533:(e.g. moose). For a terrestrial mammal to be called a grazer, at least 90% of the forage has to be grass, and for a browser at least 90% tree leaves and twigs. An intermediate feeding strategy is called "mixed-feeding". In their daily need to take up energy from forage, herbivores of different body mass may be selective in choosing their food. "Selective" means that herbivores may choose their forage source depending on, e.g., season or food availability, but also that they may choose high quality (and consequently highly nutritious) forage before lower quality. The latter especially is determined by the body mass of the herbivore, with small herbivores selecting for high-quality forage, and with increasing body mass animals are less selective. Several theories attempt to explain and quantify the relationship between animals and their food, such as
1178:
herbivores that feed on one species of plant and prevents these specialists from wiping out their food source. Prey defenses also help stabilize predator-prey dynamics, and for more information on these relationships see the section on Plant
Defenses. Eating a second prey type helps herbivores' populations stabilize. Alternating between two or more plant types provides population stability for the herbivore, while the populations of the plants oscillate. This plays an important role for generalist herbivores that eat a variety of plants. Keystone herbivores keep vegetation populations in check and allow for a greater diversity of both herbivores and plants. When an invasive herbivore or plant enters the system, the balance is thrown off and the diversity can collapse to a monotaxon system.
40:
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868:(amount of food) falls below the average rate of payoff for the entire area. According to this theory, an animal should move to a new patch of food when the patch they are currently feeding on requires more energy to obtain food than an average patch. Within this theory, two subsequent parameters emerge, the Giving Up Density (GUD) and the Giving Up Time (GUT). The Giving Up Density (GUD) quantifies the amount of food that remains in a patch when a forager moves to a new patch. The Giving Up Time (GUT) is used when an animal continuously assesses the patch quality.
1235:
1258:, plant communities can be indirectly affected. Often these effects are felt when predator populations decline and herbivore populations are no longer limited, which leads to intense herbivore foraging which can suppress plant communities. With the size of herbivores having an effect on the amount of energy intake that is needed, larger herbivores need to forage on higher quality or more plants to gain the optimal amount of nutrients and energy compared to smaller herbivores.
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388:
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1174:–prey interactions, the relationship between herbivores and plants is cyclic. When prey (plants) are numerous their predators (herbivores) increase in numbers, reducing the prey population, which in turn causes predator number to decline. The prey population eventually recovers, starting a new cycle. This suggests that the population of the herbivore fluctuates around the carrying capacity of the food source, in this case, the plant.
64:
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437:. There was a gap of 50 to 100 million years between the time each organ evolved and the time organisms evolved to feed upon them; this may be due to the low levels of oxygen during this period, which may have suppressed evolution. Further than their arthropod status, the identity of these early herbivores is uncertain. Hole feeding and skeletonization are recorded in the early
904:, while other large mammalian herbivores like bison control dominant species which allows other species to flourish. Plant-herbivore interactions can also operate so that plant communities mediate herbivore communities. Plant communities that are more diverse typically sustain greater herbivore richness by providing a greater and more diverse set of resources.
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recovery from herbivory. Resistance refers to the ability of a plant to reduce the amount of damage it receives from herbivores. This can occur via avoidance in space or time, physical defenses, or chemical defenses. Defenses can either be constitutive, always present in the plant, or induced, produced or translocated by the plant following damage or stress.
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In effect, this would indicate that a herbivore in a dense forest would spend more time handling (eating) the vegetation because there was so much vegetation around than a herbivore in a sparse forest, who could easily browse through the forest vegetation. According to the
Holling's disk equation, a
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Holling's disk equation models the efficiency at which predators consume prey. The model predicts that as the number of prey increases, the amount of time predators spend handling prey also increases, and therefore the efficiency of the predator decreases. In 1959, S. Holling proposed an equation to
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Several factors play into these fluctuating populations and help stabilize predator-prey dynamics. For example, spatial heterogeneity is maintained, which means there will always be pockets of plants not found by herbivores. This stabilizing dynamic plays an especially important role for specialist
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is a model for predicting animal behavior while looking for food or other resources, such as shelter or water. This model assesses both individual movement, such as animal behavior while looking for food, and distribution within a habitat, such as dynamics at the population and community level. For
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Defense can be divided into two main categories, tolerance and resistance. Tolerance is the ability of a plant to withstand damage without a reduction in fitness. This can occur by diverting herbivory to non-essential plant parts, resource allocation, compensatory growth, or by rapid regrowth and
1026:
Feeding choice involves which plants a herbivore chooses to consume. It has been suggested that many herbivores feed on a variety of plants to balance their nutrient uptake and to avoid consuming too much of any one type of defensive chemical. This involves a tradeoff however, between foraging on
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describes the balance between eating all the food in a patch for immediate energy, or moving to a new patch and leaving the plants in the first patch to regenerate for future use. The theory predicts that absent complicating factors, an animal should leave a resource patch when the rate of payoff
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to overcome these adaptations. The evolution of antagonistic and mutualistic plant-herbivore interactions are not mutually exclusive and may co-occur. Plant phylogeny has been found to facilitate the colonization and community assembly of herbivores, and there is evidence of phylogenetic linkage
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This model has been criticized as circular and untestable. Critics have pointed out that its proponents use examples that fit the theory, but do not use the model when it does not fit the reality. Other critics point out that animals do not have the ability to assess and maximize their potential
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evolved herbivory in four phases, changing their approach to it in response to changing plant communities. Tetrapod herbivores made their first appearance in the fossil record of their jaws near the Permio-Carboniferous boundary, approximately 300 million years ago. The earliest evidence of
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also impact plant-herbivore communities and interactions. For example, in temperate freshwater wetlands herbivorous waterfowl communities change according to season, with species that eat above-ground vegetation being abundant during summer, and species that forage below-ground being present in
363:. Herbivory is usually limited to animals that eat plants. Insect herbivory can cause a variety of physical and metabolic alterations in the way the host plant interacts with itself and other surrounding biotic factors. Fungi, bacteria, and protists that feed on living plants are usually termed
4147:
Thompson, J. 1999. What we know and do not know about coevolution: insect herbivores and plants as a test case. Pages 7–30 in H. Olff, V. K. Brown, R. H. Drent, and
British Ecological Society Symposium 1997 (Corporate Author), editors. Herbivores: between plants and predators. Blackwell
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Agricultural crop damage by the same species totals approximately $ 100 million every year. Insect crop damages also contribute largely to annual crop losses in the U.S. Herbivores also affect economics through the revenue generated by hunting and ecotourism. For example, the hunting of
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The myriad defenses displayed by plants means that their herbivores need a variety of skills to overcome these defenses and obtain food. These allow herbivores to increase their feeding and use of a host plant. Herbivores have three primary strategies for dealing with plant defenses: choice,
476:, the process in which teeth from the upper jaw come in contact with teeth in the lower jaw is present. The evolution of dental occlusion led to a drastic increase in plant food processing and provides evidence about feeding strategies based on tooth wear patterns. Examination of
900:, and between colonization and mortality allow for coexistence between species in the presence of herbivores. However, the effects of herbivory on plant diversity and richness is variable. For example, increased abundance of herbivores such as deer decrease plant diversity and
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A plant defense is a trait that increases plant fitness when faced with herbivory. This is measured relative to another plant that lacks the defensive trait. Plant defenses increase survival and/or reproduction (fitness) of plants under pressure of predation from herbivores.
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can obtain their nutrients from either plants or animals. Due to a herbivore's ability to survive solely on tough and fibrous plant matter, they are termed the primary consumers in the food cycle (chain). Herbivory, carnivory, and omnivory can be regarded as special cases of
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An
Integrated Approach To Deer Damage Control Publication No. 809 West Virginia Division of Natural Resources Cooperative Extension Service, Wildlife Resources Section West Virginia University, Law Enforcement Section Center for Extension and Continuing Education, March
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produced by the plant that deter herbivory. There are a wide variety of these in nature and a single plant can have hundreds of different chemical defenses. Chemical defenses can be divided into two main groups, carbon-based defenses and nitrogen-based defenses.
1157:
Plants have also changed features that enhance the probability of attracting natural enemies to herbivores. Some emit semiochemicals, odors that attract natural enemies, while others provide food and housing to maintain the natural enemies' presence, e.g.
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was composed of herbivorous dinosaurs. Carnivory was a natural transition from insectivory for medium and large tetrapods, requiring minimal adaptation. In contrast, a complex set of adaptations was necessary for feeding on highly fibrous plant materials.
790:
example, the model would be used to look at the browsing behavior of a deer while looking for food, as well as that deer's specific location and movement within the forested habitat and its interaction with other deer while in that habitat.
