 4298: 4293: 4288: 4285: 4281: 4257: 4249: 4244: 4241: 4237: 4214: 4206: 4203: 4199: 4176: 4168: 4165: 4161: 4130: 4122: 4118: 4109: 4104: 4100: 4091: 4088: 4083: 4077: 4069: 4055: 4047: 4031: 4028: 4023: 4018: 4014: 4005: 4001: 3992: 3987: 3983: 3974: 3971: 3966: 3961: 3958: 3954: 3948: 3945: 3941: 3932: 3929: 3924: 3914: 3911: 3907: 3898: 3893: 3889: 3880: 3875: 3871: 3867: 3862: 3859: 3856: 3852: 3843: 3838: 3835: 3831: 3822: 3819: 3814: 3809: 3806: 3802: 3793: 3790: 3786: 3777: 3774: 3769: 3766: 3755: 3751: 3747: 3741: 3731: 3720: 3713: 3709: 3705: 3678: 3677: 3676: 3660: 3628: 3606: 3578: 3553: 3531: 3512: 3493: 3474: 3455: 3429: 3428: 3427: 3424: 3421: 3406: 3404: 3390: 3377: 3371: 3361: 3358: 3335: 3327: 3324: 3319: 3315: 3288: 3281: 3275: 3268: 3263: 3258: 3254: 3248: 3239: 3230: 3222: 3219: 3215: 3211: 3207: 3202: 3197: 3193: 3187: 3178: 3169: 3161: 3158: 3152: 3148: 3144: 3139: 3134: 3130: 3124: 3121: 3112: 3101: 3096: 3092: 3083: 3080: 3076: 3070: 3067: 3061: 3057: 3053: 3050: 3045: 3029: 3028: 3027: 3025: 3004: 2983: 2969: 2946: 2938: 2933: 2927: 2922: 2918: 2912: 2907: 2897: 2888: 2883: 2880: 2875: 2865: 2860: 2856: 2847: 2842: 2826: 2825: 2824: 2810: 2803: 2785: 2767: 2748: 2744: 2717: 2691: 2686: 2681: 2677: 2668: 2664: 2655: 2652: 2644: 2641: 2636: 2632: 2625: 2617: 2613: 2610: 2601: 2598: 2593: 2585: 2580: 2576: 2565: 2564: 2563: 2561: 2542: 2537: 2533: 2524: 2520: 2516: 2512: 2504: 2497: 2496: 2495: 2494:, defined as 2493: 2476: 2468: 2461: 2460:Feynman slash 2418: 2413: 2409: 2403: 2395: 2392: 2387: 2378: 2372: 2367: 2363: 2357: 2349: 2346: 2341: 2332: 2326: 2321: 2317: 2311: 2303: 2300: 2295: 2286: 2280: 2275: 2271: 2265: 2257: 2254: 2249: 2240: 2234: 2229: 2225: 2219: 2211: 2208: 2203: 2194: 2188: 2183: 2167: 2166: 2165: 2163: 2145: 2128: 2126: 2108: 2105: 2101: 2080: 2077: 2074: 2071: 2068: 2065: 2062: 2040: 2037: 2032: 2028: 2004: 1999: 1996: 1992: 1986: 1983: 1979: 1972: 1969: 1963: 1958: 1953: 1950: 1946: 1940: 1937: 1932: 1928: 1921: 1918: 1912: 1909: 1904: 1888: 1887: 1886: 1862: 1830: 1822: 1810: 1805: 1793: 1788: 1776: 1771: 1759: 1733: 1732: 1731: 1729: 1725: 1717: 1712: 1696: 1680: 1676: 1672: 1669: 1664: 1660: 1643: 1639: 1634: 1629: 1625: 1617: 1616: 1615: 1566: 1550: 1546: 1543: 1532: 1526: 1517: 1509: 1508: 1507: 1425: 1424: 1393: 1388: 1380: 1376: 1368: 1362: 1355: 1343: 1339: 1336: 1325: 1321: 1318: 1315: 1302: 1298: 1295: 1284: 1280: 1277: 1271: 1266: 1261: 1253: 1249: 1241: 1235: 1226: 1225: 1224: 1172: 1170: 1152: 1142: 1138: 1134: 