1960:(Parliament of Germany) amended Article 146 and the Preamble of the Basic Law to state that German unification had now been fully achieved, while also adding a further clause 143(3) to entrench in the Basic Law the irreversibility of acts of expropriation undertaken by the Soviet occupying powers between 1945 and 1949. Hence when the GDR's nominal accession to the Federal Republic under Article 23 came into effect on 3 October 1990, Article 23 was no longer in place. Strictly therefore, German reunification was effected by the Unification Treaty between two sovereign states, the GDR and the Federal Republic, and not by the GDR's prior declaration of accession under Article 23, although the former Article 23 was agreed by both parties to the Treaty as setting the constitutional model by which unification would be achieved.
2392:(one of only four women on the 70-strong panel) was eventually successful in a largely lone campaign to gain constitutional protection for sex equality. Notwithstanding this, there was a striking disjunction between the social context of two-parent, family households assumed in the Basic Law, and the everyday reality of German society in 1949, where over half of adult women were unmarried, separated or widowed, where the effective working population was overwhelmingly female, and where millions of expellees, refugees and displaced families were still without permanent accommodation. It was not until 1994 that constitutional protection was extended against discrimination on grounds of disability, while discrimination on grounds of sexual orientation is still not disallowed within the Basic Law.
2338:(special way): the proposition that Germany had followed a path to modernity radically different from that of its European neighbours, that had rendered it particularly susceptible to militaristic, anti-humanitarian, totalitarian and genocidal impulses. The theory is much contested, but formed the major context for the original formulation of the Basic Law. The Basic Law sought "to correct the course of Germany's Sonderweg—to reclaim the German State from its special historical path, and to realise in postwar West Germany the Liberal Democratic Republic that had proved unachievable for the Frankfurt patriots of 1848 or the Weimar revolutionaries of 1919." In interpreting it, the Federal Constitutional Court seemed to "have its eye on a Germany that might have been".
2439:. The Allies maintained in fact that sovereign authorities wielding state powers no longer existed in the former German Reich; so, as the 'highest authority' for Germany, they were entitled to assume all sovereign powers without limitation of duration or scope, and could legitimately impose whatever measures on the German people within German national territory as any government could legally do on its own people—including validly ceding parts of that territory and people to another country. They argued furthermore that international conventions constraining occupying powers in wartime from enforcing fundamental changes of governmental system, economic system or social institutions within the territory under their control—the
2012:
3219:, the two states discussed the possibility of drafting a new common constitution followed by a plebiscite, as envisioned in Article 146, but this path was ultimately not taken. Instead the Federal Republic of Germany and the German Democratic Republic decided to keep the Basic Law, amended in accordance with the terms of the Two plus Four Treaty, because it had proved to be effective in West Germany. To facilitate reunification and to reassure other states, the FRG made some changes to the Basic Law. Article 23 was fulfilled by reunification itself, and then withdrawn to indicate that there were no other parts of Germany that existed outside of the unified territory.
510:(Article 93 paragraph 1 No. 4a). Article 1 of these fundamental rights, which states that human dignity shall be inviolable and all state authority shall respect and protect it, cannot be changed or removed. The same is true of Article 20, which enshrines fundamental principles of the state—for example, that Germany is a state of law and a democracy. Laws which limit these basic rights are in no case allowed to affect the essence of these rights (Article 19 paragraph 2). Some people think every basic right cannot be changed or removed. However, that is a misconception as other fundamental rights are not protected by Article 79 paragraph 3 (
2606:
2024:
2675:) which is both an independent constitutional organ and at the same time part of the judiciary in the sectors of constitutional law and public international law. Its judgements have the legal status of ordinary law. It is required by law to declare statutes as null and void if they are in violation of the Basic Law. Although judgements of the Federal Constitutional Court are supreme over all other counts, it is not a court of appeal; the FCC only hears constitutional cases, and maintains sole jurisdiction in all such cases, to the exclusion of all other courts.
2854:, the “final stroke” or settlement on criminal affairs. While politicians raised concerns over granting amnesty to perpetrators who committed or abetted murderous policies under the Nazis, the Bundestag ended up approving Article 103, including an extension of a statute of limitations for Nazi-related murders. When the Basic Law extended its scope into East German regions upon reunification in 1990, concerns regarding Article 103 were enlivened. At the time, courts in the new unified state dealt with the legal dilemma of liability of border guards from the
1781:, maintaining that there remained separated parts of 'Germany as a whole' in the form of German peoples living outside the territory under the control of the Federal Republic of 1949, with whom the Federal Republic was constitutionally bound to pursue reunification, and in respect of whom mechanisms were provided by which such other parts of Germany might subsequently declare their accession to the Basic Law. Since initially the Basic Law did not apply for all of Germany, its legal provisions were only valid in its field of application (
2004:
2460:
approval of all the Allies. From the 1950s onwards, however, a school of German legal scholars developed the alternative view that the Allies had only taken custody of German sovereignty while the former German state had been rendered powerless to act, and that consequently, once a freely constituted German government had come into being in the form of the
Federal Republic, it could resume the identity and legal status of the former German Reich without reference to the Allied Powers.
502:) are guaranteed in Germany by the Federal Constitution and in some state constitutions. In the Basic Law, most fundamental rights are guaranteed in the first section of the same name (Articles 1 to 19). They are subjective public rights with the constitutional rank which bind all institutions and functions of the state. In cases where a federal or state law or public ordinance is alleged to be in violation of these fundamental rights, the Basic Law provides the
2407:
as embedding in the Basic Law both the proposition that
Germany in 1949 was neither unified nor free, and also as binding the new Federal Republic to a duty to pursue the creation of such a free and unified Germany "on behalf of those Germans to whom participation was denied". The Basic Law potentially provided two routes for the establishment of a reborn and unified German state: either under Article 23 whereby 'other parts of Germany' over and above the named
2198:
2626:" in case of political instability (such as those provided for by Article 81). Under Article 59 paragraph 1, the Federal President represents the Federal Republic of Germany in matters of international law, concludes treaties with foreign states on its behalf and accredits diplomats. Furthermore, all federal laws must be signed by the President before they can come into effect; however, he/she can only veto a law that he believes to violate the constitution.
2299:, and in particular, is no longer in Supreme Command of the armed forces. Indeed, the original text of the Basic Law of 1949 made no provision for federal armed forces; only in 1955 was the Basic Law amended with Article 87a to allow the creation of a German military for the Federal Republic. The government now depends only on the parliament; while the military, by contrast with their status in the Weimar Republic, are entirely under parliamentary authority.
2717:
the constitution. Under the Basic Law the fundamentals of the constitution in
Articles 1 and 20, the fundamental rights in Articles 1 to 19, and key elements of the federalist state, cannot be removed. Especially important is the protection of the division of state powers into the legislative, executive and judicial branches. This is provided by Article 20. A clear separation of powers was considered imperative to prevent measures like an over-reaching
2522:), and had the general effect of removing or rewording all the clauses (including Article 23) on which the Federal Constitutional Court had relied in support of its claim to the continued legal identity of the German Reich as an 'overall state'. Specifically too, the Basic Law was then amended such that the constitutional duty of the German people to strive for unity and freedom was stated as now fully realised, and consequently that the expanded '
553:
3203:, or remove or otherwise affect the essence of, any of the fundamental rights originally specified in Articles 1 to 19, but may clarify, extend or refine those original principles and fundamental rights. Where however Articles 1 to 20 have subsequently been amended or extended, any additional words and phrases are not protected by the eternity clause but may be further amended or removed through the normal constitutional process.
2310:), i.e. the election of a new chancellor. The new procedure was intended to provide more stability than under the Weimar Constitution, when extremists on the left and right would vote to remove a chancellor, without agreeing on a new one, creating a leadership vacuum. In addition it was possible for the parliament to remove individual ministers by a vote of distrust, while it now has to vote against the cabinet as a whole.
1724:
2321:
within
Germany, that were nevertheless different from the generality of rules and principles of international law as they might operate between Germany and other nations. Hence, the Federal Constitutional Court could recognise East Germany as a sovereign state in international law in the second sense, while still asserting that it was not a "sovereign state in international law" within Germany itself.
272:
256:
1948:, under which the Allied Powers had relinquished their residual German sovereignty. So, on the date of accession of East Germany to the Federal Republic of Germany Article 23 was repealed, representing an explicit commitment under Two-Plus-Four Treaty that, following the unification of East Germany, West Germany and Berlin, no "other parts of Germany" remained in east or west to which the
2032:
1710:
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important reform was the introduction in 1968 of emergency competencies, for example
Article 115 paragraph (1). This was done by a grand coalition of the two main political parties (CDU/CSU and SPD) and was accompanied by heated debate. In the following year there were changes to the articles regarding the distribution of taxes between federal government and the states of Germany.
3009:
the constitutional court. In the Weimar
Republic, the public image of political parties was clearly negative and they were often regarded as vile. At the same time there was no obligation to adhere to democratic standards (in contrast, the Basic Law stipulates that parties' "... internal organisation must conform to democratic principles", which precludes any party using the
2652:, consisting of ministers appointed by the Federal President on the Chancellor's suggestion. While every minister governs his or her department autonomously, the Chancellor may issue overriding policy guidelines. The Chancellor is elected for a full term of the Bundestag and can only be dismissed by parliament electing a successor in a "constructive vote of no confidence".
479:
1808:) at a later date. Therefore, although the Basic Law was considered provisional, it allowed more parts of Germany to join its field of application. On one side, it gave the Federal Republic of Germany—composed as it was in 1949—no right to negotiate, reject or deny another German state's declaration of its accession to the FRG, subject to the FRG's recognising that state
2091:. These papers—amongst other points—summoned the Ministerpräsidenten to arrange a constitutional assembly, that should work out a democratic and federal constitution for a West German state. According to Frankfurt Document No 1, the constitution should specify a central power of German government, but nevertheless respect the administration of the
2367:) were inherently in conflict with one another, and the Parliamentary Council drafting the Basic Law were well aware that their militantly pro-democratic ideals were far from generally shared in the bleak context of Germany in 1949. Hence they built into the Basic Law a strong instrument for guardianship of the "
2237:, all state power is directly bound to guarantee these basic rights. Article 1 of the Basic Law, which establishes this principle that "human dignity is inviolable" and that human rights are directly applicable law, as well as the general principles of the state in Article 20, which guarantees democracy,
2504:
claim that the German Reich continued to exist as an 'overall state' such that the duty to strive for future German unity could not be abandoned while East and West
Germany remained disunited, albeit that without any institutional organs of itself the 'overall' Reich was currently not capable of action.