1126:, or the nervous system. Phenolics combine an aromatic carbon ring with a hydroxyl group. There are several different phenolics such as lignins, which are found in cell walls and are very indigestible except for specialized microorganisms;
2944:
Pellissier, LoĂŻc; Ndiribe, Charlotte; Dubuis, Anne; Pradervand, Jean-Nicolas; Salamin, Nicolas; Guisan, Antoine; Rasmann, Sergio (2013). "Turnover of plant lineages shapes herbivore phylogenetic beta diversity along ecological gradients".
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between plants and herbivores, resulting in a "coevolutionary arms race". The escape and radiation mechanisms for coevolution, presents the idea that adaptations in herbivores and their host plants, has been the driving force behind
1214:, with plants benefiting from herbivores when nutrients are recycled very efficiently. Another form of plant-herbivore mutualism is physical changes to the environment and/or plant community structure by herbivores which serve as
480:
frameworks of tooth and jaw morphologes has revealed that dental occlusion developed independently in several lineages tetrapod herbivores. This suggests that evolution and spread occurred simultaneously within various lineages.
914:
correlation between herbivores and plants are important aspects of the influence of herbivore and plant interactions on communities and ecosystem functioning, especially in regard to herbivorous insects. This is apparent in the
406:
The understanding of herbivory in geological time comes from three sources: fossilized plants, which may preserve evidence of defence (such as spines), or herbivory-related damage; the observation of plant debris in fossilised
540:
Kleiber's law describes the relationship between an animal's size and its feeding strategy, saying that larger animals need to eat less food per unit weight than smaller animals. Kleiber's law states that the metabolic rate
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is a major source of revenue, particularly in Africa, where many large mammalian herbivores such as elephants, zebras, and giraffes help to bring in the equivalent of millions of US dollars to various nations annually.
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of plants which in turn influences herbivore community assemblages and vice versa. Examples include a decrease in abundance of leaf-chewing larvae in the fall when hardwood leaf palatability decreases due to increased
418:
phenomenon, fossils have shown that plants were being consumed by arthropods within less than 20 million years after the first land plants evolved. Insects fed on the spores of early
Devonian plants, and the
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Plant modification occurs when herbivores manipulate their plant prey to increase feeding. For example, some caterpillars roll leaves to reduce the effectiveness of plant defenses activated by sunlight.
1098:
in that it is a compression-resistant structural component of cell walls; so that plants with their cell walls impregnated with silica are thereby afforded a measure of protection against herbivory.
1198:
While much of the interaction of herbivory and plant defense is negative, with one individual reducing the fitness of the other, some is beneficial. This beneficial herbivory takes the form of
1130:, which have a bitter taste and bind to proteins making them indigestible; and furanocumerins, which produce free radicals disrupting DNA, protein, and lipids, and can cause skin irritation.
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are two forms of mutualistic herbivory in which the herbivore receives a food resource and the plant is aided in reproduction. Plants can also be indirectly affected by herbivores through
1118:. Terpenes are derived from 5-carbon isoprene units and comprise essential oils, carotenoids, resins, and latex. They can have several functions that disrupt herbivores such as inhibiting
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Sterner, Robert W.; Elser, James J.; and
Vitousek, Peter. Ecological Stoichiometry: The Biology of Elements from Molecules to the Biosphere. Publisher: Princeton University Press 2002.
426:
During the next 75 million years, plants evolved a range of more complex organs, such as roots and seeds. There is no evidence of any organism being fed upon until the middle-late
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Herbivores employ numerous types of feeding strategies. Many herbivores do not fall into one specific feeding strategy, but employ several strategies and eat a variety of plant parts.
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that reduce herbivory. A given plant species often has many types of defensive mechanisms, mechanical or chemical, constitutive or induced, which allow it to escape from herbivores.
1920:
Janis, Christine M. (1990). "Chapter 13: Correlation of cranial and dental variables with body size in ungulates and macropodoids". In Damuth, John; MacFadden, Bruce J. (eds.).
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herbivorous game species such as white-tailed deer, cottontail rabbits, antelope, and elk in the U.S. contributes greatly to the billion-dollar annually, hunting industry.
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to reduce effectiveness of defenses. Herbivores may also utilize symbionts to evade plant defenses. For example, some aphids use bacteria in their gut to provide essential
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Herbivore modification is when various adaptations to body or digestive systems of the herbivore allow them to overcome plant defenses. This might include detoxifying
456:. While amphibians continued to feed on fish and insects, some reptiles began exploring two new food types, tetrapods (carnivory) and plants (herbivory). The entire
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2407:"Giving-up time variation in response to differences in nectar volume and concentration in the giant tropical ant,Paraponera clavata (Hymenoptera: Formicidae)"
379:. There is, however, no single exclusive and definitive ecological classification of consumption patterns; each textbook has its own variations on the theme.
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Seager, S Trent; Eisenberg, Cristina; St. Clair, Samuel B. (July 2013). "Patterns and consequences of ungulate herbivory on aspen in western North
America".
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Mead, R.J.; Oliver, A.J.; King, D.R.; Hubach, P.H. (March 1985). "The Co-Evolutionary Role of
Fluoroacetate in Plant–Animal Interactions in Australia".
1149:. These compounds are often bitter and can inhibit DNA or RNA synthesis or block nervous system signal transmission. Cyanogens get their name from the
3906:"Extrafloral nectar production of the ant-associated plant, Macaranga tanarius, is an induced, indirect, defensive response elicited by jasmonic acid"
1599:
Thomas, Peter & Packham, John. Ecology of
Woodlands and Forests: Description, Dynamics and Diversity. Publisher: Cambridge University Press 2007.
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Descombes, Patrice; Marchon, Jérémy; Pradervand, Jean-Nicolas; Bilat, Julia; Guisan, Antoine; Rasmann, Sergio; Pellissier, Loïc (17 October 2016).
948:. These types of eco-evolutionary feedbacks between plants and herbivores are likely the main driving force behind plant and herbivore diversity.
964:. Such differences in herbivore modalities can potentially lead to trade-offs that influence species traits and may lead to additive effects on
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Physical, or mechanical, defenses are barriers or structures designed to deter herbivores or reduce intake rates, lowering overall herbivory.
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Dearing, M.D.; Mangione, A.M.; Karasov, W.H. (May 2000). "Diet breadth of mammalian herbivores: nutrient versus detoxification constraints".
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39:
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Poore, Alistair G. B.; Graba-Landry, Alexia; Favret, Margaux; Sheppard
Brennand, Hannah; Byrne, Maria; Dworjanyn, Symon A. (15 May 2013).
6507:
2827:"Deer density and plant palatability predict shrub cover, richness, diversity and aboriginal food value in a North American archipelago"
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1948:
Belovsky, G.E. (November 1997). "Optimal foraging and community structure: The allometry of herbivore food selection and competition".
514:
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Douglas, A.E. (January 1998). "Nutritional Interactions in Insect–Microbial Symbioses: Aphids and Their Symbiotic Bacteria Buchnera".
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Herrera, C.M. (March 1985). "Determinants of Plant-Animal Coevolution: The Case of Mutualistic Dispersal of Seeds by Vertebrates".
2592:"Plant Species Diversity in a Marine Intertidal Community: Importance of Herbivore Food Preference and Algal Competitive Abilities"
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by digging and disturbing the sediment which removes competing plants and subsequently allows colonization of other plant species.
51:
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stored within their tissues. This is released when the plant is damaged and inhibits cellular respiration and electron transport.
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model the rate of return for an optimal diet: Rate (R )=Energy gained in foraging (Ef)/(time searching (Ts) + time handling (Th))
4342:
Forbes, Elizabeth S.; Cushman, J. Hall; Burkepile, Deron E.; Young, Truman P.; Klope, Maggie; Young, Hillary S. (17 June 2019).
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Cannicci, Stefano; Burrows, Damien; Fratini, Sara; Smith, Thomas J.; Offenberg, Joachim; Dahdouh-Guebas, Farid (1 August 2008).
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projects upwards of $ 750 million annually. Another example of a trophic cascade involved plant-herbivore interactions are
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and seaweed grazers, and in the absence of plant-eating fish, corals are outcompeted and seaweeds deprive corals of sunlight.
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4440:. Photos by Richard Ling and Rian Tan. SPC (www.spc.int) in collaboration with the LMMA Network (www.lmmanetwork.org). n.d.
2768:"Above- and below-ground vertebrate herbivory may each favour a different subordinate species in an aquatic plant community"
1693:
Labandeira, C. (June 2007). "The origin of herbivory on land: Initial patterns of plant tissue consumption by arthropods".
1379:"symbiosis." The Columbia Encyclopedia. New York: Columbia University Press, 2008. Credo Reference. Web. 17 September 2012.
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Pillemer, E.A.; Tingey, W.M. (6 August 1976). "Hooked Trichomes: A Physical Plant Barrier to a Major Agricultural Pest".