1110: 1102: 1099: 1093: 1088: 1084: 1080: 1077: 1050: 1048: 1044: 1028: 1024: 1020: 981: 976: 974: 970: 965: 956: 947: 938: 925: 917: 913: 909: 905: 900: 898: 869: 865: 861: 856: 812: 793: 782: 777: 754: 749: 741: 739: 737: 733: 729: 725: 721: 717: 713: 709: 704: 702: 698: 694: 691: 687: 683: 679: 676: 672: 668: 664: 660: 656: 655:Wu experiment 648: 646: 644: 640: 636: 632: 628: 625: 621: 617: 613: 609: 605: 601: 597: 593: 589: 585: 581: 579: 567: 563: 559: 555: 551: 547: 543: 539: 535: 531: 527: 523: 519: 515: 503: 498: 496: 491: 489: 484: 483: 481: 480: 473: 470: 468: 465: 463: 460: 458: 455: 453: 450: 448: 445: 443: 440: 438: 435: 433: 430: 428: 425: 423: 420: 418: 415: 413: 410: 408: 405: 403: 400: 398: 395: 393: 390: 388: 385: 383: 380: 378: 375: 373: 370: 368: 365: 363: 360: 358: 355: 353: 350: 348: 345: 343: 340: 338: 335: 333: 330: 328: 325: 323: 320: 318: 315: 313: 310: 308: 305: 303: 300: 298: 295: 293: 290: 288: 285: 283: 280: 278: 275: 273: 270: 268: 265: 263: 260: 258: 255: 253: 250: 248: 245: 243: 240: 238: 235: 233: 230: 228: 225: 223: 220: 218: 215: 213: 210: 208: 205: 203: 200: 198: 195: 193: 190: 188: 185: 183: 180: 179: 173: 172: 167: 163: 159: 155: 147: 146: 141: 137: 133: 129: 121: 120: 115: 111: 107: 103: 99: 95: 87: 86: 81: 43: 42: 39: 35: 31: 19: 8890: 8878: 8768:Supergravity 8628:Constituents 8608:Weak isospin 8582: 8566:Color charge 8556:Gauge theory 8422: 8416: 8373: 8367: 8345:(1): 1–141. 8342: 8336: 8306: 8290:. Springer. 8287: 8268: 8235: 8202:10138/159845 8166: 8163:Phys. Rev. D 8162: 8156: 8113: 8107: 8101: 8074: 8068: 8058: 8031: 8025: 8015: 7988: 7982: 7972: 7963: 7957: 7932: 7928: 7918: 7907:. Retrieved 7894: 7870: 7863: 7852:the original 7831: 7827: 7778: 7774: 7765: 7757: 7754: 7749: 7729: 7645: 7637: 7632: 7601: 7490: 7265: 6684: 6271: 5986: 5752: 5677: 5369: 5334: 5122: 4888: 4597: 4499: 4149: 3643: 3425: 3410: 3303: 2984: 2961: 2768: 2706: 2557: 2433: 2129: 2019: 1845: 1721: 1581: 1421: 1408: 1173: 1168: 1153: 1140: 1132: 1131:) that does 1051: 977: 963: 954: 945: 936: 916:weak isospin 901: 896: 852: 809:, along the 781:weak isospin 720:gauge bosons 705: 652: 627:gauge bosons 603: 582: 521: 517: 511: 127: 124:Constituents 106:Gauge theory 8829:Experiments 8720:Technicolor 8682:Dark matter 8576:Quark model 8544:Higgs boson 8539:Gauge boson 7755:Nucl. Phys. 7642:Higgs boson 7563:Higgs field 2802:Higgs field 1137:Higgs boson 1047:Higgs boson 961:), and the 868:gauge group 742:Formulation 728:gauge boson 633:. In 1999, 588:Abdus Salam 