53:
3222:
The question of "using" Article 146 to draw a new constitution, and hold a referendum, was left to the twelfth (and first all-German) Bundestag, which after consideration decided against a new draft. However, the
Bundestag passed the constitutional reform of 1994, a minor change, but still fulfilling
3008:
In contrast to Weimar, political parties are explicitly mentioned in the constitution, i.e., officially recognized as important participants in politics. Parties are obliged to adhere to the democratic foundations of the German state. Parties found in violation of this requirement may be abolished by
2866:
had to decide whether there existed a violation of an inadmissibility of retroactive punishment in the criminal statute. Since
Article 103 only permitted prosecution for an offense when it occurred under the applicable law, the Constitutional Court rejected the appeals. The prohibition of retroactive
2379:
The Basic Law places at its head a guarantee of inviolable fundamental rights. Initially it was intended to limit these to classic formulations of civil freedoms, as with equality before the law, freedom of speech, freedom of assembly, freedom of occupation and freedom of religious conscience. In the
432:
In the preamble to the Basic Law, its adoption was declared as an action of the "German people", and
Article 20 states "All state authority is derived from the people". These statements embody the constitutional principles that 'Germany' is identical with the German people, and that the German people
1905:
between East Germany and West Germany, the Federal Constitutional Court justified the recognition of East Germany as a valid German state, on the basis that this would enable the GDR in the future to declare accession to the Basic Law under Article 23. But the Court then explicitly acknowledged that
1814:
and being satisfied that the declaration of accession resulted from the free self-determination of its people; while on the other side an acceding state would have to accept the Basic Law and all laws so far legislated under the institutions of the FRG as they were. As the Federal Republic could not
3130:
Although this is not explicitly spelled out in the Basic Law, a number of Constitutional Court cases in the 1990s established that the military may not be deployed by the government outside of NATO territory without a specific resolution of parliament, which describes the details of the mission and
2517:
of the GDR did indeed declare its accession to the Federal Republic under Article 23 of the Basic Law, but postdated to come into effect on 3 October 1990, and conditional on fundamental amendments being made to the Basic Law in the interim. These amendments were required to implement the series of
2507:
According to the 1973 decision of the Federal Constitutional Court, Article 23 of the Basic Law required the Federal Republic to be "legally open" to the accession of those former parts of Germany who were then organised into the German Democratic Republic, and they noted that this implied that the
2406:
As adopted by West Germany in 1949 as an interim constitution, the preamble of the Basic Law looked forward explicitly to a future free and united German state: "The entire German people is called upon to accomplish, by free self-determination, the unity and freedom of Germany." This was understood
2375:
the Federal Constitutional Court not only has jurisdiction in constitutional matters, but also exclusive jurisdiction in such matters; all other courts must refer constitutional cases to it. The intention of the framers of the Basic Law was that this court would range widely against any tendency to
2320:
shall be an integral part of federal law". The latter article was included in deference to the post-war actions of the occupying Western powers; but had the unintended consequence that the Federal Constitutional Court tended to define "rules of international law" as applicable to German federal law
2095:
and it should contain provisions and guarantees of individual freedom and individual rights of the German people in respect to their government. With the specific request of a federal structure of a future German state the Western Powers followed German constitutional tradition since the foundation
2716:
The Weimar Constitution did not institute a court with similar powers. When the Basic Law is amended, this has to be done explicitly; the concerning article must be cited. Under Weimar the constitution could be amended without notice; any law passed with a two-thirds majority vote was not bound by
2622:
integrative role and the controlling function of upholding the law and the constitution. It has also a "political reserve function" for times of crisis in the parliamentary system of government. The Federal President gives direction to general political and societal debates and has some important "
2512:
German State and as a valid state in international relations (albeit without then according it within West Germany with the status of a separate sovereign state) could be interpreted as furthering the long-term objective of eventual German unification, rather than as contradicting it. On 23 August
2357:
in his "illegal" seizure of dictatorial powers. Consequently, following the death of Hitler in 1945 and the subsequent capitulation of the German Armed Forces, the national institutions and constitutional instruments of both Nazi Germany and the Weimar Republic were understood as entirely defunct,
1900:
The Basic Law, in its original form, maintained the continuing existence of a larger Germany and German people, only parts of whom were currently organised within the Federal Republic. Nevertheless, the full extent of the implied wider German nation is nowhere defined in the Basic Law, although it
433:
act constitutionally as the primary institution of the German state. Where the Basic Law refers to the territory under the jurisdiction of this German state, it refers to it as the 'federal territory', so avoiding any inference of there being a constitutionally defined 'German national territory'.
3231:
under Article 3, and environmental protection was made a policy objective of the state in the new Article 20a. Article 3 was also reworded to ban discrimination on grounds of disability. In 1992, membership in the European Union was institutionalised (new Article 23). For the privatisation of the
2503:
sovereign jurisdiction over East Germany. The Treaty was challenged in the Federal Constitutional court, as apparently contradicting the overriding aspirations of the Basic Law for a unified German state; but the Treaty's legality was upheld by the Court, heavily qualified by a reassertion of the
2472:
adopted a mirror image version of this claim, being framed in anticipation of a future all-German constitution on its own political terms, but it was replaced with a new constitution in 1968 that made no references to a wider national German nation, and from that date the GDR maintained that from
2459:
envisaged that an eventual self-governing state would emerge from the wreckage of WWII covering 'Germany as a whole', but that this new state would have no claim to sovereignty other than as derived from the sovereignty then being assumed by the Allies, and its constitution would also require the
1884:
then opened the way for the government of the Saar Protectorate to declare its accession to the West German state under Article 23, including the new Saarland into the field of application of the Basic Law. The Saar held no separate referendum on its accession. With effect from 1 January 1957 the
517:
According to this regulation the Federal Constitutional Court can be called not only because of a violation of fundamental rights, but also by violation "of the rights set out in Article 20 paragraph 4 and Articles 33, 38, 101, 103 and 104". Hence, these rights are called the rights identical to
3030:
to war service (Article 4), and prohibited the Federal Republic from activities preparing for or engaging in aggressive war (Article 26). These provisions remain in force. Also in the 1949 Basic Law, Article 24 empowered the federal government to join international systems for mutual collective
3250:
The most controversial debate arose concerning the limitation of the right to asylum in 1993 as in the current version of Article 16a. This change was later challenged and confirmed in a judgment by the constitutional court. Another controversy was spawned by the limitation of the right to the
3211:
The Basic Law had been amended 50 times as of 2003. Important changes to the Basic Law were the re-introduction of conscription and the establishment of the Bundeswehr in 1956. Therefore, several articles were introduced into the constitution, e.g., Articles 12a, 17, 45a-c, 65a, 87a-c. Another
2621:
runs the government and the day-to-day affairs of state. However, the German President's role is more than merely ceremonial. By his or her actions and public appearances, the Federal President represents the state itself, its existence, its legitimacy, and unity. The President's office has an
2057:
of the three western occupying powers (US, United Kingdom, France) and the three Western neighbours of Germany (Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg) was debating the political future of the three western occupation zones of Germany. The negotiations ended with the conclusion that a democratic and
400:
would adopt a proper constitution, enacted under the provisions of Article 146 of the Basic Law, which stipulates that such a constitution must be "freely adopted by the German people". Nevertheless, although the amended Basic Law was approved by all four Allied Powers in 1990 (who thereby
2376:
slip back toward non-democratic ways: "a strict but benevolent guardian of an immature democracy that cannot quite trust itself". As such the Federal Constitutional Court had the power to ban political parties whose objectives or actions threatened the 'free democratic basic order".
405:), it was never submitted to a popular vote, neither in 1949 nor in 1990. However, the Basic Law as passed in 1949 also contained Article 23 which provided for "other parts of Germany" to "join the area of applicability of the Basic Law" which was the provision that was used for
2358:
such that the Basic Law could be established in a condition of constitutional nullity. Nevertheless, although the Weimar Republic was now wholly irretrievable, avoiding its perceived constitutional weaknesses represented the predominant concern for the framers of the Basic Law.
3131:
limits its term. There are also strict restrictions on the intervention of the military within Germany (i.e. a ban of the military being used for police-type duties), which generally only allow the military to act in unarmed roles within Germany (such as disaster relief).
2931:(states) and participates in federal legislation. The Bundesrat's power has grown over the years, as the fields of federal legislation were extended at the expense of state legislation. In return, the number of laws requiring the assent of the Bundesrat was also extended.
2774:, of federal military criminal courts having jurisdiction only in a state of defense or on soldiers serving abroad, and of a federal disciplinary court. Article 92 establishes that all courts other than the federal courts established under the Basic Law are courts of the
2908:
The main body of the legislative branch is Germany's parliament, the Bundestag, which enacts federal legislation, including the budget. Each member of the Bundestag has the right to initiate legislation, as do the cabinet and the Bundesrat. The Bundestag also elects the
1944:) envisaged states within East Germany being included into the field of application of the Basic Law, but subject to the Basic Law first being amended in accordance with both the previously negotiated Unification Treaty between East and West Germany, and also the
2963:
as new chancellor. Surprisingly, two representatives of CDU/CSU voted for SPD's Willy Brandt so that the vote failed. Nevertheless, the coalition had no majority in the Bundestag, so that a new election was necessary. It was later revealed that the East German
2103:
were reluctant to fulfill what was expected from them, as they anticipated that the formal foundation of a West German state would mean a permanent disruption of German unity. A few days later they convened a conference of their own on Rittersturz ridge near
2427:
in creating a new permanent constitution that would replace the Basic Law. Adoption of a constitution under Article 146 would have implied that the legal validity of a unified German State would rest on "a free decision by the German people" as a whole.
2185:, but at the same time decided that it would still come into force in Bavaria if two-thirds of the other Länder ratified it. On 23 May 1949, in a solemn session of the Parliamentary Council, the German Basic Law was signed and promulgated. The time of
3174:—the words are to be understood meaning votes on legislative issues—are, by now, common practice on the level of the Länder. Claims of extending this practice also to the federal level have an undisputed constitutional basis in the Article 20, being
1885:
Federal Republic regarded itself as including almost all of Western Germany such that the only "other parts of Germany" to which Article 23 might be extended were now to the east, hence relinquishing all claims to those western parts of the former
2463:
From the 1950s, the claim that there was a single continuing German Reich, and that in some sense the Federal Republic and the Federal Republic alone could represent that Reich, was adopted both by the Federal Government itself and by the
2885:), and that a relative or a person in the confidence of the prisoner must be notified of a judicial decision imposing detention. The German Constitution (i.e. the Basic Law of the Federal Republic of Germany) unmistakably outlines the
4182:
3170:. Yet Article 20 states that "All state authority is derived from the people. It shall be exercised by the people through elections and other votes and through specific legislative, executive and judicial bodies". These
3315:
Translated by Christian Tomuschat, David P Currie, Donald P Kommers and Raymond Kerr, in cooperation with the Language Service of the German Bundestag. The translation includes the amendment(s) to the Act by the Act of
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in Bonn on 8 May 1949—the museum was the only intact building in Bonn large enough to house the assembly—and after being approved by the occupying powers on 12 May 1949, it was ratified by the parliaments of all the
2850:, or the state molded by the rule of law. Thus, criminal justice issues such as amnesty towards former Nazis, were encompassed by Article 103’s ban on retroactive punishment. This was also echoed by the concept of
2701:
individual complaint – a suit brought by a person alleging that a law or any action of government violated his or her constitutional rights. All possible solutions in the regular courts must have been exhausted
2951:
governments. However, early elections have been called three times (1972, 1982, and 2005). The last two occasions were considered controversial moves and were referred to the constitutional court for review.