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This article is about anatomically and physiologically adapted diets to plants. For the Japanese social phenomenon, see
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Ripple, William J. (20 April 2011). "Wolves, Elk, Bison, and Secondary Trophic Cascades in Yellowstone National Park".
4203:"Ecosystem engineering by bison (Bison bison ) wallowing increases arthropod community heterogeneity in space and time"
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Milchunas, D.G.; Noy-Meir, I. (October 2002). "Grazing refuges, external avoidance of herbivory and plant diversity".
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may cover leaves or stems and are especially effective against invertebrate herbivores. In addition, some plants have
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gains, therefore the optimal foraging theory is irrelevant and derived to explain trends that do not exist in nature.
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Where s=cost of search per unit time f=rate of encounter with items, h=handling time, e=energy gained per encounter.
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such as those found on roses or acacia trees are one example, as are the spines on a cactus. Smaller hairs known as
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Pierce, G. J.; Ollason, J. G. (May 1987). "Eight reasons why optimal foraging theory is a complete waste of time".
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Reisz, Robert R. (2006), "Origin of dental occlusion in tetrapods: Signal for terrestrial vertebrate evolution?",
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Edwards, P.J.; Wratten, S.D. (March 1985). "Induced plant defences against insect grazing: fact or artefact?".
2352:"Competition between birds and mammals: A comparison of giving-up densities between crested larks and gerbils"
1496:
Peschiutta, MarĂa Laura; Scholz, Fabián Gustavo; Goldstein, Guillermo; Bucci, Sandra Janet (1 January 2018).
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winter months. These seasonal herbivore communities differ in both their assemblage and functions within the
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Langenheim, J.H. (June 1994). "Higher plant terpenoids: a phytocentric overview of their ecological roles".
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Abraham, Martin A. A. Sustainability Science and Engineering, Volume 1. page 123. Publisher: Elsevier 2006.
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Herbivores form an important link in the food chain because they consume plants to digest the carbohydrates
3189:"LINKING BIOGEOGRAPHY AND COMMUNITY ECOLOGY: LATITUDINAL VARIATION IN PLANT–HERBIVORE INTERACTION STRENGTH"
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composition and ecosystem functioning. Seasonal changes and environmental gradients such as elevation and
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behaviors to better extract nutrients from plants. A large percentage of herbivores also have mutualistic
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Hidding, Bert; Nolet, Bart A.; de Boer, Thijs; de Vries, Peter P.; Klaassen, Marcel (10 September 2009).
2469:"Swan foraging shapes spatial distribution of two submerged plants, favouring the preferred prey species"
1270:) in the US alone has the potential to both change vegetative communities through over-browsing and cost
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herbivore in the sparse forest would be more efficient at eating than the herbivore in the dense forest.
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3291:"Direct and indirect effects of ocean acidification and warming on a marine plant–herbivore interaction"
1498:"Herbivory alters plant carbon assimilation, patterns of biomass allocation and nitrogen use efficiency"
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1034:, sequestering toxins unaltered, or avoiding toxins, such as through the production of large amounts of
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2543:"Community-level plant palatability increases with elevation as insect herbivore abundance declines"
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4175:
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3683:
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3611:
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3098:
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2713:
2658:
2603:
2554:
2506:
2488:
2426:
2371:
2316:
2220:
2169:
2126:
2109:
Stearns, S. C.; Schmid-Hempel, P. (May 1987). "Evolutionary insights should not be wasted".
2075:
2030:
1965:
1892:
1884:
1838:
1762:
1710:
1670:
1574:
1555:"Faunal impact on vegetation structure and ecosystem function in mangrove forests: A review"
1525:
1517:
1410:
1334:
1279:
1239:
982:
901:
534:
271:
177:
112:
3029:"Phylogenetic studies of insect-plant interactions: Insights into the genesis of diversity"
1133:
Nitrogen-based defenses are synthesized from amino acids and primarily come in the form of
993:
can lead to responses in plant-herbivore interactions in relation to palatability as well.
6855:
6714:
6684:
6679:
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6602:
6587:
6467:
6447:
6329:
6197:
6103:
5994:
5904:
5846:
5831:
5430:
5356:
5088:
4960:
4939:
4501:
3446:
1255:
778:
774:
376:
96:
63:
1653:
Labandeira, C.C. (1998). "Early History of Arthropod And Vascular Plant Associations 1".
423:
also provides evidence that organisms fed on plants using a "pierce and suck" technique.
4412:
4359:
4218:
4171:
4083:
3963:
3921:
3866:
3777:
3722:
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1961:
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6835:
6659:
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6542:
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6432:
6299:
6172:
5979:
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5752:
5717:
5656:
5533:
5488:
5380:
5063:
5039:
5022:
4817:
4201:
Nickell, Zachary; Varriano, Sofia; Plemmons, Eric; Moran, Matthew D. (September 2018).
2825:
Arcese, P.; Schuster, R.; Campbell, L.; Barber, A.; Martin, T. G. (11 September 2014).
2802:
2767:
2511:
2468:
1897:
1865:"Biomass transformation webs provide a unified approach to consumer-resource modelling"
1864:
1344:
1211:
1203:
937:
933:
501:
364:
248:
193:
3652:
2717:
552:
Therefore, the mass of the animal increases at a faster rate than the metabolic rate.
6891:
6860:
5836:
5810:
5767:
5757:
5712:
5699:
5679:
5571:
5405:
5360:
5251:
5073:
5068:
5027:
5017:
4965:
4730:
4725:
4644:
4385:
3940:
3905:
3804:
3761:
3600:"The Impact of Herbivory on Plants in Different Resource Conditions: A Meta-Analysis"
3052:
2320:
1888:
1359:
911:
375:. Flowering plants that obtain nutrition from other living plants are usually termed
291:
209:
135:
31:
3890:
3746:
3338:
3173:
3142:"Escalation of Plant Defense: Do Latex and Resin Canals Spur Plant Diversification?"
3126:
2868:
2623:
2576:
2446:
2391:
2232:
2189:
2152:
Lewis, A. C. (16 May 1986). "Memory constraints and flower choice in Pieris rapae".
2095:
1977:
1743:"Rainforest collapse triggered Pennsylvanian tetrapod diversification in Euramerica"
1722:
6845:
6830:
6487:
6457:
6402:
6285:
6250:
6127:
5626:
5191:
5093:
4970:
4858:
4679:
4669:
4344:"Synthesizing the effects of large, wild herbivore exclusion on ecosystem function"
4252:"Herbivore identity mediates the strength of trophic cascades on individual plants"
2989:
2693:
1674:
973:
956:
676:
626:
477:
461:
420:
301:
3389:
3028:
3005:
2883:
1578:
1090:
that alter their texture, making them difficult to eat. Also the incorporation of
4420:
3730:
3481:
2907:
2173:
6137:
5866:
5684:
5646:
5621:
5611:
5576:
5523:
5503:
5206:
4914:
4899:
4894:
4884:
4879:
4863:
4822:
4812:
4659:
4654:
4649:
4305:
3551:"Timing and mode of simulated ungulate herbivory alter aspen defense strategies"
1521:
1207:
1182:
986:
907:
708:
701:
680:
666:
659:
655:
605:
329:
173:
142:
72:
3290:
1996:"Diet and Food Preferences of White-Tailed Deer in Northeastern Stewart-Island"
6850:
6427:
6392:
6032:
5984:
5929:
5899:
5805:
5722:
5666:
5543:
5493:
5307:
5266:
5231:
5078:
4934:
4929:
4919:
4842:
4832:
4720:
4694:
4684:
3567:
3314:
2990:"The Influence of Functional Diversity and Composition on Ecosystem Processes"
2784:
2493:
2375:
1969:
1415:
1390:
1296:
1275:
1243:
1187:
1181:
The back and forth relationship of plant defense and herbivore offense drives
1115:
1039:
916:
725:
601:
597:
493:
453:
399:
372:
256:
169:
146:
4377:
4314:
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4236:
3795:
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3267:
3220:
3165:
3110:
3060:
3013:
2915:
2860:
2793:
2735:
2670:
2615:
2568:
2502:
2438:
2383:
2328:
1823:
Journal of Experimental Zoology Part B: Molecular and Developmental Evolution
1586:
1539:
985:, and increased palatability of plant communities at higher elevations where
892:
is often driven by herbivory, and it is likely that trade-offs between plant
6755:
6709:
6437:
5881:
5851:
5651:
5581:
5518:
5508:
5483:
5475:
5420:
5294:
5279:
5273:
5083:
5012:
4955:
4924:
4904:
4889:
4837:
4827:
4807:
4802:
4699:
4689:
4674:
4664:
4624:
4368:
4343:
4056:
4014:
2559:
2542:
2267:
1310:
1222:
by bison. Swans form a mutual relationship with the plant species that they
1219:
1134:
1079:
1009:
945:
877:
760:
687:
630:
616:
593:
505:
468:
445:
408:
356:
340:
304:
employed the anglicized term in an 1854 work on fossil teeth and skeletons.