554:quark epoch 532:of nature: 302:Chamberlain 150:Limitations 18:Electroweak 8836:Gran Sasso 8660:Beyond the 8635:CKM matrix 8522:Background 8176:1508.07161 7909:2008-12-16 7874:. p.  7742:References 7648:, through 7646:indirectly 7605:Note that 5706:CKM matrix 1724:Lagrangian 1713:Lagrangian 1045:(see also 1021:, and the 904:generators 653:After the 612:Gargamelle 576:(from the 562:weak force 272:Iliopoulos 182:Rutherford 176:Scientists 136:CKM matrix 90:Background 8408:118326409 8211:119261776 8123:0907.3466 7771:Salam, A. 7700:γ 7696:− 7536:− 7404:¯ 7338:∑ 7334:− 7200:θ 7196:⁡ 7185:ν 7177:− 7166:θ 7162:⁡ 7151:ν 7119:θ 7115:⁡ 7104:μ 7096:− 7085:θ 7081:⁡ 7070:μ 7049:− 7044:μ 7026:ν 7013:− 7008:ν 6990:μ 6972:− 6924:θ 6920:⁡ 6909:μ 6901:− 6890:θ 6886:⁡ 6875:μ 6856:μ 6853:− 6835:μ 6769:− 6642:θ 6638:⁡ 6627:ν 6624:μ 6616:− 6605:θ 6601:⁡ 6590:ν 6587:μ 6561:μ 6548:− 6543:ν 6516:θ 6512:⁡ 6501:ν 6493:− 6482:θ 6478:⁡ 6467:ν 6441:− 6436:ν 6433:μ 6420:μ 6409:− 6404:μ 6401:− 6383:ν 6380:μ 6346:− 6241:μ 6228:μ 6205:θ 6198:⁡ 6165:μ 6162:− 6144:μ 5888:− 5815:− 5689:ν 5633:μ 5588:γ 5584:− 5569:μ 5565:γ 5550:¯ 5547:ν 5483:γ 5479:− 5462:μ 5458:γ 5443:¯ 5400:− 5293:γ 5289:− 5272:μ 5268:γ 5259:¯ 5224:∑ 5210:μ 5172:μ 5094:μ 5090:γ 5081:¯ 5051:∑ 5032:μ 4991:μ 4951:θ 4947:⁡ 4919:θ 4915:⁡ 4866:μ 4837:μ 4820:θ 4816:⁡ 4803:− 4793:μ 4764:θ 4760:⁡ 4740:μ 4717:μ 4593:f  4577:± 4472:ν 4457:μ 4420:μ 4410:ν 4406:∂ 4402:− 4392:ν 4382:μ 4378:∂ 4364:ν 4361:μ 4328:† 4318:− 4313:ν 4310:μ 4299:≡ 4289:ν 4286:μ 4250:− 4245:ν 4242:μ 4207:ν 4204:μ 4169:ν 4166:μ 4084:− 4070:μ 4066:∂ 4048:μ 4044:∂ 4019:μ 4006:μ 3962:ν 3959:μ 3949:ν 3946:μ 3925:− 3915:μ 3912:− 3894:μ 3863:ν 3860:μ 3857:− 3839:ν 3836:μ 3815:− 3810:ν 3807:μ 3794:ν 3791:μ 3770:− 3748:− 3735:∂ 3724:¯ 3710:∑ 3418:1.5  3362:∈ 3243:¯ 3208:− 3182:¯ 3145:− 3116:¯ 3102:† 3077:ϵ 3054:− 2913:− 2884:λ 2881:− 2861:μ 2682:μ 2642:− 2637:μ 2599:− 2594:μ 2590:∂ 2586:≡ 2581:μ 2538:μ 2525:μ 2521:γ 2517:≡ 2382:¯ 2336:¯ 2290:¯ 2244:¯ 2198:¯ 2109:ν 2106:μ 2041:ν 2038:μ 2000:ν 1997:μ 1987:ν 1984:μ 1964:− 1954:ν 1951:μ 1941:ν 1938:μ 1913:− 1670:∓ 1630:± 1551:θ 1547:⁡ 1344:θ 1340:⁡ 1326:θ 1322:⁡ 1316:− 1303:θ 1299:⁡ 1285:θ 1281:⁡ 1242:γ 926:(labeled 918:(labeled 706:In 1964, 680:'s work, 574:10 K 462:de Mayolo 407:Schwinger 347:Kobayashi 237:Gell-Mann 202:Sudarshan 8908:Category 8880:Category 8861:Tevatron 8713:Theories 8670:Evidence 8534:Fermions 8447:10013661 8329:Articles 8148:16298371 7803:15889731 7638:directly 7440:See also 4937:′ 2614:′ 2123:are the 1169:directly 857:with