2913:, the head of government, usually (but not necessarily) the leader of the majority party or the party with a plurality of seats in the Bundestag, and takes part in the election of the Federal President.
2152:
On 1 September 1948 the Parlamentarischer Rat assembled and began working on the exact wording of the Basic Law. The 65 members of the Parlamentarischer Rat were elected by the parliaments of the German
1819:, nor could accession under Article 23 be achieved by international treaty with third party states, although the Federal Constitutional Court recognised that a future declared accession could be framed
2979:
examined the case, and decided that the vote was valid, but with reservations. It was decided that a vote of confidence could be so engineered only if it were based on an actual legislative impasse.
4930:
4236:
1825:
as a compact between the Federal Republic and the acceding state. It remained unclear whether accession under Article 23 could be achieved by a part of Germany whose government was not recognised
3902:
1934:
declared the accession of the GDR according to Article 23 to the Federal Republic of Germany to come into effect on 3 October 1990, making unification an act unilaterally initiated by the last
2477:
supported its claims in part, as they acknowledged the Federal Republic as the sole legitimate democratically organised state within former German territory (the GDR being held to be a Soviet
4178:
3089:. The Chancellor is directly responsible to the parliament, the Minister is indirectly responsible to the parliament because it can remove the entire Cabinet by electing a new chancellor.
1783:
491:
348:
331:
299:
2313:
Article 32 of the Basic Law allows the states to conduct foreign affairs with states with regards to matters falling within their purview, under supervision of the Federal Government.
1894:
1912:
recognition of the GDR also implied acceptance of the constitutional power of the GDR in the interim to enter into international treaties on its own account, naming specifically the
2519:
1945:
368:
4383:
2508:
Federal Republic could recognise the capability of the GDR state, as then constituted, of so declaring its accession. In this sense, the Basic Treaty's recognition of the GDR as a
436:
The authors of the Basic Law sought to ensure that a potential dictator would never again be able to come to power in the country. Although some of the Basic Law is based on the
809:
2116:
instead of calling it a "constitution". By these provisions they made clear, that any West German state was not a definite state for the German people, and that future German
2558:
278:
3881:
4718:
4513:
4675:
1901:
was always clearly understood that the peoples of both East Germany and Berlin would be included. In its judgement of 1973, confirming the constitutional validity of the
5849:
2518:
constitutional changes to the Basic Law that had been agreed both in the Unification Treaty between the GDR and the Federal Republic, and in the 'Two Plus Four Treaty' (
2435:
in May 1945, no effective national government of any sort existed in Germany and all national military and civil authority and powers were thereon exercised by the four
1692:
1411:
1406:
1401:
1276:
1271:
1682:
3595:, had voted for the Basic Law, but the Western Allies denied West Berlin, as part of quadripartite Berlin, being included in the field of application of the Basic Law.
5097:
4940:
346:. However, when reunification took place in 1990, the Basic Law was retained as the definitive constitution of reunified Germany. Its original field of application (
4751:
3382:
1791:). This legal term was frequently used in West German legislation when West German laws did not apply to the entirety of German territory, as was usually the case.
4156:
2108:. They decided that any of the Frankfurt requirements should only be implemented in a formally provisional way. So the constitutional assembly was to be called
1764:
473:
2361:
The experience of the Weimar Republic had resulted in a widespread public perception that the principles of representative democracy and of the rule of law (
1446:
1441:
1436:
1431:
1426:
1421:
1416:
440:, the first article is a protection of human dignity ("MenschenwĂĽrde") and human rights; they are core values protected by the Basic Law. The principles of
259:
2202:
1266:
1141:
866:
4209:
4232:
2316:
Article 24 states that the Federal Government may "transfer sovereign powers to international institutions" and Article 25 states that "general rules of
2959:'s coalition had lost its majority in the Bundestag, so that the opposition (CDU/CSU) tried to pass a constructive vote of no confidence, thus electing
2061:
As an immediate consequence of the London Six-Power Conference, the representatives of the three western occupation powers on 1 July 1948, convoked the
1963:
As part of the process, East Germany, which had been a unitary state since 1952, was re-divided into its initial five partially self-governing states (
1146:
2939:
The Basic Law contains no clear provision to call early elections. Neither the chancellor nor the Bundestag has the power to call elections, and the
2635:
2384:/CSU representatives) succeeded in inserting protection both for 'Marriage and the Family" and for parental responsibility for children's education,
5588:
4828:
4736:
3350:
3086:
2910:
2618:
2569:
2371:" of the Federal Republic, in the form of the Federal Constitutional Court, representing a 'staggering conferral of judicial authority'. Unlike the
5769:
3743:
2976:
2752:
2588:
1831:
by the Federal Republic, and if so how; but in practice this situation did not arise. Article 23, altered after 1990, originally read as follows:
576:
2881:
must be provided for by statute and authorised by a judge before the end of the day following the arrest (analogous to the common law concept of
3705:
2011:
5911:
4711:
4530:
3263:, but the judges confirmed the changes. Other changes took place regarding a redistribution of competencies between federal government and the
3000:
for 18 September 2005. The constitutional court agreed to the validity of this procedure on 25 August 2005, and the elections duly took place.
1081:
1076:
1071:
1066:
1061:
1056:
1051:
1046:
1041:
787:
190:
2705:
referral by regular court – a court can refer the question as to whether a statute applicable to the case before that court is constitutional.
6123:
5842:
5062:
4472:
4280:
4100:
4070:
3851:
2841:
2381:
1917:
1667:
1631:
1256:
1236:
3074:
2258:
1595:
981:
5369:
4600:
946:
5032:
1600:
417:, Article 23 was repealed the same day as reunification came into force. An unrelated article on the relationship between Germany and the
5216:
5199:
2748:
830:
5107:
5072:
3178:
general and unchangeable article on state structure. However, this could only be conferred by a constitutional amendment nevertheless.
6281:
6246:
6118:
5931:
5017:
3285:
3112:
are prohibited. From eleven defense commissioners until 2013 eight performed military or war services. Six hold an officer's rank (or
2440:
2385:
2303:
1522:
1517:
1261:
649:
612:
58:
5297:
3621:
This authorisation has not been implemented by statute; German soldiers are under the jurisdiction of the civilian court system. See
1983:). After the changes of the Basic Law, mostly pertaining to the accession in 1990, additional major modifications were made in 1994 (
632:
6266:
6184:
5956:
5556:
5460:
4756:
4704:
4445:
3818:
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The Federal Constitutional Court decides on the constitutionality of laws and government actions under the following circumstances:
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was founded following a 1952 referendum that approved the fusion of three separate states. In a 1996 referendum the inhabitants of
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who can be petitioned directly by soldiers, bypassing the chain of command. Disciplinary measures against soldiers petitioning the
464:("Ewigkeitsklausel") Article 79 (3) that prohibits any sort of change or removal of the principles laid down in Articles 1 and 20.
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In seeking to come to terms with Germany's catastrophic recent history, much discussion has focused on the key theory of a German
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itself declare the accession of another part of Germany under Article 23, this provision could not be applied as an instrument of
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added in 2009, which became fully effective in 2016. In 2002, the protection of animals was explicitly mentioned in Article 20a.
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ended, as the new West German state, the Federal Republic of Germany, came into being, although still under Western occupation.
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was characterised as having been a 'failed' state, whose inherent institutional and constitutional flaws had been exploited by
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German states, initially not included in the field of application of the Basic Law, with the right to declare their accession (
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The court is famous for nullifying several high-profile laws, passed by large majorities in the parliament. An example is the
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to shoot down civilian aircraft in case of a terrorist attack. It was ruled to be in violation of the guarantee of life and
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The Federal Disciplinary Court was abolished in 2003 and its jurisdiction merged into the administrative court system. See
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of German institutions and legal structures had been agreed by the Allies as absolute moral imperatives. Consequently, the
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2712:'s members can bring suit against a law. In this case the suit need not refer to a specific case of the law's application.
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intentionally lost a confidence vote in order to call an early election to strengthen his position in the Bundestag. The
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rejected a proposed merger of the two states. After referendums on reestablishing to Länder borders as existed in the
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is permitted against anyone seeking to abolish constitutional order, if other remedies were to fail under Article 20.
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30:"Constitution of Germany" redirects here. For the constitution that governed Germany during the Weimar Republic, see
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abstract regulation control – the federal government, a government of one of the federal states or a quarter of the
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with the GDR, recognising it as one of two German states within one German nation, and relinquishing any claim to
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regime was characterised as having been a 'criminal' state, illegal and illegitimate from the outset, while the
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The Basic Law was amended in 1955 with Article 87a allowing the creation from new of federal armed forces, the
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The Struggle for the Files: The Western Allies and the Returning of German Archives after the Second World War
2561:, the head of government, normally (but not necessarily) the leader of the largest grouping in the Bundestag.
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between the two parts of Germany and all four Allies stipulated the implementation of a number of amendments.
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The denial of referendums in other cases was designed to avoid the kind of populism that allowed the rise of
2143:. The delegates at the convention were appointed by the leaders of the newly formed (or newly reconstituted)
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representatives then amended this to protect additionally the rights of children born outside marriage, and
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being included in the field of application, let alone East Berlin, whose rulers clearly rejected this idea.
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might validly be extended. Rather than adopting a new constitution under Article 146 of the Basic Law, the
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3259:). This was done by changes to Article 13 paragraph (3) and Article 6. The changes were challenged in the
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International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (CCPR), 22 February 1996. Introduction: paragraph 6.
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Whereas the West German state had gained restricted sovereignty in May 1955, the Saarlanders rejected in
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The Constitutional Jurisprudence of the Federal Republic of Germany: Third Edition, Revised and Expanded
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2481:), but they did not accept the associated arguments for the Reich's continuing 'metaphysical' existence
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3742:. Association of the Councils of State and Supreme Administrative Jurisdictions of the European Union.
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all failed, this institution has not been used, as minor border changes can be done by state contract.
2003:
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rejected the Basic Law mainly because it was seen as not granting sufficient powers to the individual
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German Bundestag: Official English Translation of the Basic Law for the Federal Republic of Germany:
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Stiftung Deutsches Historisches Museum, Stiftung Haus der Geschichte der Bundesrepublik Deutschland.
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the constitutional question together with some other amendments between 1990 and 1994. For example,
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are key components of the Basic Law (Article 20). Articles 1 and 20 are protected by the so-called
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3199:. Such a vote may not remove any of the principles underlying Articles 1 and 20 as defined by the
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International law aspects of the German reunification alternative answers to the German question.