275:
252:
244:
236:
232:
220:
189:
150:
119:
88:
3949:
3930:
3882:
3813:
3738:
3584:
3489:
3454:
3381:
3330:
3118:
3068:
2974:
2884:"Modulation of Diversity by Grazing and Mowing in Native Tallgrass Prairie"
2811:
2743:
2520:
2203:
Janetos, A. C.; Cole, B. J. (October 1981). "Imperfectly optimal animals".
2181:
1922:
Body Size in Mammalian Paleobiology: Estimation and Biological Implications
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1850:
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3373:
2923:
2351:
2336:
1995:
1736:
1734:
1732:
1561:. Mangrove Ecology – Applications in Forestry and Costal Zone Management.
156:
As a result of their plant-based diet, herbivorous animals typically have
17:
6810:
6739:
6270:
5777:
5689:
5636:
5591:
4909:
4797:
4268:
4251:
4036:
3994:
3786:
2350:
Brown, Joel S.; Kotler, Burt P.; Mitchell, William A. (1 November 1997).
2247:
1354:
1314:
1171:
1146:
1142:
1138:
1123:
1111:
637:
609:
575:
509:
457:
415:
368:
352:
333:
240:
228:
138:
4564:
1842:
1137:
and cyanogens. Alkaloids include commonly recognized substances such as
876:
Interactions between plants and herbivores can play a prevalent role in
496:
feed on leaf tissue between the epidermal layers, leaving visible trails
489:
452:(307–299 million years ago). Early tetrapods were large amphibious
6800:
6607:
6477:
6472:
6099:
6047:
5707:
5352:
5211:
5175:
5168:
5049:
4735:
4715:
4639:
4187:
4134:
4099:
3874:
3695:
3549:
Call, Anson; St Clair, Samuel B (1 October 2018). Ryan, Michael (ed.).
3532:
3275:
3140:
Farrell, Brian D.; Dussourd, David E.; Mitter, Charles (October 1991).
3087:"Can the Evolution of Plant Defense Lead to Plant-Herbivore Mutualism?"
3027:
Mitter, Charles; Farrell, Brian; Futuyma, Douglas J. (September 1991).
2678:
2430:
2224:
2138:
2087:
2044:
1530:
1150:
1127:
961:
952:
770:
713:
651:
545:) of an animal is the mass of the animal (M) raised to the 3/4 power: q
526:
438:
432:
263:
259:
185:
100:
4227:
4202:
2966:
2851:
2826:
1001:
537:, Holling's disk equation and the marginal value theorem (see below).
5054:
5044:
4585:
4435:"Plant-eating fish, Information sheets for fishing communities No 29"
3235:
3188:
3085:
de Mazancourt, Claire; Loreau, Michel; Dieckmann, Ulf (August 2001).
2638:
2406:
1766:
1223:
1095:
1091:
1087:
1035:
978:
730:
671:
392:
337:
224:
205:
181:
131:
84:
68:
56:
4179:
4126:
4091:
3687:
3524:
3259:
3212:
3141:
3086:
2662:
2591:
2130:
2079:
2035:
2018:
3157:
3102:
2607:
1741:
Sahney, Sarda; Benton, Michael J.; Falcon-Lang, Howard J. (2010).
1283:
1233:
1083:
1005:
1000:
941:
753:
718:
647:
621:
589:
585:
580:
488:
386:
348:
344:
216:
212:
201:
157:
127:
104:
92:
1202:
in which both partners benefit in some way from the interaction.
441:, with surface fluid feeding evolving by the end of that period.
4542:
Oxford ; Malden, Ma. : Blackwell Science. 639 p.
4041:. T. M. Smith (6th ed.). San Francisco: Benjamin Cummings.
3406:
Karban, R.; Agrawal, A.A. (November 2002). "Herbivore Offense".
765:
692:
642:
123:
108:
44:
6072:
5325:
5141:
4589:
4510:
Danell, K., R. Bergström, P. Duncan, J. Pastor (Editors)(2006)
1782:"The four phases of plant-arthropod associations in deep time"
1159:
748:
735:
267:
161:
4559:
4514:
Cambridge, UK : Cambridge University Press. 506 p.
4580:
4512:
Large herbivore ecology, ecosystem dynamics and conservation
286:
Herbivore is the anglicized form of a modern Latin coinage,
3617:
10.1890/0012-9658(2001)082[2045:TIOHOP]2.0.CO;2
4526:
Herbivory : the dynamics of animal-plant interactions
3187:
Pennings, Steven C.; Silliman, Brian R. (September 2005).
398:
leaf with evidence of insect herbivory; Dakota Sandstone (
2639:"Equilibrium Diet: Optimal Foraging and Prey Coexistence"
444:
Herbivory among four-limbed terrestrial vertebrates, the
262:
structure makes it far more difficult to digest than the
3236:"Associations of Plants and Insects in Deciduous Forest"
27:
Organism that eats mostly or exclusively plant material
508:
in turn consume herbivores for the same reason, while
2637:
Gleeson, Scott K.; Wilson, David Sloan (April 1986).
805:
115:. These more broadly also encompass animals that eat
2694:"Effects of herbivores on grassland plant diversity"
1094:
into cell walls is analogous to that of the role of
6748:
6648:
6573:
6446:
6383:
6243:
6111:
6013:
5892:
5819:
5776:
5698:
5665:
5562:
5474:
5368:
4948:
4872:
4851:
4788:
4744:
4708:
4632:
4623:
2467:Sandsten, HĂĄkan; Klaassen, Marcel (12 March 2008).
4581:website of the herbivory lab at Cornell University
4538:Olff, H., V.K. Brown, R.H. Drent (editors) (1999)
1943:
1941:
846:
402:) of Ellsworth County, Kansas. Scale bar is 10 mm.
3401:
3399:
1688:
1686:
1684:
1648:
1646:
1644:
989:abundances are lower. Climatic stressors such as
67:Tracks made by terrestrial gastropods with their
4528:Oxford : Blackwell Scientific. 437 p.
1924:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 255–299.
1023:herbivore modification, and plant modification.
411:; and the construction of herbivore mouthparts.
227:-containing materials, and many of them evolved
3910:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
3766:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
3598:Hawkes, Christine V.; Sullivan, Jon J. (2001).
3234:Futuyma, Douglas J.; Gould, Fred (March 1979).
981:levels which results in a decline of arthropod
4540:Herbivores : between plants and predators
2297:"Optimal foraging, the marginal value theorem"
1250:Trophic cascades and environmental degradation
6084:
5337:
5153:
4601:
4327:: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of March 2024 (
1655:Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences
8:
4250:van Veen, F. J. F.; Sanders, D. (May 2013).
1440:J.A. Simpson and E.S.C. Weiner, eds. (2000)
414:Although herbivory was long thought to be a
6305:Latitudinal gradients in species diversity
6091:
6077:
6069:
5344:
5330:
5322:
5160:
5146:
5138:
4629:
4608:
4594:
4586:
2727:11370/3e3ec5d4-fa03-4490-94e3-66534b3fe62f
2280:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
884:structure and functional processes. Plant
371:that feed on dead plants are described as
4367:
4304:
4267:
4226:
3999:. Sunderland, Mass.: Sinauer Associates.
3939:
3929:
3803:
3785:
3762:"The anomaly of silicon in plant biology"
3615:
3566:
2850:
2801:
2783:
2725:
2692:Olff, Han; Ritchie, Mark E. (July 1998).
2558:
2510:
2492:
2034:
1896:
1529:
1414:
818:
804:
355:. More generally, organisms that feed on
6203:Predator–prey (Lotka–Volterra) equations
5842:Tritrophic interactions in plant defense
3420:10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.33.010802.150443
3408:Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics
1350:Tritrophic interactions in plant defense
557:
62:
50:
38:
6235:Random generalized Lotka–Volterra model
1372:
472:their herbivory has been attributed to
6043:Herbivore adaptations to plant defense
4560:Herbivore information resource website
4458:
4320:
2273:
2252:. J. R. Krebs. Princeton, New Jersey.
1018:Herbivore adaptations to plant defense
134:, but do not include those feeding on
4030:
4028:
4026:
4024:
3988:
3986:
3984:
3544:
3542:
3447:10.1146/annurev.ento.47.091201.145121
3080:
3078:
2939:
2937:
2935:
2933:
2761:
2759:
2757:
2755:
2753:
2536:
2534:
2532:
2530:
2462:
2460:
2458:
2456:
1989:
1987:
1436:
1434:
525:Two herbivore feeding strategies are
215:that are better adapted for grinding
7:
6058:Predator avoidance in schooling fish
1994:Nugent, G.; Challies, C. N. (1988).