an 618:and the 558:Big Bang 536:and the 452:Guralnik 397:Politzer 372:'t Hooft 327:Weinberg 322:Majorana 312:Schwartz 277:Lederman 262:Anderson 252:Friedman 212:Anderson 207:Davis Jr 192:Chadwick 8892:Commons 8856:Super-K 8692:problem 8427:Bibcode 8388:Bibcode 8347:Bibcode 8181:Bibcode 8128:Bibcode 8079:Bibcode 8036:Bibcode 7993:Bibcode 7937:Bibcode 7836:Bibcode 7783:Bibcode 7592:is the 7565:(where 7561:of the 4591:) and 1420:is the 1037:to U(1) 978:In the 849:bosons. 701:Z boson 661:in the 649:History 624:W and Z 524:is the 437:Englert 412:Wilczek 377:Veltman 352:Maskawa 307:Cabibbo 267:Glashow 242:Kendall 227:Feynman 187:Thomson 8445:  8406:  8317:  8294:  8275:  8244:  8209:  8146:  7882:  7801:  7760:, 107. 7726:chiral 7712:  7687:  7672:  7421:  7415:  7409:  7380:  7372:  7359:  7353:  7347:  7292:  7273:  7244:  7219:  7211:  7190:  7156:  7143:  7130:  7109:  7075:  7062:  7036:  7000:  6982:  6948:  6935:  6914:  6880:  6867:  6845:  6827:  6821:  6807:  6797:  6788:  6775:  6667:  6653:  6632:  6595:  6579:  6571:  6553:  6527:  6506:  6472:  6459:  6446:  6425:  6393:  6372:  6358:  6352:  6254:  6246:  6233:  6216:  6201:  6185:  6179:  6154:  6136:  6123:  6103:  6090:  6066:  6060:  5969:  5935:  5927:  5907:  5894:  5871:  5856:  5850:  5827:  5821:  5692:  5686:  5678:where 5660:  5625:  5617:  5597:  5578:  5561:  5528:  5492:  5473:  5467:  5454:  5434:  5426:  5420:  5409:  5335:where 5317:  5311:  5302:  5283:  5277:  5264:  5251:  5233:  5182:  5164:  5144:  5131:  5123:where 5105:  5099:  5086:  5073:  5060:  4962:  4941:  4909:  4897:  4889:where 4871:  4858:  4852:  4829:  4785:  4779:  4773:  4754:  4732:  4709:  4664:  4645:  4625:  4606:  4482:  4333:  4278:  4255:  4234:  4212:  4196:  4174:  4158:  4128:  4115:  4097:  4075:  4053:  4037:  4011:  3998:  3980:  3938:  3904:  3886:  3849:  3828:  3799:  3783:  3764:  3626:  3388:  3356:  3333:  3312:  3286:  3234:  3228:  3173:  3167:  3156:  3107:  3089:  3065:  3010:  2993:  2962:where 2944:  2754:  2741:  2721:  2715:  2674:  2661:  2648:  2629:  2623:  2605:  2573:  2530:  2446:, and 2093:) and 2020:where 1828:  1694:  1564:  1409:where 1213:γ 1023:photon 1019:bosons 952:, and 922:) and 884:, and 790:, and 767:, and 716:photon 693:theory 686:chiral 590:, and 516:, the 467:Lattes 457:Kibble 417:Cronin 402:Reines 367:Yukawa 282:Maiani 257:Powell 247:Taylor 232:Rubbia 8758:NMSSM 8471:arXiv 8456:arXiv 8404:S2CID 8378:arXiv 8261:Texts 8207:S2CID 8171:arXiv 8144:S2CID 8118:arXiv 7855:(PDF) 