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who himself was not dependent on the parliament. Under the Basic Law, during times of peace, the
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on 8 May 1949 and came into effect on 23 May after having been approved by the occupying western
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Wikisource:Basic Law for the Federal Republic of Germany#II. THE FEDERATION AND THE L.C3.84NDER
2282:. The suspension of human rights would also be illegal under Articles 20 and 79, as above. The
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Article 79 states the Basic Law may be amended by an absolute two-thirds majority of both the
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1949 there had existed two entirely separate sovereign German states. The Federal Republic's
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event particular interests pushed for additional consideration: the Catholic Church (through
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while shielded from the public. The basic law formed the central part of the constitution of
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and the most influential figure in German day-to-day politics, as well as the head of the
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Facsimile of the Basic Law of 1949 as received by each member of the Parliamentary Council
1949:
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from the constitutional standpoint. As the overwhelming consensus thereafter was that the
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This is the original 1949 text, as distinguished from the amended version in force today.
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2526:' could no longer be "legally open" to further accessions of former German territories.
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1976:
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the transformation of their protectorate into an independent state within the emerging
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684:
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2725:. This act had given the government legislative powers which effectively finished the
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2233:, which listed them merely as "state objectives". Pursuant to the mandate to respect
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We must be sure that what we construct will some day be a good house for all Germans.
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445:
133:
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2048:
speaking about the objective of the West German Basic Law at the Koenig Museum, 1948
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There were, in the original version, no emergency powers such as those used by the
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prevailed and the Western Powers gave in concerning this highly symbolic question.
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393:
360:
311:
93:
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3767:
4384:"To Prosecute Nazis; Jurist Suggests a Constitutional Amendment to Permit Trials"
1840:
For the time being, this Basic Law shall apply in the territory of the Länder of
5452:
5166:
5001:
4950:
4233:"www.bundespraesident.de: Der Bundespräsident / Role in the international arena"
3592:
3544:
3502:
3156:
3117:
2972:
2846:
2363:
2210:
2132:
2045:
1935:
1931:
1881:
1841:
1778:
645:
457:
388:. The term "constitution" (Verfassung) was avoided as the drafters regarded the
364:
2289:
The constitutional position of the federal government was strengthened, as the
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5282:
4679:
4628:
4619:
3789:"Article 93 of the Basic Law (Grundgesetz fĂĽr die Bundesrepublik Deutschland)"
3140:
3078:
3066:
3052:
3046:
3040:
2687:
2581:
2487:
2431:
Following the surrender of the German High Command and the dissolution of the
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414:
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was settled, and to reaffirm the renunciation of any residual German claim to
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263:
207:
108:
103:
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Since then, there have only been minor amendments, with the exception of the
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with one deputy representing about 750,000 people. After being passed by the
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3124:
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3058:
2903:
2709:
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2334:
1955:
710:
478:
441:
173:
150:
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3706:"Right to Have Rights – The German Constitutional Concept of Human Dignity"
17:
5827:
4040:
Democracy's Guardian: A History of the German Federal Constitutional Court
4027:
Democracy's Guardian: A History of the German Federal Constitutional Court
4014:
Democracy's Guardian: A History of the German Federal Constitutional Court
4001:
Democracy's Guardian: A History of the German Federal Constitutional Court
3954:
Democracy's Guardian: A History of the German Federal Constitutional Court
3941:
Democracy's Guardian: A History of the German Federal Constitutional Court
3928:
Democracy's Guardian: A History of the German Federal Constitutional Court
3915:
Democracy's Guardian: A History of the German Federal Constitutional Court
2671:
The guardian of the Basic Law is the German Federal Constitutional Court (
1868:. In other parts of Germany it shall be put into force on their accession.
4665:
2485:
within the organs of the Federal Republic alone. Subsequently, under the
2415:) could subsequently declare their accession, or under Article 146 where
2218:
2136:
342:) to indicate that it was a provisional piece of legislation pending the
421:
was instead inserted in its place two years later. As a heritage of the
52:
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4971:
4915:
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engineered a defeat in a vote of confidence after a power shift in the
2424:
2423:) could be exercised by elected representatives of the entirety of the
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of 1933 to suspend basic rights and to remove communist members of the
2214:
2174:
2167:
2140:
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1980:
1849:
1797:
426:
315:
4095:. Translated by Seyer, D. Cambridge University Press. pp. 219ff.
1836:
Former Article 23 of the Basic Law for the Federal Republic of Germany
5862:
4179:"www.bundespraesident.de: Der Bundespräsident / Constitutional basis"
4133:
The Imperfect Union: Constitutional Structures for German Unification
4118:
The Imperfect Union: Constitutional Structures for German Unification
4054:
The Imperfect Union: Constitutional Structures for German Unification
3591:. The Stadtverordnetenversammlung von Berlin, then only competent in
3167:
3152:
2271:
483:
4685:
3605:
3143:, concerning the federal level of legislation, on a single issue: a
3050:
therefore has no constitutional or legal continuity with either the
2534:
The Basic Law established Germany as a parliamentary democracy with
2112:(lit. parliamentary council) and the constitution given the name of
1789:
Geltungsbereich des Grundgesetzes fĂĽr die Bundesrepublik Deutschland
4806:
3835:
The Constitutional Jursiprudence of the Federal Republic of Germany
4910:
3576:
3100:), reporting once a year to parliament, not to the executive. The
2965:
2604:
2229:
Basic rights are fundamental to the Basic Law, in contrast to the
2196:
2030:
2022:
2010:
2002:
1975:, with East and West Berlin reuniting into a new city-state (like
477:
3969:
How a constitution can safeguard democracy:The German Experience
3295:
Basic Law for the Federal Republic of Germany — Amendments to 28
2120:
and the reunification of Germany was still on their agenda. The
2027:
German stamp commemorating the work of the Parlamentarischer Rat
322:
5831:
4810:
4700:
4686:
Staatsrecht for you – Introduction to german constitutional law
1893:). The towns of Elten, Selfkant, and Suderwick, which had been
3123:, were high-ranking and decorated admirals or generals of the
2797:
General provisions for the judiciary and rights of the accused
2770:
Article 96 authorizes the establishment by federal law of the
4931:
Chronology of warfare between the Romans and Germanic peoples
2767:
as supreme courts in their respective areas of jurisdiction.
3092:
The Basic Law also institutes the parliamentary post of the
2943:
can do so only if the chancellor so requests after losing a
2302:
To remove the chancellor, the parliament has to engage in a
551:
3874:"Gerade auf LeMO gesehen: LeMO Das lebendige Museum Online"
2447:—did not apply, and could not apply, as the termination of
4068:
Moving the law of occupation into the twenty-first century
3608:'. The "Herren" in question were "Augustiner Chorherren",
2205:
drew up the draft for the Basic Law in summer 1948 at the
2007:
Article 1, sentence 1: "Human dignity shall be inviolable"
359:)—that is, the states that were initially included in the
3139:
Unlike the Weimar Constitution, the Basic Law only names
2075:
in Frankfurt am Main and committed to them the so-called
2947:. This was designed to avoid the chronic instability of
2553:
The executive branch consists of the largely ceremonial
3791:. Federal Ministry of Justice and Consumer Protection.
3737:"Administrative Justice in Europe – Report for Germany"
3026:
From the outset, the Basic Law guaranteed the right of
2520:
Treaty on the Final Settlement with Respect to Germany
1969:), being granted equal status as the already existing
1889:
that had been surrendered to France and Denmark. (cf.
4081:, publisher: U.S. Naval Justice School. pp. 21, 28–30
3280:. Duke University Press, 3rd edition (2nd ed. 1997),
2295:
has only a small fraction of the former power of the
4676:
Introduction to the basic and the constitutional law
522:
Extensions of the field of application by Article 23
6218:
6170:
6132:
5869:
5642:
5513:
5387:
5259:
5186:
5149:
5128:
5010:
4964:
4888:
4857:
4848:
4658:
The Constitution of the Federal Republic of Germany
4599:Original text of the Basic Law, as adopted in 1949
248:
238:
228:
218:
206:
172:
160:
144:
132:
122:
117:
102:
92:
82:
70:
65:
45:
2253:even if the normal amendment process is followed.
2193:Important differences from the Weimar Constitution
2495:, in the course of which it negotiated in 1972 a
2058:federal West German state was to be established.
34:. For the constitution of the German Empire, see
4329:"The Basic Law and the Process of Reunification"
2591:, which oversees the constitutionality of laws.
27:Constitution for the Federal Republic of Germany
4629:Constitution of the Weimar Republic (1919–1933)
4206:"Basic Law for the Federal Republic of Germany"
3665:"Basic Law for the Federal Republic of Germany"
3383:Constitution of the German Confederation (1871)
3065:The Weimar Constitution had contributed to the
2968:had bribed the two dissenting representatives.
2862:between the former East-West border. Thus, the
2038:
1833:
4638:Excerpts from the 1968 Constitution of the GDR
4511:Periodic reports of States parties due in 1993
3772:Grundgesetz fĂĽr die Bundesrepublik Deutschland
2867:punishment in Article 103 has been likened to
308:Grundgesetz fĂĽr die Bundesrepublik Deutschland
279:Grundgesetz fĂĽr die Bundesrepublik Deutschland
76:Grundgesetz fĂĽr die Bundesrepublik Deutschland
5843:
4822:
4712:
4616:Constitution of the German Empire (1871–1919)
4303:"X v. The Federal Republic of Germany (1971)"
3276:Donald P. Kommers, Russell A. Miller (2012):
3031:security; but made no specific provision for
2822:multiple punishment for the same criminal act
2564:The legislative branch is represented by the
1938:. East Germany's "declaration of accession" (
1758:
474:Fundamental rights in the German Constitution
321:The West German Constitution was approved in
295:Basic Law for the Federal Republic of Germany
260:Basic Law for the Federal Republic of Germany
46:Basic Law for the Federal Republic of Germany
8:
4467:. Manchester University Press. p. 146.
4267:, Oxford University Press, pp. 93–154,
4230:Website of the Federal President of Germany
4176:Website of the Federal President of Germany
3770:
3557:
2679:
2275:
1990:
1984:
1970:
1964:
1953:
1939:
1803:
392:as an interim arrangement for a provisional
276:
74:
4941:Roman campaigns in Germania (12 BC – AD 16)
2203:Constitutional Convention at Herrenchiemsee
2019:debating the Frankfurt Documents in Koblenz
1907:
1895:occupied and annexed by Netherlands in 1949
1826:
1820:
1809:
1795:
1794:Article 23 of the Basic Law provided other
5850:
5836:
5828:
5519:
5393:
5265:
5192:
4854:
4829:
4815:
4807:
4799:
4719:
4705:
4697:
2468:. Initially, the 1949 constitution of the
2127:The draft was prepared at the preliminary
1765:
1751:
525:
51:
4135:, Princeton University Press, p. 14]
4120:, Princeton University Press, p. 13]
3612:, which ruled the region in former times.
3145:new delimitation of the federal territory
2576:participating in legislation through the
4148:Texas Law: Foreign Law Translations 1973
4056:, Princeton University Press, p. 12
3562:(field of application) of the Basic Law.