6508:Intermediate disturbance hypothesis
3964:"Plants, Herbivores, and Predators"
1715:10.1111/j.1744-7917.2007.00141.x-i1
6261:Ecological effects of biodiversity
367:(plant diseases), while fungi and
75:from a surface inside a greenhouse
25:
5597:Generalist and specialist species
4447:from the original on 24 July 2022
3653:10.1034/j.1600-0706.2002.990112.x
3033:Trends in Ecology & Evolution
2698:Trends in Ecology & Evolution
2295:Charnov, Eric L. (1 April 1976).
1282:and marine animals are important
87:anatomically and physiologically
6320:Occupancy–abundance relationship
4779:
2590:Lubchenco, Jane (January 1978).
1889:10.1111/j.1461-0248.2010.01566.x
1254:When herbivores are affected by
47:and two fawns feeding on foliage
6340:Relative abundance distribution
6053:Plant defense against herbivory
5920:Competitive exclusion principle
5632:Mesopredator release hypothesis
1056:Plant defense against herbivory
111:, as the main component of its
5925:Consumer–resource interactions
2301:Theoretical Population Biology
2000:New Zealand Journal of Ecology
1675:10.1146/annurev.earth.26.1.329
1110:Carbon-based defenses include
927:from insect herbivory and the
841:
823:
515:consumer–resource interactions
1:
6771:Biological data visualization
6598:Environmental niche modelling
6325:Population viability analysis
4401:Forest Ecology and Management
3993:Gotelli, Nicholas J. (1995).
3760:Epstein, E (4 January 1994).
3006:10.1126/science.277.5330.1300
2988:Tilman, D. (29 August 1997).
2882:Collins, S. L. (1 May 1998).
2718:10.1016/s0169-5347(98)01364-0
1579:10.1016/j.aquabot.2008.01.009
1442:The Oxford English Dictionary
6256:Density-dependent inhibition
4421:10.1016/j.foreco.2013.02.017
3731:10.1126/science.193.4252.482
3482:10.1146/annurev.ento.43.1.17
3053:10.1016/0169-5347(91)90007-k
2908:10.1126/science.280.5364.745
2321:10.1016/0040-5809(76)90040-X
2174:10.1126/science.232.4752.863
1795:(4): 409–438. Archived from
1120:adenosine triphosphate (ATP)
1062:Plant tolerance to herbivory
872:Plant-herbivore interactions
847:{\displaystyle R=Ef/(Ts+Th)}
559:Types of feeding strategies
324:Definition and related terms
6913:Animals by eating behaviors
6725:Liebig's law of the minimum
6560:Resource selection function
5451:Metabolic theory of ecology
4306:10.2174/1874213001003040031
4038:Ecology & field biology
3855:Journal of Chemical Ecology
3470:Annual Review of Entomology
3435:Annual Review of Entomology
2831:Diversity and Distributions
2246:Stephens, David W. (1986).
1522:10.1016/j.actao.2017.11.007
1468:The Oxford Latin Dictionary
1455:The Oxford Latin Dictionary
1330:List of herbivorous animals
1170:According to the theory of
1042:lacking in their sap diet.
176:plant materials, and their
6929:
6625:Niche apportionment models
6345:Relative species abundance
5549:Primary nutritional groups
5446:List of feeding behaviours
5237:Behavior-altering parasite
4565:The herbivore defenses of
4309:(inactive 17 March 2024).
4035:Smith, Robert Leo (2001).
2411:Journal of Insect Behavior
1325:List of feeding behaviours
1059:
1053:
1015:
29:
6874:
6806:Ecosystem based fisheries
6418:Interspecific competition
6310:Minimum viable population
6168:Maximum sustainable yield
6153:Intraspecific competition
6148:Effective population size
6028:Anti-predator adaptations
5539:Photosynthetic efficiency
5247:Host–parasite coevolution
5182:
5127:Category:Eating behaviors
5102:
4777:
3315:10.1007/s00442-013-2683-y
2785:10.1007/s00442-009-1450-6
2494:10.1007/s00442-008-1010-5
1863:Getz, W (February 2011).
1780:Labandeira, C.C. (2005).
1466:P.G.W. Glare, ed. (1990)
1453:P.G.W. Glare, ed. (1990)
1416:10.1016/j.cub.2006.09.019
1320:Consumer-resource systems
1260:Environmental degradation
255:in plants, whose heavily
6796:Ecological stoichiometry
6761:Alternative stable state
4500:18 November 2012 at the
4293:The Open Ecology Journal
957:biogeographical features
951:Abiotic factors such as
359:in general are known as
312:'small plant, herb' and
6640:Ontogenetic niche shift
6503:Ideal free distribution
6413:Ecological facilitation
6163:Malthusian growth model
6133:Consumer-resource model
5990:Paradox of the plankton
5955:Energy systems language
5675:Chemoorganoheterotrophy
5642:Optimal foraging theory
5617:Heterotrophic nutrition
5172:biological interactions
5107:Antipredator adaptation
4369:10.1111/1365-2435.13376
3568:10.1093/treephys/tpy071
3146:The American Naturalist
3091:The American Naturalist
2596:The American Naturalist
2560:10.1111/1365-2745.12664
2376:10.1023/A:1018442503955
1970:10.1023/A:1018430201230
1238:Mixed feeding shoal of
929:responses of herbivores
787:Optimal foraging theory
435: million years ago
328:Herbivory is a form of
174:mechanically break down
59:larva feeding on a leaf
6786:Ecological forecasting
6730:Marginal value theorem
6528:Landscape epidemiology
6463:Cross-boundary subsidy
6398:Biological interaction
5748:Microbial intelligence
5436:Green world hypothesis
4524:Crawley, M. J. (1983)
4465:: CS1 maint: others (
3931:10.1073/pnas.031563398
2205:Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol
1340:Productivity (ecology)
1268:Odocoileus virginianus
1246:
1101:Chemical defenses are
1013:
865:marginal value theorem
848:
698:Hawaiian honeycreepers
497:
403:
383:Evolution of herbivory
351:and photosynthesizing
308:is derived from Latin
76:
60:
48:
6791:Ecological humanities
6690:Ecological energetics
6635:Niche differentiation
6498:Habitat fragmentation
6266:Ecological extinction
6213:Small population size
5965:Feed conversion ratio
5945:Ecological succession
5877:San Francisco Estuary
5791:Ecological efficiency
5733:Microbial cooperation
4573:Herbivore defense in
4495:Herbivorous Dinosaurs
3374:10.1007/s004420051027
3240:Ecological Monographs
2017:Kie, John G. (1999).
1237:
1103:secondary metabolites
1032:secondary metabolites
1008:are fluid feeders on
1004:
849:
504:produced by a plant.
492:
396:Viburnum lesquereuxii
390:
297:Principles of Geology
66:
54:
42:
6816:Evolutionary ecology
6781:Ecological footprint
6776:Ecological economics
6700:Ecological threshold
6695:Ecological indicator
6565:Source–sink dynamics
6518:Land change modeling
6513:Insular biogeography
6365:Species distribution
6104:Modelling ecosystems
5763:Microbial metabolism
5602:Intraguild predation
5391:Biogeochemical cycle
5357:Modelling ecosystems
5262:Parasitic castration
5202:Deception in animals
4269:10.1890/es13-00067.1
4148:Science, London, UK.
3787:10.1073/pnas.91.1.11
2356:Evolutionary Ecology
2023:Journal of Mammalogy
1950:Evolutionary Ecology
1389:Moran, N.A. (2006).
1166:Predator–prey theory
803:
6908:Ecology terminology
6903:Herbivorous animals
6866:Theoretical ecology
6841:Natural environment
6705:Ecosystem diversity
6675:Ecological collapse
6665:Bateman's principle
6620:Limiting similarity
6533:Landscape limnology
6355:Species homogeneity
6193:Population modeling
6188:Population dynamics
6005:Trophic state index
5122:Carnivorous protist
4976:Intraguild predator
4493:Bob Strauss, 2008,
4413:2013ForEM.299...81S
4360:2019FuEco..33.1597F
4219:2018Ecosp...9E2436N
4172:1985Oikos..44..132H
4084:1985Oikos..44...55M
3996:A primer of ecology
3922:2001PNAS...98.1083H
3867:1994JCEco..20.1223L
3778:1994PNAS...91...11E
3723:1976Sci...193..482P
3680:1985Oikos..44...70E
3645:2002Oikos..99..113M
3517:1992FuEco...6..741S
3366:2000Oecol.123..397D
3307:2013Oecol.173.1113P
3252:1979EcoM...49...33F
3205:2005Ecol...86.2310P
3045:1991TEcoE...6..290M
3000:(5330): 1300–1302.