7824:(PDF) 7799:S2CID 7482:Notes 4500:with 3414:159.5 2707:Here 1141:other 908:SU(2) 860:SU(2) 765:g, g′ 708:Salam 472:Zweig 447:Hagen 442:Brout 432:Higgs 427:Vleck 422:Fitch 392:Pauli 382:Gross 357:Mills 342:Salam 297:Nambu 292:Cowan 222:Dirac 217:Fermi 8753:MSSM 8443:PMID 8315:ISBN 8292:ISBN 8273:ISBN 8242:ISBN 7880:ISBN 7625:U(1) 7618:U(1) 7616:and 7607:U(1) 4270:and 3348:for 2985:The 2769:The 2454:and 1846:The 1722:The 1589:and 1582:The 1495:and 1181:and 1162:U(1) 1155:U(1) 1001:and 912:U(1) 910:and 902:The 864:U(1) 831:and 710:and 669:and 667:weak 637:and 387:Pais 362:Yang 337:Ward 317:Perl 287:Meer 197:Bose 8851:SNO 8846:LHC 8841:INO 8435:doi 8396:doi 8355:doi 8197:hdl 8189:doi 8136:doi 8087:doi 8044:doi 8001:doi 7945:doi 7844:doi 7791:doi 7193:cos 7159:sin 7112:cos 7078:sin 6917:cos 6883:sin 6635:cos 6598:sin 6509:cos 6475:sin 6189:cos 5194:is 5016:is 4944:cos 4912:sin 4807:sin 4757:cos 3420:GeV 1544:cos 1337:cos 1319:sin 1296:sin 1278:cos 1223:), 1133:not 906:of 620:UA2 616:UA1 580:). 570:5.5 546:GeV 520:or 512:In 332:Lee 36:of 8910:: 8441:. 8433:. 8423:43 8421:. 8402:. 8394:. 8386:. 8374:83 8372:. 8353:. 8341:. 8313:. 8309:. 8205:. 8195:. 8187:. 8179:. 8167:93 8165:. 8142:. 8134:. 8126:. 8114:24 8112:. 8085:. 8075:13 8073:. 8067:. 8042:. 8032:13 8030:. 8024:. 7999:. 7989:13 7987:. 7981:. 7943:. 7933:13 7931:. 7927:. 7902:. 7878:. 7876:84 7842:. 7832:19 7830:. 7826:. 7811:^ 7797:. 7789:. 7779:11 7777:. 7758:10 7734:'. 7657:^ 7621:em 7596:). 5932:32 2442:, 2164:, 1614:: 1433:, 1165:em 1158:em 1039:em 975:. 943:, 899:. 877:, 862:Ă— 794:, 783:, 645:. 586:, 8507:e 8500:t 8493:v 8479:. 8473:: 8464:. 8458:: 8449:. 8437:: 8429:: 8410:. 8398:: 8390:: 8380:: 8361:. 8357:: 8349:: 8343:9 8323:. 8300:. 8281:. 8250:. 8213:. 8199:: 8191:: 8183:: 8173:: 8150:. 8138:: 8130:: 8120:: 8095:. 8089:: 8081:: 8052:. 8046:: 8038:: 8009:. 8003:: 7995:: 7966:. 7951:. 7947:: 7939:: 7912:. 7888:. 7846:: 7838:: 7805:. 7793:: 7785:: 7709:) 7704:5 7693:1 7690:( 7681:2 7678:1 7652:. 7612:Y 7578:F 7574:G 7547:2 7543:/ 7539:1 7532:) 7526:2 7519:F 7515:G 7511:( 7508:= 7505:v 7424:. 7418:H 7412:f 7401:f 7389:W 7384:m 7377:2 7367:f 7363:m 7356:g 7342:f 7331:= 7325:Y 7318:L 7286:Y 7279:L 7247:. 7239:} 7231:2 7225:] 7215:) 7205:W 7181:Z 7171:W 7147:A 7139:( 7134:) 7124:W 7100:Z 7090:W 7066:A 7058:( 7054:+ 7040:W 7031:+ 7022:W 7018:+ 7004:W 6995:+ 6986:W 6977:[ 6960:2 6954:] 6943:2 6939:) 6929:W 6905:Z 6895:W 6871:A 6864:( 6861:+ 6849:W 6840:+ 6831:W 6824:2 6816:[ 6802:{ 6792:4 6783:2 6779:g 6766:= 6760:V 6757:V 6754:W 6751:W 6744:L 6711:V 6708:V 6705:W 6702:W 6695:L 6670:. 