3351:Constitution of the German Confederation
2570:mixed-member proportional representation
1926:in East Germany fell in 1990. Following
1034:Federal Republic of Germany (since 1949)
3656:
3536:
3251:invulnerability of the private domain (
537:
531:This article is part of a series on the
482:The Grundrechte at Jakob Kaiser House,
3795:from the original on 24 September 2015
3604:Explanation of the German meaning of '
2341:In the dominant post-war narrative of
329:on 12 May. It was termed "Basic Law" (
42:
4159:from the original on 20 December 2016
3821:from the original on 2 November 2011.
3240:, amendments were necessary as well.
2587:The judicial branch is headed by the
1916:which confirmed the transfer of the "
7:
4212:from the original on 3 November 2012
3837:, Duke University Press, p. 309
3255:) by means of acoustic observation (
3056:of the Weimar Republic, or with the
2636:Chancellor of Germany (1949–present)
2053:Between February and June 1948, the
1932:parliament of the GDR (East Germany)
4259:Collings, Justin (5 January 2021),
3778: of 23 May 1949 (in German)
3425:Second Constitution of East Germany
3305:. Berlin, Germany: German Bundestag
2871:in common law systems, such as the
2864:Federal German Constitutional Court
2225:and subsequently reunified Germany.
4273:10.1093/oso/9780198858850.003.0004
4185:from the original on 14 April 2014
3749:from the original on 27 March 2014
3419:First Constitution of East Germany
2824:. During the establishment of the
2609:Political system of Germany, chart
2304:Constructive vote of no confidence
2270:from power, an important step for
2083:). The handover took place in the
1891:Little Reunification with the Saar
1777:The 1949 Basic Law was explicitly
59:Federal Agency for Civic Education
25:
3975:, Goethe-Institut, archived from
3525:United Kingdom constitutional law
3388:Constitution of the German Empire
2441:Hague Regulations of Land Warfare
2087:on the Campus Westend of today's
36:Constitution of the German Empire
4464:The Länder and German federalism
4239:from the original on 16 May 2014
3884:from the original on 20 May 2013
3556:These states formed the initial
3339:German language in the Basic Law
3320:June 2022 (Federal Law Gazette I
3085:, and during war-time under the
2844:—advocated for the ideal of the
2818:retroactive criminal legislation
1722:
1708:
270:
254:
243:Constitution of the German Reich
5033:German revolutions of 1848–1849
5002:Ostsiedlung (East Colonisation)
4327:Steiner, Udo (1 January 2000).
3817:(in German). 1949. Article 23.
3691:Eine kleine Geschichte PreuĂźens
2879:deprivation of personal liberty
2729:and led to the dictatorship of
2686:, which would have allowed the
425:, neither was unification with
5018:Early modern period, 1500–1800
4906:List of early Germanic peoples
4578:non-official table of contents
4498:pp. 11 footnote 18, & 26.
3400:Constitution of Prussia (1920)
3370:Constitution of Prussia (1850)
3357:Constitution of Prussia (1848)
2409:States of the Federal Republic
2308:Konstruktives Misstrauensvotum
1627:Politics of the European Union
438:Weimar Republic's constitution
1:
5141:History of Germany since 1990
4430:Roberts, Geoffrey K. (2000).
3917:, Oxford; OUP, 2015, p. xxxii
3848:International: Berlin to Bonn
3253:Unverletzlichkeit der Wohnung
2927:The Bundesrat represents the
2836:—the federal chairman of the
2568:, elected directly through a
396:, expecting that an eventual
4752:Constitution of January 1871
4461:Gunlicks, Arthur B. (2003).
4359:"K.-H. W. v. Germany (2001)"
4029:, Oxford; OUP, 2015, p. xxxv
4016:, Oxford; OUP, 2015, p. xxvi
4003:, Oxford; OUP, 2015, p. xxii
3943:, Oxford; OUP, 2015, p. xxiv
3513:Rule according to higher law
3261:Federal Constitutional Court
3081:is under the command of the
2753:Federal Administrative Court
2667:Federal Constitutional Court
2661:Federal Constitutional Court
2589:Federal Constitutional Court
2466:Federal Constitutional Court
1578:Foreign relations by country
770:Federal Constitutional Court
577:Federal Constitutional Court
508:Federal Constitutional Court
401:relinquished their reserved
380:may be translated as either
191:Federal Administrative Court
183:Federal Constitutional Court
57:Basic Law. Published by the
4438:Manchester University Press
4066:Breven C. Parsons, (2009),
4042:, Oxford; OUP, 2015, p. xxv
3930:, Oxford; OUP, 2015, p. 287
3833:Kommers, Donald P. (2012),
3135:Referendums and plebiscites
2966:Ministry for State Security
2842:Federal Minister of Justice
2838:Free Democratic Party (FDP)
2747:Article 95 establishes the
2530:Constitutional institutions
2373:United States Supreme Court
2369:free democratic basic order
2131:(10–23 August 1948) on the
2055:London Six-Power Conference
1878:European Economic Community
982:Weimar Republic (1919–1933)
415:land east of Oder and NeiĂźe
361:Federal Republic of Germany
316:Federal Republic of Germany
87:Federal Republic of Germany
6303:
5048:North German Confederation
5028:Confederation of the Rhine
4757:Constitution of April 1871
4208:. Gesetze-im-internet.de.
4091:Eckert, Astrid M. (2012).
3956:, Oxford; OUP, 2015, p. xv
3704:Enders, Christoph (2010).
3693:. Klett-Cotta. p. 17.
3669:www.gesetze-im-internet.de
3543:The Western Allies denied
3116:'s rank), two of them, as
2920:
2901:
2877:Article 104 mandates that
2740:
2664:
2633:
2598:
2470:German Democratic Republic
2399:
1856:, North Rhine-Westphalia,
659:Vice Chancellor of Germany
471:
29:
6282:May 1949 events in Europe
6247:German constitutional law
5782:
5522:
5396:
5268:
5195:
4732:
4516:15 September 2016 at the
4261:"After Hitler: 1951–1975"
3587:, WĂĽrttemberg-Baden, and
3508:Reconstruction of Germany
3377:North German Constitution
3292:German Bundestag (2022).
3245:Balanced Budget Amendment
3004:Role of political parties
2557:as head of state and the
2139:, a lake in southeastern
2129:Herrenchiemsee convention
1920:" to Polish sovereignty.
900:Collective municipality (
269:
253:
223:Herrenchiemsee convention
50:
6267:Constitutions of Germany
5200:Administrative divisions
4727:Constitutions of Germany
3689:Eberhard Straub (2011).
3637:Bundesdisziplinargericht
3589:WĂĽrttemberg-Hohenzollern
3583:, Rhineland-Palatinate,
3453:Constitutional economics
2887:presumption of innocence
2860:killed escaping refugees
2805:. Article 102 abolishes
2801:Article 97 provides for
2749:Federal Court of Justice
2673:Bundesverfassungsgericht
1866:WĂĽrttemberg-Hohenzollern
1463:State and local politics
1008:East Germany (1949–1960)
504:constitutional complaint
344:reunification of Germany
187:Federal Court of Justice
179:6 Supreme federal courts
4487:Johnson, Edward Elwyn.
4249:Retrieved 28 April 2014
4195:Retrieved 13 April 2014
4131:Quint, Peter E (1991),
4116:Quint, Peter E (1991),
4052:Quint, Peter E (1991),
3854:1 February 2011 at the
3493:Legal status of Germany
3028:conscientious objection
2812:Article 103 mandates a
2580:, reflecting Germany's
2402:Legal status of Germany
2396:Legal status of Germany
2223:Allied-occupied Germany
2213:(Isle of Lords) in the
1619:International Relations
609:Frank-Walter Steinmeier
369:Two Plus Four Agreement
5912:Bosnia and Herzegovina
5461:Science and technology
5162:History of Brandenburg
5053:Unification of Germany
5043:Frankfurt Constitution
4670:Univ. of Chicago Press
4586:Official Translation:
4580:(status: August 2006)
4494:9 October 2007 at the
3771:
3581:North Rhine-Westphalia
3558:
3483:German nationality law
3364:Frankfurt Constitution
3033:West German rearmament
2680:
2644:The Chancellor is the
2610:
2276:
2226:
2209:Abbey on the secluded
2173:with the exception of
2096:of the Reich in 1871.
2051:
2036:
2028:
2020:
2008:
1991:
1985:
1971:
1965:
1954:
1940:
1936:East German parliament
1908:
1870:
1860:, Schleswig-Holstein,
1827:
1821:
1810:
1804:
1796:
1788:
1523:North Rhine-Westphalia
1518:Mecklenburg-Vorpommern
1133:Parliamentary election
974:Presidential elections
556:
506:with an appeal to the
499:
486:
423:Lesser German solution
356:
339:
327:Allies of World War II
307:
277:
112:parliamentary republic
75:
5098:Flight and expulsions
4433:German politics today
3519:Streitbare Demokratie
3478:German Emergency Acts
3473:Constitution of Japan
3467:Constitution of Italy
3405:Reichstag Fire Decree
2803:judicial independence
2757:Federal Finance Court
2682:Luftsicherheitsgesetz
2608:
2325:Basic Law and German
2264:Reichstag Fire Decree
2243:social responsibility
2200:
2159:Parliamentary Council
2110:Parlamentarischer Rat
2081:Frankfurter Dokumente
2069:) of the West German
2034:
2026:
2014:
2006:
1677:Agrarian Conservatism
747:Gemeinsamer Ausschuss
740:Vermittlungsausschuss
633:Chancellor of Germany
555:
481:
450:social responsibility
403:constitutional rights
233:Parlamentarischer Rat
202:Federal Finance Court
6272:1949 in West Germany
5770:World Heritage Sites
5448:German states by GDP
5038:German Confederation
4767:Enabling Act of 1933
4762:Constitution of 1919
4747:Constitution of 1867
4742:Constitution of 1849
4737:Constitution of 1815
4611:Former constitutions
4531:"www.dukeupress.edu"
4414:19 June 2017 at the
4073:3 March 2016 at the
3862:. 13 September 1948.
3438:Abolition of Prussia
3345:Former constitutions
3257:GroĂźer Lauschangriff
3098:defense commissioner
3071:state within a state
3022:Role of the military
3013:, even internally).
2982:In 2005, Chancellor
2977:constitutional court
2971:In 1982, Chancellor
2955:In 1972, Chancellor
2923:Bundesrat of Germany
2785:extraordinary courts
2772:Federal Patent Court
2765:Federal Social Court
2761:Federal Labour Court
2743:Judiciary of Germany
2615:parliamentary system
2601:President of Germany
2536:separation of powers
2433:Flensburg Government
2085:I.G. Farben building
1946:Two-Plus-Four Treaty
1924:The Communist regime
1858:Rhineland-Palatinate
1649:Political ideologies
1528:Rhineland-Palatinate
962:Federal Convention (
601:President of Germany
518:fundamental rights.