2959:2013EcolL..16..600P
2900:1998Sci...280..745C
2843:2014DivDi..20.1368A
2710:1998TEcoE..13..261O
2655:1986Oikos..46..139G
2485:2008Oecol.156..569S
2423:1996JIBeh...9..659B
2368:1997EvEco..11..757B
2313:1976TPBio...9..129C
2217:1981BEcoS...9..203J
2166:1986Sci...232..863L
2123:1987Oikos..49..118S
2072:1987Oikos..49..111P
1962:1997EvEco..11..641B
1881:2011EcolL..14..113G
1843:10.1002/jez.b.21115
1835:2006JEZB..306..261R
1759:2010Geo....38.1079S
1707:2007InsSc..14..259L
1667:1998AREPS..26..329L
1571:2008AqBot..89..186C
1514:2018AcO....86....9P
1407:2006CBio...16.R866M
1216:ecosystem engineers
1122:formation, molting
991:ocean acidification
747:Plant fluids, i.e.
560:
448:, developed in the
200:herbivores such as
6877:Outline of ecology
6826:Industrial ecology
6821:Functional ecology
6685:Ecological deficit
6630:Niche construction
6593:Ecosystem engineer
6370:Species–area curve
6291:Introduced species
6106:: Other components
6038:Deimatic behaviour
5940:Ecological network
5872:North Pacific Gyre
5857:hydrothermal vents
5796:Ecological pyramid
5743:Microbial food web
5554:Primary production
5499:Foundation species
5301:Cleaning symbiosis
5117:Carnivorous fungus
4767:Sexual cannibalism
4752:Animal cannibalism
4617:Feeding behaviours
4506:The New York Times
4348:Functional Ecology
3875:10.1007/BF02059809
3832:Biology LibreTexts
3505:Functional Ecology
2547:Journal of Ecology
2431:10.1007/BF02213547
2225:10.1007/bf00302939
1272:forest restoration
1247:
1212:nutrient recycling
1206:by herbivores and
1014:
919:plants develop to
844:
558:
521:Feeding strategies
502:photosynthetically
498:
450:Late Carboniferous
404:
320:'to eat, devour'.
223:and other tougher
95:, especially upon
77:
61:
49:
6883:
6882:
6766:Balance of nature
6523:Landscape ecology
6408:Community ecology
6350:Species diversity
6286:Indicator species
6281:Gradient analysis
6158:Logistic function
6066:
6065:
6023:Animal coloration
6000:Trophic mutualism
5738:Microbial ecology
5529:Photoheterotrophs
5514:Myco-heterotrophy
5426:Ecosystem ecology
5411:Carrying capacity
5376:Abiotic component
5319:
5318:
5135:
5134:
5112:Carnivorous plant
4988:Aquatic predation
4775:
4774:
4757:Human cannibalism
4228:10.1002/ecs2.2436
3828:"16.3: Herbivory"
3717:(4252): 482–484.
3561:(10): 1476–1485.
2967:10.1111/ele.12083
2894:(5364): 745–747.
2852:10.1111/ddi.12241
2837:(12): 1368–1378.
2160:(4752): 863–865.
1753:(12): 1079–1082.
1444:, vol. 8, p. 155.
1264:white-tailed deer
997:Herbivore offense
972:often affect the
962:wetland ecosystem
936:and phylogenetic
784:
783:
775:longicorn beetles
564:Feeding Strategy
361:primary consumers
178:digestive systems
16:(Redirected from
6920:
6583:Ecological niche
6555:selection theory
6375:Umbrella species
6360:Species richness
6296:Invasive species
6276:Flagship species
6183:Population cycle
6178:Overexploitation
6143:Ecological yield
6093:
6086:
6079:
6070:
5975:Mesotrophic soil
5915:Climax community
5847:Marine food webs
5786:Biomagnification
5587:Chemoorganotroph
5441:Keystone species
5401:Biotic component
5346:
5339:
5332:
5323:
5310:
5303:
5289:
5282:
5257:Kleptoparasitism
5242:Brood parasitism
5162:
5155:
5148:
5139:
4981:Pursuit predator
4783:
4762:Self-cannibalism
4630:
4610:
4603:
4596:
4587:
4567:Senecio viscusus
4481:
4477:
4471:
4470:
4464:
4456:
4454:
4452:
4446:
4439:
4431:
4425:
4424:
4396:
4390:
4389:
4371:
4354:(9): 1597–1610.
4339:
4333:
4332:
4326:
4318:
4308:
4288:
4282:
4281:
4271:
4247:
4241:
4240:
4230:
4198:
4192:
4191:
4155:
4149:
4145:
4139:
4138:
4110:
4104:
4103:
4067:
4061:
4060:
4032:
4019:
4018:
3990:
3979:
3978:
3976:
3974:
3960:
3954:
3953:
3943:
3933:
3916:(3): 1083–1088.
3901:
3895:
3894:
3861:(6): 1223–1280.
3850:
3844:
3843:
3841:
3839:
3824:
3818:
3817:
3807:
3789:
3757:
3751:
3750:
3706:
3700:
3699:
3663:
3657:
3656:
3628:
3622:
3621:
3619:
3610:(7): 2045–2058.
3595:
3589:
3588:
3570:
3546:
3537:
3536:
3500:
3494:
3493:
3465:
3459:
3458:
3430:
3424:
3423:
3403:
3394:
3393:
3349:
3343:
3342:
3301:(3): 1113–1124.
3286:
3280:
3279:
3231:
3225:
3224:
3199:(9): 2310–2319.
3184:
3178:
3177:
3137:
3131:
3130:
3082:
3073:
3072:
3024:
3018:
3017:
2985:
2979:
2978:
2941:
2928:
2927:
2879:
2873:
2872:
2854:
2822:
2816:
2815:
2805:
2787:
2763:
2748:
2747:
2729:
2689:
2683:
2682:
2634:
2628:
2627:
2587:
2581:
2580:
2562:
2538:
2525:
2524:
2514:
2496:
2464:
2451:
2450:
2402:
2396:
2395:
2347:
2341:
2340:
2292:
2286:
2285:
2279:
2271:
2243:
2237:
2236:
2200:
2194:
2193:
2149:
2143:
2142:
2106:
2100:
2099:
2055:
2049:
2048:
2038:
2029:(4): 1114–1129.
2014:
2008:
2007:
1991:
1982:
1981:
1945:
1936:
1935:
1917:
1911:
1910:
1900:
1860:
1854:
1853:
1818:
1812:
1811:
1809:
1807:
1801:
1800:(Free full text)
1786:
1777:
1771:
1770:
1767:10.1130/G31182.1
1738:
1727:
1726:
1690:
1679:
1678:
1650:
1639:
1629:
1623:
1613:
1607:
1597:
1591:
1590:
1550:
1544:
1543:
1533:
1493:
1487:
1477:
1471:
1464:
1458:
1451:
1445:
1438:
1429:
1428:
1418:
1386:
1380:
1377:
1335:Plant-based diet
1290:Economic impacts
1280:Herbivorous fish
1256:trophic cascades
1240:herbivorous fish
983:species richness
902:species richness
853:
851:
850:
845:
822:
779:ambrosia beetles
561:
529:(e.g. cows) and
474:dental occlusion
436:
377:parasitic plants
97:vascular tissues
21:
6928:
6927:
6923:
6922:
6921:
6919:
6918:
6917:
6888:
6887:
6884:
6879:
6870:
6856:Systems ecology
6744:
6715:Extinction debt
6680:Ecological debt
6670:Bioluminescence
6651:
6644:
6613:marine habitats
6588:Ecological trap
6569:
6449:
6442:
6385:
6379:
6335:Rapoport's rule
6330:Priority effect
6271:Endemic species
6239:
6198:Population size
6114:
6107:
6097:
6067:
6062:
6015:
6009:
5995:Trophic cascade
5905:Bioaccumulation
5888:
5815:
5772:
5694:
5661:
5558:
5470:
5431:Ecosystem model
5364:
5350:
5320:
5315:
5306:
5299:
5285:
5278:
5178:
5166:
5136:
5131:
5098:
5089:Surplus killing
4961:Ambush predator
4944:
4868:
4847:
4784:
4771:
4740:
4704:
4619:
4614:
4575:Lindera benzoin
4556:
4502:Wayback Machine
4490:
4488:Further reading
4485:
4484:
4478:
4474:
4457:
4450:
4448:
4444:
4437:
4433:
4432:
4428:
4398:
4397:
4393:
4341:
4340:
4336:
4319:
4290:
4289:
4285:
4249:
4248:
4244:
4200:
4199:
4195:
4180:10.2307/3544054
4157:
4156:
4152:
4146:
4142:
4127:10.2307/2406212
4112:
4111:
4107:
4092:10.2307/3544043
4069:
4068:
4064:
4049:
4034:
4033:
4022:
4007:
3992:
3991:
3982:
3972:
3970:
3962:
3961:
3957:
3903:
3902:
3898:
3852:
3851:
3847:
3837:
3835:
3826:
3825:
3821:
3759:
3758:
3754:
3708:
3707:
3703:
3688:10.2307/3544045
3665:
3664:
3660:
3630:
3629:
3625:
3597:
3596:
3592:
3555:Tree Physiology
3548:
3547:
3540:
3525:10.2307/2389971
3502:
3501:
3497:
3467:
3466:
3462:
3432:
3431:
3427:
3405:
3404:
3397:
3351:
3350:
3346:
3288:
3287:
3283:
3260:10.2307/1942571
3233:
3232:
3228:
3213:10.1890/04-1022
3186:
3185:
3181:
3139:
3138:
3134:
3084:
3083:
3076:
3026:
3025:
3021:
2987:
2986:
2982:
2947:Ecology Letters
2943:
2942:
2931:
2881:
2880:
2876:
2824:
2823:
2819:
2765:
2764:
2751:
2691:
2690:
2686:
2663:10.2307/3565460
2636:
2635:
2631:
2589:
2588:
2584:
2540:
2539:
2528:
2466:
2465:
2454:
2404:
2403:
2399:
2349:
2348:
2344:
2294:
2293:
2289:
2272:
2260:
2249:Foraging theory
2245:
2244:
2240:
2202:
2201:
2197:
2151:
2150:
2146:
2131:10.2307/3565561
2108:
2107:
2103:
2080:10.2307/3565560
2057:
2056:
2052:
2036:10.2307/1383163
2016:
2015:
2011:
1993:
1992:
1985:
1947:
1946:
1939:
1932:
1919:
1918:
1914:
1869:Ecology Letters
1862:
1861:
1857:
1820:
1819:
1815:
1805:
1803:
1802:on 26 June 2008
1799:
1784:
1779:
1778:
1774:
1740:
1739:
1730:
1692:
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1682:
1652:
1651:
1642:
1630:
1626:
1614:
1610:
1598:
1594:
1552:
1551:
1547:
1502:Acta Oecologica
1495:
1494:
1490:
1478:
1474:
1465:
1461:
1452:
1448:
1439:
1432:
1401:(20): 866–871.