6663:] 6657:) 6647:W 6620:Z 6610:W 6583:A 6575:( 6566:+ 6557:W 6539:W 6535:+ 6531:) 6521:W 6497:Z 6487:W 6463:A 6455:( 6450:) 6429:W 6417:+ 6413:W 6397:W 6388:+ 6376:W 6368:( 6362:[ 6355:g 6349:i 6343:= 6337:V 6334:W 6331:W 6324:L 6295:V 6292:W 6289:W 6282:L 6257:. 6250:) 6237:Z 6224:Z 6210:W 6193:2 6182:2 6175:1 6170:+ 6158:W 6149:+ 6140:W 6132:( 6127:) 6118:2 6114:H 6107:4 6098:2 6094:g 6084:+ 6078:V 6075:H 6070:m 6063:g 6056:( 6052:= 6046:V 6043:H 6036:L 6007:V 6004:H 5997:L 5972:. 5964:4 5960:H 5950:2 5944:W 5939:m 5922:2 5916:H 5911:m 5902:2 5898:g 5883:3 5879:H 5865:W 5860:m 5853:4 5842:2 5836:H 5831:m 5824:g 5812:= 5806:H 5799:L 5770:H 5763:L 5735:M 5732:K 5729:C 5723:j 5720:i 5716:M 5663:, 5656:. 5653:c 5650:. 5647:h 5643:+ 5638:+ 5629:W 5621:] 5612:i 5608:e 5601:2 5592:5 5581:1 5556:i 5541:+ 5536:j 5532:d 5522:M 5519:K 5516:C 5510:j 5507:i 5503:M 5496:2 5487:5 5476:1 5449:i 5440:u 5430:[ 5414:2 5405:g 5397:= 5391:C 5384:L 5353:3 5348:f 5344:T 5320:, 5314:f 5306:2 5297:5 5286:1 5256:f 5246:3 5241:f 5237:T 5228:f 5220:= 5215:3 5206:J 5177:3 5168:J 5139:f 5135:q 5108:, 5102:f 5078:f 5068:f 5064:q 5055:f 5047:= 5041:m 5038:e 5028:J 5000:m 4997:e 4987:J 4965:. 4956:W 4934:g 4930:= 4924:W 4906:g 4903:= 4900:e 4874:, 4862:Z 4855:) 4846:m 4843:e 4833:J 4824:W 4811:2 4798:3 4789:J 4782:( 4768:W 4750:g 4745:+ 4736:A 4726:m 4723:e 4713:J 4706:e 4703:= 4697:N 4690:L 4658:C 4651:L 4619:N 4612:L 4573:W 4553:, 4550:Z 4531:, 4528:A 4508:X 4485:, 4477:c 4468:X 4462:b 4453:X 4447:c 4444:b 4441:a 4437:f 4433:g 4430:+ 4425:a 4416:X 4397:a 4388:X 4374:= 4369:a 4357:X 4324:) 4306:W 4302:( 4294:+ 4282:W 4258:, 4238:W 4215:, 4200:Z 4177:, 4162:A 4131:, 4123:2 4119:H 4110:2 4105:H 4101:m 4092:2 4089:1 4081:) 4078:H 4062:( 4059:) 4056:H 4040:( 4032:2 4029:1 4024:+ 4015:Z 4002:Z 3993:2 3988:Z 3984:m 3975:2 3972:1 3967:+ 3955:Z 3942:Z 3933:4 3930:1 3908:W 3899:+ 3890:W 3881:2 3876:W 3872:m 3868:+ 3853:W 3844:+ 3832:W 3823:2 3820:1 3803:A 3787:A 3778:4 3775:1 3767:f 3761:) 3756:f 3752:m 3742:/ 3732:i 3729:( 3721:f 3714:f 3706:= 3700:K 3693:L 3661:K 3655:L 3629:. 3620:Y 3613:L 3607:+ 3601:V 3598:V 3595:W 3592:W 3585:L 3579:+ 3573:V 3570:W 3567:W 3560:L 3554:+ 3548:V 3545:H 3538:L 3532:+ 3526:H 3519:L 3513:+ 3507:C 3500:L 3494:+ 3488:N 3481:L 3475:+ 3469:K 3462:L 3456:= 3450:W 3447:E 3440:L 3416:± 3391:, 3385:} 3381:e 3378:, 3375:d 3372:, 3369:u 3365:{ 3359:k 3336:, 3328:j 3325:i 3320:k 3316:y 3289:, 3282:. 3279:c 3276:. 