489:Fundamental rights (
407:German reunification
219:Commissioned by
199:Federal Social Court
195:Federal Labour Court
139:President of Germany
118:Government structure
6133:States with limited
5406:Automobile industry
4992:Carolingian dynasty
4926:History of the Huns
4153:University of Texas
3982:on 20 December 2016
3623:German military law
3498:Politics of Germany
3394:Weimar Constitution
3083:Minister of Defence
2832:, politicians like
2617:of government, the
2421:pouvoir constituant
2231:Weimar Constitution
2122:Ministerpräsidenten
2101:Ministerpräsidenten
2077:Frankfurt Documents
2067:minister-presidents
2063:Ministerpräsidenten
2017:minister-presidents
1918:Eastern Territories
1874:a referendum (1955)
1729:Politics portal
32:Weimar Constitution
6287:Anti-fascist works
5476:Telecommunications
5157:History of Prussia
5073:Revolution of 1918
5068:War guilt question
4987:Carolingian Empire
4956:Sack of Rome (410)
4865:History of Germany
4388:The New York Times
4363:hudoc.echr.coe.int
4307:hudoc.echr.coe.int
3585:Schleswig-Holstein
3488:History of Germany
3471:Post-World War II
3448:Bundesrechnungshof
3225:affirmative action
3087:Federal Chancellor
3017:Other stipulations
2945:vote of confidence
2893:Legislative branch
2807:capital punishment
2694:in the Basic Law.
2650:Federal Government
2646:head of government
2640:Cabinet of Germany
2619:Federal Chancellor
2611:
2572:, with the German
2559:Federal Chancellor
2445:Geneva Conventions
2227:
2179:Landtag of Bavaria
2118:self-determination
2037:
2029:
2021:
2009:
1992:Föderalismusreform
1989:), 2002 and 2006 (
1941:Beitrittserklärung
1914:treaty with Poland
1848:, Greater Berlin,
1715:Germany portal
1548:Schleswig-Holstein
1393:European elections
858:State Parliament (
853:Minister president
557:
487:
468:Fundamental rights
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5423:Chemical Triangle
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5370:Political parties
5318:Foreign relations
5255:
5254:
5182:
5181:
5093:Allied occupation
4997:Holy Roman Empire
4804:
4803:
4800:
4774:Basic Law of 1949
4618:. Full text from
4474:978-0-7190-6533-0
4282:978-0-19-885885-0
4102:978-1-107-62920-2
4038:Justin Collings,
4025:Justin Collings,
4012:Justin Collings,
3999:Justin Collings,
3952:Justin Collings,
3939:Justin Collings,
3926:Justin Collings,
3913:Justin Collings,
3458:Constitutionalism
3149:Baden-WĂĽrttemberg
3062:of WWII Germany.
2783:Article 101 bans
2721:, as happened in
2555:Federal President
2457:Potsdam Agreement
2417:constituent power
2390:Elisabeth Selbert
2318:international law
2251:cannot be removed
2161:assembled at the
2089:Goethe University
1986:Verfassungsreform
1862:WĂĽrttemberg-Baden
1775:
1774:
1655:Political culture
1568:Foreign relations
1478:Baden-WĂĽrttemberg
964:Bundesversammlung
947:Political parties
542:
398:reunified Germany
394:West German state
291:
290:
16:(Redirected from
6294:
6277:1949 in politics
6171:Dependencies and
5870:Sovereign states
5852:
5845:
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5805:
5798:
5791:
5755:Prussian virtues
5520:
5428:Economic history
5394:
5288:
5266:
5217:Cities and towns
5193:
5173:Baden Revolution
4977:Treaty of Verdun
4946:Marcomannic Wars
4901:Migration Period
4896:Germanic peoples
4880:Military history
4855:
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4654:Currie, David P.
4643:
4634:
4625:
4605:
4596:
4583:
4551:
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4546:
4537:. Archived from
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3094:Wehrbeauftragter
2984:Gerhard Schröder
2790:Volksgerichtshof
2685:
2630:Executive branch
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2015:The West German
1999:Drafting process
1994:
1988:
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1968:
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942:Electoral system
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878:Regierungsbezirk
833:
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692:Federal agencies
570:
569:
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429:aspired for.
374:The German word
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5078:Weimar Republic
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3104:is a soldiers'
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2935:Early elections
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2869:double jeopardy
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2634:Main articles:
2632:
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2524:Berlin Republic
2475:Cold-war Allies
2404:
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2351:Weimar Republic
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2297:Reichspräsident
2292:Bundespräsident
2284:right to resist
2278:Machtergreifung
2259:Reichspräsident
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2187:legal nonentity
2050:
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411:German question
386:Fundamental Law
367:. In 1990, the
357:Geltungsbereich
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5:
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4558:External links
4556:
4553:
4552:
4541:on 15 May 2013
4535:dukeupress.edu
4522:
4503:
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4473:
4453:
4446:
4440:. p. 39.
4422:
4409:Article 20 (2)
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4333:SMU Law Review
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3610:Canons Regular
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3238:postal service
3229:women's rights
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2921:Main article:
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2902:Main article:
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2787:, such as the
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2665:Main article:
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2624:reserve powers
2599:Main article:
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2453:Denazification
2451:and the total
2400:Main article:
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2207:Herrenchiemsee
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1997:
1928:free elections
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1469:State Politics
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909:Municipality (
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788:Administrative
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777:Federal courts
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772:
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759:
758:
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754:
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734:
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724:
719:
717:constituencies
706:
703:
702:
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472:Main article:
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419:European Union
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72:
71:Original title
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26:
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6185:Faroe Islands
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6169:
6163:
6160:
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6157:South Ossetia
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6004:Liechtenstein
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5888:
5885:
5883:
5880:
5878:
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5874:
5872:
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5864:
5860:
5859:Constitutions
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5655:
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5629:Social issues
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5557:Ethnic groups
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5142:
5139:
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5136:Reunification
5134:
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5131:
5127:
5119:
5116:
5114:
5111:
5110:
5109:
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5104:
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5058:German Empire
5056:
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4447:0-7190-4961-X
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4158:
4154:
4150:
4149:
4142:
4139:
4134:
4127:
4124:
4119:
4112:
4109:
4104:
4098:
4094:
4087:
4084:
4080:
4076:
4072:
4069:
4063:
4060:
4055:
4048:
4045:
4041:
4035:
4032:
4028:
4022:
4019:
4015:
4009:
4006:
4002:
3996:
3993:
3978:
3971:
3970:
3962:
3959:
3955:
3949:
3946:
3942:
3936:
3933:
3929:
3923:
3920:
3916:
3910:
3907:
3904:
3899:
3896:
3883:
3879:
3875:
3868:
3865:
3861:
3860:Tone Magazine
3857:
3853:
3849:
3844:
3841:
3836:
3829:
3826:
3820:
3816:
3810:
3807:
3794:
3790:
3784:
3781:
3777:
3773:
3769:
3764:
3761:
3745:
3738:
3731:
3728:
3715:
3711:
3707:
3700:
3697:
3692:
3685:
3682:
3670:
3666:
3660:
3657:
3650:
3639:
3638:
3631:
3628:
3624:
3618:
3615:
3611:
3607:
3601:
3598:
3594:
3590:
3586:
3582:
3578:
3574:
3568:
3565:
3560:
3553:
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3546:
3540:
3537:
3530:
3526:
3523:
3521:
3520:
3516:
3514:
3511:
3509:
3506:
3504:
3501:
3499:
3496:
3494:
3491:
3489:
3486:
3484:
3481:
3479:
3476:
3474:
3470:
3468:
3465:
3461:
3459:
3456:
3454:
3451:
3449:
3446:
3444:
3443:Bremen clause
3441:
3439:
3436:
3435:
3431:
3426:
3423:
3420:
3417:
3412:
3409:
3406:
3403:
3401:
3398:
3397:
3395:
3392:
3389:
3386:
3384:
3381:
3378:
3375:
3371:
3368:
3367:
3365:
3362:
3358:
3355:
3354:
3352:
3349:
3348:
3344:
3340:
3337:
3336:
3332:
3301:
3300:
3290:
3287:
3283:
3279:
3275:
3274:
3270:
3268:
3266:
3262:
3258:
3254:
3248:
3246:
3241:
3239:
3235:
3230:
3226:
3220:
3218:
3217:reunification
3213:
3206:
3204:
3202:
3198:
3194:
3186:
3181:
3179:
3177:
3173:
3169:
3164:
3162:
3158:
3154:
3150:
3146:
3142:
3134:
3132:
3128:
3126:
3122:
3121:Hellmuth Heye
3119:
3115:
3111:
3107:
3103:
3099:
3095:
3090:
3088:
3084:
3080:
3076:
3072:
3068:
3063:
3061:
3060:
3055:
3054:
3049:
3048:
3043:
3042:
3036:
3034:
3029:
3021:
3016:
3014:
3012:
3011:FĂĽhrerprinzip
3003:
3001:
2999:
2995:
2991:
2990:
2985:
2980:
2978:
2974:
2969:
2967:
2962:
2961:Rainer Barzel
2958:
2953:
2950:
2946:
2942:
2934:
2932:
2930:
2924:
2916:
2914:
2912:
2905:
2897:
2892:
2890:
2888:
2884:
2883:Habeas corpus
2880:
2875:
2874:
2870:
2865:
2861:
2857:
2853:
2849:
2848:
2843:
2839:
2835:
2834:Thomas Dehler
2831:
2827:
2823:
2819:
2815:
2810:
2808:
2804:
2796:
2794:
2792:
2791:
2786:
2781:
2779:
2778:
2773:
2768:
2766:
2762:
2758:
2754:
2750:
2744:
2736:
2734:
2732:
2728:
2724:
2720:
2711:
2707:
2704:
2700:
2699:
2698:
2695:
2693:
2692:human dignity
2689:
2684:
2683:
2676:
2674:
2668:
2660:
2655:
2653:
2651:
2647:
2641:
2637:
2629:
2627:
2625:
2620:
2616:
2613:In Germany's
2607:
2602:
2594:
2592:
2590:
2585:
2583:
2579:
2575:
2571:
2567:
2562:
2560:
2556:
2551:
2549:
2545:
2541:
2537:
2529:
2527:
2525:
2521:
2516:
2511:
2505:
2502:
2498:
2494:
2490:
2489:
2484:
2480:
2476:
2471:
2467:
2461:
2458:
2454:
2450:
2446:
2442:
2438:
2434:
2429:
2426:
2425:German people
2422:
2418:
2414:
2410:
2403:
2395:
2393:
2391:
2387:
2383:
2377:
2374:
2370:
2366:
2365:
2359:
2356:
2352:
2348:
2344:
2339:
2337:
2336:
2328:
2324:
2322:
2319:
2314:
2311:
2309:
2305:
2300:
2298:
2294:
2293:
2287:
2285:
2280:
2279:
2273:
2269:
2265:
2261:
2260:
2254:
2252:
2248:
2244:
2240:
2239:republicanism
2236:
2235:human dignity
2232:
2224:
2220:
2216:
2212:
2208:
2204:
2199:
2192:
2190:
2188:
2184:
2180:
2176:
2172:
2169:
2164:
2163:Museum Koenig
2160:
2156:
2150:
2148:
2147:
2142:
2138:
2134:
2130:
2125:
2123:
2119:
2115:
2111:
2107:
2102:
2097:
2094:
2090:
2086:
2082:
2078:
2074:
2073:
2068:
2064:
2059:
2056:
2047:
2041:
2033:
2025:
2018:
2013:
2005:
1998:
1996:
1993:
1987:
1982:
1978:
1973:
1967:
1961:
1958:
1957:
1951:
1947:
1942:
1937:
1933:
1929:
1925:
1921:
1919:
1915:
1910:
1906:this limited
1904:
1898:
1896:
1892:
1888:
1883:
1879:
1875:
1869:
1867:
1863:
1859:
1855:
1851:
1847:
1843:
1838:
1837:
1832:
1829:
1823:
1818:
1812:
1806:
1800:
1799:
1792:
1790:
1785:
1780:
1768:
1763:
1761:
1756:
1754:
1749:
1748:
1746:
1745:
1739:
1736:
1735:
1730:
1725:
1719:
1716:
1705:
1704:
1703:
1702:
1694:
1691:
1689:
1686:
1684:
1681:
1678:
1674:
1671:
1669:
1666:
1665:
1660:
1656:
1653:
1652:
1646:
1645:
1638:
1635:
1633:
1630:
1628:
1625:
1624:
1620:
1617:
1616:
1612:
1609:
1607:
1604:
1602:
1599:
1597:
1594:
1592:
1589:
1587:
1584:
1583:
1579:
1576:
1575:
1570:
1563:
1562:
1554:
1551:
1549:
1546:
1544:
1543:Saxony-Anhalt
1541:
1539:
1536:
1534:
1531:
1529:
1526:
1524:
1521:
1519:
1516:
1514:
1511:
1509:
1506:
1504:
1501:
1499:
1496:
1494:
1491:
1489:
1486:
1484:
1481:
1479:
1476:
1475:
1470:
1467:
1466:
1460:
1459:
1450:
1449:
1445:
1443:
1440:
1438:
1435:
1433:
1430:
1428:
1425:
1423:
1420:
1418:
1415:
1413:
1410:
1408:
1405:
1403:
1400:
1399:
1394:
1391:
1390:
1385:
1384:
1380:
1378:
1375:
1373:
1370:
1368:
1365:
1363:
1360:
1358:
1355:
1353:
1350:
1348:
1345:
1343:
1340:
1338:
1335:
1333:
1330:
1328:
1325:
1323:
1320:
1318:
1315:
1313:
1310:
1308:
1305:
1303:
1300:
1298:
1295:
1293:
1290:
1288:
1285:
1283:
1280:
1278:
1275:
1273:
1270:
1268:
1265:
1263:
1260:
1258:
1255:
1253:
1250:
1248:
1245:
1243:
1240:
1238:
1235:
1233:
1230:
1228:
1225:
1223:
1220:
1218:
1215:
1213:
1210:
1208:
1205:
1203:
1200:
1198:
1195:
1193:
1190:
1188:
1185:
1183:
1180:
1178:
1175:
1173:
1170:
1168:
1165:
1163:
1160:
1158:
1155:
1153:
1150:
1148:
1145:
1143:
1140:
1139:
1134:
1131:
1130:
1125:
1124:
1120:
1118:
1115:
1113:
1110:
1108:
1105:
1103:
1100:
1098:
1095:
1093:
1090:
1088:
1085:
1083:
1080:
1078:
1075:
1073:
1070:
1068:
1065:
1063:
1060:
1058:
1055:
1053:
1050:
1048:
1045:
1043:
1040:
1039:
1035:
1032:
1031:
1027:
1024:
1022:
1019:
1017:
1014:
1013:
1009:
1006:
1005:
1001:
998:
996:
993:
991:
988:
987:
983:
980:
979:
975:
972:
971:
967:
965:
960:
958:
955:
953:
950:
948:
945:
943:
940:
939:
936:
929:
928:
919:
916:
915:
914:
912:
907:
905:
903:
898:
894:
891:
890:
889:
887:
882:
880:
879:
875:
874:
868:
865:
864:
863:
861:
856:
854:
851:
850:
847:
846:
844:
838:
837:
834:
827:
826:
819:
816:
815:
811:
808:
807:
804:
801:
799:
796:
794:
791:
789:
786:
784:
781:
780:
776:
775:
771:
768:
767:
764:
757:
756:
749:
748:
744:
742:
741:
737:
736:
732:
731:
727:
723:
720:
718:
715:
714:
713:
712:
708:
707:
701:
700:
693:
690:
686:
683:
682:
681:
678:
677:
672:
668:
667:Robert Habeck
665:
664:
661:
660:
656:
655:
651:
647:
644:
643:
639:
635:
634:
630:
629:
623:
622:
614:
610:
607:
606:
603:
602:
598:
597:
594:Head of State
591:
590:
583:
580:
578:
575:
574:
571:
566:Constitution
561:
560:
554:
550:
549:
546:
536:
533:
528:
527:
521:
519:
515:
513:
509:
505:
501:
497:
493:
485:
480:
475:
467:
465:
463:
459:
455:
451:
447:
446:republicanism
443:
439:
434:
430:
428:
424:
420:
416:
412:
408:
404:
399:
395:
391:
387:
383:
379:
378:
372:
370:
366:
362:
358:
354:
350:
345:
341:
337:
333:
328:
324:
319:
317:
313:
309:
305:
301:
296:
287:
283:
281:
280:
268:
265:
261:
252:
247:
244:
241:
237:
234:
231:
227:
224:
221:
217:
214:
211:
209:
205:
200:
196:
192:
188:
184:
180:
177:
175:
171:
168:
165:
163:
159:
156:
152:
149:
147:
143:
140:
137:
135:
134:Head of state
131:
127:
125:
121:
116:
113:
110:
107:
105:
101:
97:
95:
91:
88:
85:
81:
77:
73:
69:
64:
60:
54:
49:
44:
41:
37:
33:
19:
6262:West Germany
6162:Transnistria
6124:Vatican City
5961:
5803:Bibliography
5677:Coat of arms
5657:Architecture
5634:Trade unions
5614:Prostitution
5574:Homelessness
5537:Demographics
5486:Trade unions
5453:
5443:German model
5416:Central bank
5360:Conservatism
5323:Human rights
5308:Court system
5303:Constitution
5302:
5283:
5129:Contemporary
5118:West Germany
5113:East Germany
5088:World War II
5083:Nazi Germany
5023:18th-century
4982:East Francia
4936:Cimbrian War
4781:East Germany
4779:
4773:
4690:(in English)
4648:
4642:(in English)
4633:(in English)
4624:(in English)
4610:
4604:(in English)
4595:(in English)
4563:
4543:. Retrieved
4539:the original
4534:
4525:
4506:
4500:(in English)
4483:
4463:
4456:
4432:
4425:
4419:(in English)
4403:
4391:. Retrieved
4387:
4378:
4366:. Retrieved
4362:
4353:
4336:
4332:
4322:
4310:. Retrieved
4306:
4297:
4286:, retrieved
4264:
4254:
4241:. Retrieved
4226:
4214:. Retrieved
4200:
4187:. Retrieved
4172:
4161:, retrieved
4147:
4141:
4132:
4126:
4117:
4111:
4092:
4086:
4078:
4062:
4053:
4047:
4039:
4034:
4026:
4021:
4013:
4008:
4000:
3995:
3984:, retrieved
3977:the original
3968:
3961:
3953:
3948:
3940:
3935:
3927:
3922:
3914:
3909:
3898:
3886:. Retrieved
3877:
3867:
3859:
3843:
3834:
3828:
3809:
3799:30 September
3797:. Retrieved
3783:
3776:
3768:Art. 79
3763:
3751:. Retrieved
3730:
3718:. Retrieved
3713:
3709:
3699:
3690:
3684:
3672:. Retrieved
3668:
3659:
3635:
3630:
3617:
3600:
3567:
3552:
3539:
3517:
3464:World War II
3411:Enabling Act
3307:. Retrieved
3294:
3277:
3264:
3256:
3252:
3249:
3242:
3221:
3214:
3210:
3190:
3175:
3171:
3165:
3138:
3129:
3109:
3101:
3097:
3093:
3091:
3064:
3057:
3051:
3045:
3039:
3037:
3025:
3007:
2996:then called
2994:Horst Köhler
2992:. President
2987:
2981:
2970:
2957:Willy Brandt
2954:
2938:
2928:
2926:
2907:
2876:
2852:SchluĂźstrich
2851:
2845:
2830:West Germany
2825:
2811:
2800:
2789:
2782:
2776:
2769:
2746:
2737:Other courts
2731:Nazi Germany
2719:Enabling act
2715:
2696:
2677:
2672:
2670:
2643:
2612:
2586:
2573:
2563:
2552:
2533:
2514:
2509:
2506:
2500:
2497:Basic Treaty
2493:Eastern Bloc
2486:
2482:
2479:puppet state
2462:
2449:Nazi Germany
2430:
2420:
2413:Bundesländer
2412:
2405:
2378:
2362:
2360:
2343:West Germany
2340:
2333:
2331:
2326:
2315:
2312:
2307:
2301:
2296:
2290:
2288:
2257:
2255:
2228:
2186:
2182:
2170:
2154:
2151:
2145:
2126:
2121:
2113:
2100:
2098:
2092:
2080:
2071:
2062:
2060:
2052:
2039:
1966:Bundesländer
1962:
1922:
1903:Basic Treaty
1899:
1887:German Reich
1871:
1854:Lower Saxony
1839:
1835:
1834:
1793:
1776:
1673:Conservatism
1618:
1577:
1513:Lower Saxony
1468:
1447:
1392:
1382:
1132:
1122:
973:
963:
910:
901:
885:
877:
859:
842:
839:
832:Subdivisions
818:Other courts
810:Joint Senate
746:
739:
728:
709:
657:
631:
599:
582:Human rights
564:
541:Politics of
529:
516:
488:
435:
431:
389:
385:
381:
376:
375:
373:
320:
312:constitution
294:
292:
275:
83:Jurisdiction
40:
6252:1949 in law
6200:Isle of Man
6135:recognition
6104:Switzerland
6039:Netherlands
5604:Pornography
5579:Immigration
5542:Drug policy
5454:Mittelstand
5401:Agriculture
5365:Nationalism
5338:Transgender
5222:Earthquakes
5169:, 1583-1588
5167:Cologne War
5063:World War I
4965:Middle Ages
4951:Gothic Wars
4649:Other links
4582:(in German)
4216:22 November
3815:"Basic Law"
3641:(in German)
3593:West Berlin
3575:, Hamburg,
3545:West Berlin
3503:Rechtsstaat
3309:14 November
3172:other votes
3157:Brandenburg
3141:referendums
3118:Vizeadmiral
3069:becoming a
2973:Helmut Kohl
2847:Rechtsstaat
2826:Grundgesetz
2702:beforehand.