1395:Current Biology
1388:
1387:
1383:
1378:
1374:
1369:
1364:
1306:
1292:
1252:
1232:
1196:
1168:
1064:
1058:
1052:
1020:
999:
894:competitiveness
874:
801:
800:
799:
548:
544:
523:
487:
431:
385:
365:plant pathogens
326:
284:
208:have wide flat-
194:polysaccharides
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
6926:
6924:
6916:
6915:
6910:
6905:
6900:
6890:
6889:
6881:
6880:
6875:
6872:
6871:
6869:
6868:
6863:
6858:
6853:
6848:
6843:
6838:
6836:Microecosystem
6833:
6828:
6823:
6818:
6813:
6808:
6803:
6798:
6793:
6788:
6783:
6778:
6773:
6768:
6763:
6758:
6752:
6750:
6746:
6745:
6743:
6742:
6737:
6735:Thorson's rule
6732:
6727:
6722:
6717:
6712:
6707:
6702:
6697:
6692:
6687:
6682:
6677:
6672:
6667:
6662:
6660:Assembly rules
6656:
6654:
6646:
6645:
6643:
6642:
6637:
6632:
6627:
6622:
6617:
6616:
6615:
6605:
6600:
6595:
6590:
6585:
6579:
6577:
6571:
6570:
6568:
6567:
6562:
6557:
6545:
6543:Patch dynamics
6540:
6538:Metapopulation
6535:
6530:
6525:
6520:
6515:
6510:
6505:
6500:
6495:
6490:
6485:
6480:
6475:
6470:
6465:
6460:
6454:
6452:
6444:
6443:
6441:
6440:
6435:
6433:Storage effect
6430:
6425:
6420:
6415:
6410:
6405:
6400:
6395:
6389:
6387:
6381:
6380:
6378:
6377:
6372:
6367:
6362:
6357:
6352:
6347:
6342:
6337:
6332:
6327:
6322:
6317:
6315:Neutral theory
6312:
6307:
6302:
6300:Native species
6293:
6288:
6283:
6278:
6273:
6268:
6263:
6258:
6253:
6247:
6245:
6241:
6240:
6238:
6237:
6232:
6231:
6230:
6225:
6215:
6210:
6205:
6200:
6195:
6190:
6185:
6180:
6175:
6173:Overpopulation
6170:
6165:
6160:
6155:
6150:
6145:
6140:
6135:
6130:
6125:
6119:
6117:
6109:
6108:
6098:
6096:
6095:
6088:
6081:
6073:
6064:
6063:
6061:
6060:
6055:
6050:
6045:
6040:
6035:
6030:
6025:
6019:
6017:
6011:
6010:
6008:
6007:
6002:
5997:
5992:
5987:
5982:
5980:Nutrient cycle
5977:
5972:
5970:Feeding frenzy
5967:
5962:
5957:
5952:
5950:Energy quality
5947:
5942:
5937:
5932:
5927:
5922:
5917:
5912:
5910:Cascade effect
5907:
5902:
5896:
5894:
5890:
5889:
5887:
5886:
5885:
5884:
5879:
5874:
5869:
5864:
5859:
5854:
5844:
5839:
5834:
5829:
5823:
5821:
5817:
5816:
5814:
5813:
5808:
5803:
5798:
5793:
5788:
5782:
5780:
5774:
5773:
5771:
5770:
5765:
5760:
5755:
5753:Microbial loop
5750:
5745:
5740:
5735:
5730:
5725:
5720:
5718:Lithoautotroph
5715:
5710:
5704:
5702:
5700:Microorganisms
5696:
5695:
5693:
5692:
5687:
5682:
5677:
5671:
5669:
5663:
5662:
5660:
5659:
5657:Prey switching
5654:
5649:
5644:
5639:
5634:
5629:
5624:
5619:
5614:
5609:
5604:
5599:
5594:
5589:
5584:
5579:
5574:
5568:
5566:
5560:
5559:
5557:
5556:
5551:
5546:
5541:
5536:
5534:Photosynthesis
5531:
5526:
5521:
5516:
5511:
5506:
5501:
5496:
5491:
5489:Chemosynthesis
5486:
5480:
5478:
5472:
5471:
5469:
5468:
5463:
5458:
5453:
5448:
5443:
5438:
5433:
5428:
5423:
5418:
5413:
5408:
5403:
5398:
5393:
5388:
5383:
5381:Abiotic stress
5378:
5372:
5370:
5366:
5365:
5351:
5349:
5348:
5341:
5334:
5326:
5317:
5316:
5314:
5313:
5312:
5311:
5304:
5292:
5291:
5290:
5283:
5271:
5270:
5269:
5264:
5259:
5254:
5249:
5244:
5239:
5229:
5224:
5219:
5214:
5209:
5204:
5199:
5194:
5189:
5183:
5180:
5179:
5167:
5165:
5164:
5157:
5150:
5142:
5133:
5132:
5130:
5129:
5124:
5119:
5114:
5109:
5103:
5100:
5099:
5097:
5096:
5091:
5086:
5081:
5076:
5071:
5066:
5064:Hypercarnivore
5061:
5060:
5059:
5058:
5057:
5047:
5040:Cattle feeding
5037:
5032:
5031:
5030:
5025:
5023:Feeding frenzy
5020:
5015:
5010:
5008:Suction feeder
5005:
5000:
4995:
4985:
4984:
4983:
4978:
4973:
4968:
4963:
4952:
4950:
4946:
4945:
4943:
4942:
4937:
4932:
4927:
4922:
4917:
4912:
4907:
4902:
4897:
4892:
4887:
4882:
4876:
4874:
4870:
4869:
4867:
4866:
4861:
4855:
4853:
4849:
4848:
4846:
4845:
4840:
4835:
4830:
4825:
4820:
4818:Seed predation
4815:
4810:
4805:
4800:
4794:
4792:
4786:
4785:
4778:
4776:
4773:
4772:
4770:
4769:
4764:
4759:
4754:
4748:
4746:
4742:
4741:
4739:
4738:
4733:
4728:
4723:
4718:
4712:
4710:
4706:
4705:
4703:
4702:
4697:
4692:
4687:
4682:
4677:
4672:
4667:
4662:
4657:
4652:
4647:
4642:
4636:
4634:
4627:
4621:
4620:
4615:
4613:
4612:
4605:
4598:
4590:
4584:
4583:
4578:
4570:
4562:
4555:
4554:External links
4552:
4551:
4550:
4536:
4522:
4508:
4489:
4486:
4483:
4482:
4472:
4426:
4391:
4334:
4283:
4242:
4193:
4166:(1): 132–141.