3273:h 3269:+ 3264:c 3259:j 3255:e 3249:i 3240:L 3231:h 3223:j 3220:i 3216:e 3212:y 3203:c 3198:j 3194:d 3188:i 3179:Q 3170:h 3162:j 3159:i 3153:d 3149:y 3140:c 3135:j 3131:u 3125:a 3122:i 3113:Q 3097:b 3093:h 3084:b 3081:a 3071:j 3068:i 3062:u 3058:y 3051:= 3046:y 3040:L 3005:y 2999:L 2970:v 2947:, 2939:2 2934:) 2928:2 2923:2 2919:v 2908:2 2903:| 2898:h 2894:| 2889:( 2876:2 2871:| 2866:h 2857:D 2852:| 2848:= 2843:h 2837:L 2811:h 2786:h 2780:L 2749:j 2745:T 2718:Y 2692:. 2687:j 2678:W 2669:j 2665:T 2656:2 2653:g 2645:i 2633:B 2626:Y 2618:2 2611:g 2602:i 2577:D 2543:, 2534:D 2513:/ 2505:D 2477:/ 2469:D 2456:e 2452:L 2448:d 2444:u 2440:Q 2436:j 2419:, 2414:j 2410:e 2404:/ 2396:D 2393:i 2388:j 2379:e 2373:+ 2368:j 2364:L 2358:/ 2350:D 2347:i 2342:j 2333:L 2327:+ 2322:j 2318:d 2312:/ 2304:D 2301:i 2296:j 2287:d 2281:+ 2276:j 2272:u 2266:/ 2258:D 2255:i 2250:j 2241:u 2235:+ 2230:j 2226:Q 2220:/ 2212:D 2209:i 2204:j 2195:Q 2189:= 2184:f 2178:L 2146:f 2140:L 2102:B 2081:3 2078:, 2075:2 2072:, 2069:1 2066:= 2063:a 2055:( 2033:a 2029:W 2005:, 1993:B 1980:B 1973:4 1970:1 1959:a 1947:W 1933:a 1929:W 1922:4 1919:1 1910:= 1905:g 1899:L 1883:B 1879:W 1863:g 1857:L 1831:. 1823:y 1817:L 1811:+ 1806:h 1800:L 1794:+ 1789:f 1783:L 1777:+ 1772:g 1766:L 1760:= 1754:W 1751:E 1744:L 1697:. 1689:) 1681:2 1677:W 1673:i 1665:1 1661:W 1654:( 1644:2 1640:1 1635:= 1626:W 1605:W 1594:2 1591:W 1587:1 1584:W 1567:. 1555:W 1537:W 1533:m 1527:= 1522:Z 1518:m 1502:W 1497:m 1491:Z 1486:m 1475:W 1457:Z 1444:W 1439:θ 1435:B 1431:3 1428:W 1416:W 1411:θ 1394:, 1389:) 1381:3 1377:W 1369:B 1363:( 1356:) 1348:W 1330:W 1307:W 1289:W 1272:( 1267:= 1262:) 1254:0 1250:Z 1236:( 1194:Z 1183:B 1179:3 1176:W 1149:3 1146:T 1116:W 1111:Y 1103:2 1100:1 1094:+ 1089:3 1085:T 1081:= 1078:Q 1068:3 1065:T 1059:W 1054:Y 1033:Y 1010:Z 992:W 964:B 959:3 955:W 950:2 946:W 941:1 937:W 932:W 928:Y 920:T 893:B 889:3 886:W 882:2 879:W 875:1 872:W 840:Z 822:W 807:Q 801:W 796:Y 788:3 785:T 769:e 761:W 758:θ 572:Ă— 550:K 501:e 494:t 487:v 20:)

Index

Electroweak
Standard Model
particle physics
Elementary particles
Particle physics
Standard Model
Quantum field theory
Gauge theory
Spontaneous symmetry breaking
Higgs mechanism
Electroweak interaction
Quantum chromodynamics
CKM matrix
Standard Model mathematics
Strong CP problem
Hierarchy problem
Neutrino oscillations
Physics beyond the Standard Model
Rutherford
Thomson
Chadwick
Bose
Sudarshan
Davis Jr
Anderson
Fermi
Dirac
Feynman
Rubbia
Gell-Mann

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