2584:structure.
2544:legislative
2515:Volkskammer
2364:Rechtsstaat
2211:Herreninsel
2133:Herreninsel
2046:Karl Arnold
1882:Saar Treaty
1844:, Bavaria,
1779:irredentist
1493:Brandenburg
1252:1932 (July)
952:Referendums
867:composition
704:Legislature
646:Olaf Scholz
568:(Basic Law)
500:Grundrechte
458:rule of law
390:Grundgesetz
377:Grundgesetz
365:West Berlin
340:Grundgesetz
18:Grundgesetz
6241:Categories
6074:San Marino
6034:Montenegro
6014:Luxembourg
5994:Kazakhstan
5897:Azerbaijan
5765:Television
5750:Philosophy
5725:Literature
5584:Irreligion
5569:Healthcare
5532:Corruption
5298:Chancellor
5287:(military)
5284:Bundeswehr
4680:JurisPedia
4620:Wikisource
4339:(2): 461.
4163:7 December
3986:7 December
3878:www.hdg.de
3651:References
3271:Literature
3182:Amendments
3079:Bundeswehr
3067:Reichswehr
3053:Reichswehr
3047:Bundeswehr
3041:Bundeswehr
2911:Chancellor
2816:, forbids
2814:fair trial
2688:Bundeswehr
2595:Presidency
2550:branches.
2488:Ostpolitik
2247:federalism
2149:(states).
1817:annexation
1688:Liberalism
1659:Federalism
1267:1933 (Nov)
1262:1933 (Mar)
1257:1932 (Nov)
1237:1924 (Dec)
1232:1924 (May)
1147:1867 (Aug)
1142:1867 (Feb)
957:Coalitions
884:District (
454:federalism
286:Wikisource
284:at German
264:Wikisource
239:Supersedes
208:Federalism
167:Chancellor
98:8 May 1949
6190:Gibraltar
6009:Lithuania
5720:Libraries
5700:Festivals
5547:Education
5491:Transport
5456:companies
5375:President
5313:Elections
5278:Bundesrat
5273:Bundestag
5242:Mountains
5210:Districts
5188:Geography
4921:Visigoths
4858:Overviews
4564:Full text
4345:1066-1271
3674:6 January
3299:June 2022
3197:Bundesrat
3193:Bundestag
3125:Wehrmacht
3106:ombudsman
3075:President
3059:Wehrmacht
2998:elections
2989:Bundesrat
2941:president
2917:Bundesrat
2904:Bundestag
2898:Bundestag
2710:Bundestag
2578:Bundesrat
2566:Bundestag
2540:executive
2513:1990 the
2335:Sonderweg
2327:Sonderweg
2268:Reichstag
2114:Basic Law
1956:Bundestag
1852:, Hesse,
1784:‹See Tfd›
1683:Far-right
1668:Communism
1553:Thuringia
934:Elections
762:Judiciary
730:Bundesrat
711:Bundestag
626:Executive
492:‹See Tfd›
442:democracy
382:Basic Law
349:‹See Tfd›
332:‹See Tfd›
310:) is the
300:‹See Tfd›
249:Full text
229:Author(s)
174:Judiciary
162:Executive
155:Bundesrat
151:Bundestag
6210:Svalbard
6195:Guernsey
6142:Abkhazia
6089:Slovenia
6084:Slovakia
6059:Portugal
5917:Bulgaria
5812:Category
5730:Internet
5715:Language
5705:Folklore
5624:Religion
5599:Pensions
5594:Naturism
5471:Taxation
5355:Lobbying
5328:Intersex
5261:Politics
4870:Timeline
4849:General
4842:articles
4668: :
4656:(1994):
4514:Archived
4492:Archived
4412:Archived
4243:29 April
4237:Archived
4210:Archived
4189:29 April
4183:Archived
4157:archived
4071:Archived
3882:Archived
3852:Archived
3819:Archived
3793:Archived
3744:Archived
3720:16 April
3333:See also
3236:and the
3234:railways
3195:and the
2763:and the
2548:judicial
2443:and the
2219:Chiemsee
2217:lake of
2215:Bavarian
2168:Trizonal
2137:Chiemsee
2043:—
1822:de facto
1805:Beitritt
1787:German:
1637:Passport
1533:Saarland
911:Gemeinde
783:Ordinary
146:Chambers
124:Branches
94:Ratified
66:Overview
6114:Ukraine
6064:Romania
6024:Moldova
5982:Ireland
5977:Iceland
5972:Hungary
5962:Germany
5957:Georgia
5947:Finland
5942:Estonia
5937:Denmark
5922:Croatia
5907:Belgium
5902:Belarus
5892:Austria
5887:Armenia
5882:Andorra
5877:Albania
5789:Outline
5695:Fashion
5682:Cuisine
5644:Culture
5609:Poverty
5552:Germans
5515:Society
5496:Welfare
5481:Tourism
5438:Exports
5411:Banking
5389:Economy
5293:Cabinet
5232:Islands
5227:Geology
5150:Regions
4916:Teutons
4889:Ancient
4851:History
4838:Germany
4672:, 1994:
4662:Chicago
3396:(1919)
3366:(1849)
3353:(1815)
3215:During
3207:History
3187:Process
2582:federal
2510:de jure
2501:de jure
2483:de jure
2262:in the
2175:Bavaria
2141:Bavaria
2135:in the
2106:Koblenz
1981:Hamburg
1909:de jure
1850:Hamburg
1828:de jure
1811:de jure
1798:de jure
1503:Hamburg
1483:Bavaria
860:Landtag
841:State (
722:members
680:Cabinet
544:Germany
427:Austria
314:of the
109:Federal
6205:Jersey
6147:Kosovo
6109:Turkey
6099:Sweden
6079:Serbia
6069:Russia
6054:Poland
6049:Norway
6029:Monaco
5999:Latvia
5967:Greece
5952:France
5927:Cyprus
5863:Europe
5817:Portal
5672:Cinema
5652:Anthem
5619:Racism
5433:Energy
5247:Rivers
5205:States
5175:, 1848
5011:Modern
4840:
4471:
4444:
4393:13 May
4368:13 May
4343:
4312:13 May
4288:13 May
4279:
4099:
3573:Bremen
3432:Others
3427:(1968)
3421:(1949)
3413:(1933)
3407:(1933)
3390:(1871)
3379:(1867)
3326:
3322:
3318:
3297:
3284:
3265:Länder
3168:Hitler
3153:Berlin
3044:. The
2929:Länder
2777:Länder
2759:, the
2755:, the
2751:, the
2574:Länder
2546:, and
2437:Allies
2355:Hitler
2345:, the
2272:Hitler
2183:Länder
2177:. The
2171:Länder
2155:Länder
2146:Länder
2093:Länder
2072:Länder
1977:Bremen
1972:Länder
1880:. The
1864:, and
1846:Bremen
1611:Russia
1586:France
1538:Saxony
1498:Bremen
1488:Berlin
803:Social
798:Labour
793:Fiscal
685:Scholz
496:German
484:Berlin
353:German
336:German
304:German
104:System
6180:Ă…land
6094:Spain
6019:Malta
5989:Italy
5796:Index
5760:Sport
5745:Names
5740:Music
5735:Media
5690:Dance
5562:Women
5527:Crime
5501:Women
5237:Lakes
4911:Goths
4545:4 May
3980:(PDF)
3973:(PDF)
3888:4 May
3753:6 May
3747:(PDF)
3740:(PDF)
3577:Hesse
3531:Notes
3462:Post-
3328:968).
3303:(PDF)
2538:into
1842:Baden
1606:China
1591:Italy
1508:Hesse
886:Kreis
671:GrĂĽne
5710:Flag
5667:Arts
5333:LGBT
4792:1968
4787:1949
4678:(on
4588:HTML
4570:HTML
4547:2018
4469:ISBN
4442:ISBN
4395:2024
4370:2024
4341:ISSN
4314:2024
4290:2024
4277:ISBN
4245:2014
4218:2012
4191:2014
4165:2016
4097:ISBN
3988:2016
3890:2018
3801:2015
3755:2014
3722:2024
3676:2020
3606:Herr
3311:2022
3282:ISBN
3155:and
2873:U.S.
2858:who
2840:and
2820:and
2638:and
2347:Nazi
2245:and
2201:The
2099:The
1979:and
1930:the
1632:Visa
1448:2024
1442:2019
1437:2014
1432:2009
1427:2004
1422:1999
1417:1994
1412:1989
1407:1984
1402:1979
1383:Next
1377:2021
1372:2017
1367:2013
1362:2009
1357:2005
1352:2002
1347:1998
1342:1994
1337:1990
1332:1987
1327:1983
1322:1980
1317:1976
1312:1972
1307:1969
1302:1965
1297:1961
1292:1957
1287:1953
1282:1949
1277:1938
1272:1936
1247:1930
1242:1928
1227:1920
1222:1919
1217:1912
1212:1907
1207:1903
1202:1898
1197:1893
1192:1890
1187:1887
1182:1884
1177:1881
1172:1878
1167:1877
1162:1874
1157:1871
1152:1868
1123:2022
1117:2017
1112:2012
1107:2010
1102:2009
1097:2004
1092:1999
1087:1994
1082:1989
1077:1984
1072:1979
1067:1974
1062:1969
1057:1964
1052:1959
1047:1954
1042:1949
1026:1957
1021:1953
1016:1949
1000:1932
995:1925
990:1919
918:list
893:list
843:Land
638:list
456:and
323:Bonn
293:The
5861:of
5662:Art
5345:Law
4666:Ill
4601:PDF
4592:PDF
4574:PDF
4269:doi
3716:(3)
3176:the
2889:.
2856:GDR
2828:in
2809:.
2386:SPD
2382:CDU
2274:'s
1995:).
1601:USA
902:Amt
650:SPD
613:SPD
514:).
384:or
262:at
213:Yes
181::
6243::
4688:.
4682:).
4664:,
4660::
4640:.
4631:.
4622:.
4590:,
4576:,
4572:,
4533:.
4436:.
4386:.
4361:.
4337:53
4335:.
4331:.
4305:.
4275:,
4263:,
4235:.
4181:.
4155:,
4151:,
4077:,
3880:.
3876:.
3858:.
3850:.
3712:.
3708:.
3667:.
3324:p.
3316:28
3267:.
3147:.
3127:.
3035:.
2793:.
2780:.
2733:.
2542:,
2241:,
1657:/
1596:UK
498::
452:,
448:,
444:,
355::
338::
318:.
306::
5851:e
5844:t
5837:v
4830:e
4823:t
4816:v
4784::
4720:e
4713:t
4706:v
4549:.
4477:.
4450:.
4397:.
4372:.
4347:.
4316:.
4271::
4247:.
4220:.
4193:.
4105:.
3892:.
3803:.
3757:.
3724:.
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3678:.
3643:.
3625:.
3313:.
3288:.
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2306:(
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640:)
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