4150:
4140:
4121:(4): 586–608.
4105:
4062:
4047:
4020:
4005:
3980:
3955:
3896:
3845:
3834:. 21 July 2022
3819:
3752:
3701:
3658:
3639:(1): 113–130.
3623:
3590:
3538:
3511:(6): 741–743.
3495:
3460:
3425:
3395:
3360:(3): 397–405.
3344:
3281:
3226:
3179:
3158:10.1086/285258
3152:(4): 881–900.
3132:
3103:10.1086/321306
3097:(2): 109–123.
3074:
3039:(9): 290–293.
3019:
2980:
2953:(5): 600–608.
2929:
2874:
2817:
2778:(1): 199–208.
2749:
2704:(7): 261–265.
2684:
2629:
2608:10.1086/283250
2602:(983): 23–39.
2582:
2553:(1): 142–151.
2526:
2479:(3): 569–576.
2452:
2417:(5): 659–672.
2397:
2362:(6): 757–771.
2342:
2307:(2): 129–136.
2287:
2258:
2238:
2211:(3): 203–209.
2195:
2144:
2117:(1): 118–125.
2101:
2066:(1): 111–118.
2050:
2009:
1983:
1956:(6): 641–672.
1937:
1930:
1912:
1875:(2): 113–124.
1855:
1829:(3): 261–277,
1813:
1789:Geologica Acta
1772:
1728:
1701:(4): 259–275.
1695:Insect Science
1680:
1661:(1): 329–377.
1640:
1637:978-0123820020
1624:
1621:978-0691074917
1608:
1605:978-0521834520
1592:
1565:(2): 186–200.
1559:Aquatic Botany
1545:
1488:
1485:978-0444517128
1472:
1459:
1446:
1430:
1381:
1371:
1370:
1368:
1365:
1363:
1362:
1357:
1352:
1347:
1345:Seed predation
1342:
1337:
1332:
1327:
1322:
1317:
1307:
1305:
1302:
1291:
1288:
1251:
1248:
1231:
1228:
1204:Seed dispersal
1195:
1192:
1167:
1164:
1155:
1154:
1131:
1054:Main article:
1051:
1048:
1016:Main article:
998:
995:
938:beta diversity
934:beta diversity
932:between plant
880:dynamics such
873:
870:
843:
840:
837:
834:
831:
828:
825:
821:
817:
814:
811:
808:
782:
781:
768:
763:
757:
756:
751:
745:
739:
738:
733:
728:
722:
721:
716:
711:
705:
704:
695:
690:
684:
683:
674:
669:
663:
662:
645:
640:
634:
633:
624:
619:
613:
612:
583:
578:
572:
571:
568:
565:
546:
542:
522:
519:
486:
483:
384:
381:
325:
322:
283:
280:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
6925:
6914:
6911:
6909:
6906:
6904:
6901:
6899:
6896:
6895:
6893:
6886:
6878:
6873:
6867:
6864:
6862:
6861:Urban ecology
6859:
6857:
6854:
6852:
6849:
6847:
6844:
6842:
6839:
6837:
6834:
6832:
6829:
6827:
6824:
6822:
6819:
6817:
6814:
6812:
6809:
6807:
6804:
6802:
6799:
6797:
6794:
6792:
6789:
6787:
6784:
6782:
6779:
6777:
6774:
6772:
6769:
6767:
6764:
6762:
6759:
6757:
6754:
6753:
6751:
6747:
6741:
6738:
6736:
6733:
6731:
6728:
6726:
6723:
6721:
6720:Kleiber's law
6718:
6716:
6713:
6711:
6708:
6706:
6703:
6701:
6698:
6696:
6693:
6691:
6688:
6686:
6683:
6681:
6678:
6676:
6673:
6671:
6668:
6666:
6663:
6661:
6658:
6657:
6655:
6653:
6647:
6641:
6638:
6636:
6633:
6631:
6628:
6626:
6623:
6621:
6618:
6614:
6611:
6610:
6609:
6606:
6604:
6601:
6599:
6596:
6594:
6591:
6589:
6586:
6584:
6581:
6580:
6578:
6576:
6572:
6566:
6563:
6561:
6558:
6556:
6554:
6550:
6546:
6544:
6541:
6539:
6536:
6534:
6531:
6529:
6526:
6524:
6521:
6519:
6516:
6514:
6511:
6509:
6506:
6504:
6501:
6499:
6496:
6494:
6493:Foster's rule
6491:
6489:
6486:
6484:
6481:
6479:
6476:
6474:
6471:
6469:
6466:
6464:
6461:
6459:
6456:
6455:
6453:
6451:
6445:
6439:
6436:
6434:
6431:
6429:
6426:
6424:
6421:
6419:
6416:
6414:
6411:
6409:
6406:
6404:
6401:
6399:
6396:
6394:
6391:
6390:
6388:
6382:
6376:
6373:
6371:
6368:
6366:
6363:
6361:
6358:
6356:
6353:
6351:
6348:
6346:
6343:
6341:
6338:
6336:
6333:
6331:
6328:
6326:
6323:
6321:
6318:
6316:
6313:
6311:
6308:
6306:
6303:
6301:
6297:
6294:
6292:
6289:
6287:
6284:
6282:
6279:
6277:
6274:
6272:
6269:
6267:
6264:
6262:
6259:
6257:
6254:
6252:
6249:
6248:
6246:
6242:
6236:
6233:
6229:
6226:
6224:
6221:
6220:
6219:
6216:
6214:
6211:
6209:
6206:
6204:
6201:
6199:
6196:
6194:
6191:
6189:
6186:
6184:
6181:
6179:
6176:
6174:
6171:
6169:
6166:
6164:
6161:
6159:
6156:
6154:
6151:
6149:
6146:
6144:
6141:
6139:
6136:
6134:
6131:
6129:
6126:
6124:
6121:
6120:
6118:
6116:
6110:
6105:
6101:
6094:
6089:
6087:
6082:
6080:
6075:
6074:
6071:
6059:
6056:
6054:
6051:
6049:
6046:
6044:
6041:
6039:
6036:
6034:
6031:
6029:
6026:
6024:
6021:
6020:
6018:
6012:
6006:
6003:
6001:
5998:
5996:
5993:
5991:
5988:
5986:
5983:
5981:
5978:
5976:
5973:
5971:
5968:
5966:
5963:
5961:
5958:
5956:
5953:
5951:
5948:
5946:
5943:
5941:
5938:
5936:
5933:
5931:
5928:
5926:
5923:
5921:
5918:
5916:
5913:
5911:
5908:
5906:
5903:
5901:
5898:
5897:
5895:
5891:
5883:
5880:
5878:
5875:
5873:
5870:
5868:
5865:
5863:
5860:
5858:
5855:
5853:
5850:
5849:
5848:
5845:
5843:
5840:
5838:
5835:
5833:
5830:
5828:
5825:
5824:
5822:
5818:
5812:
5811:Trophic level
5809:
5807:
5804:
5802:
5799:
5797:
5794:
5792:
5789:
5787:
5784:
5783:
5781:
5779:
5775:
5769:
5768:Phage ecology
5766:
5764:
5761:
5759:
5758:Microbial mat
5756:
5754:
5751:
5749:
5746:
5744:
5741:
5739:
5736:
5734:
5731:
5729:
5726:
5724:
5721:
5719:
5716:
5714:
5713:Bacteriophage
5711:
5709:
5706:
5705:
5703:
5701:
5697:
5691:
5688:
5686:
5683:
5681:
5680:Decomposition
5678:
5676:
5673:
5672:
5670:
5668:
5664:
5658:
5655:
5653:
5650:
5648:
5645:
5643:
5640:
5638:
5635:
5633:
5630:
5628:
5627:Mesopredators
5625:
5623:
5620:
5618:
5615:
5613:
5610:
5608:
5605:
5603:
5600:
5598:
5595:
5593:
5590:
5588:
5585:
5583:
5580:
5578:
5575:
5573:
5572:Apex predator
5570:
5569:
5567:
5565:
5561:
5555:
5552:
5550:
5547:
5545:
5542:
5540:
5537:
5535:
5532:
5530:
5527:
5525:
5522:
5520:
5517:
5515:
5512:
5510:
5507:
5505:
5502:
5500:
5497:
5495:
5492:
5490:
5487:
5485:
5482:
5481:
5479:
5477:
5473:
5467:
5464:
5462:
5459:
5457:
5454:
5452:
5449:
5447:
5444:
5442:
5439:
5437:
5434:
5432:
5429:
5427:
5424:
5422:
5419:
5417:
5414:
5412:
5409:
5407:
5406:Biotic stress
5404:
5402:
5399:
5397:
5394:
5392:
5389:
5387:
5384:
5382:
5379:
5377:
5374:
5373:
5371:
5367:
5362:
5358:
5354:
5347:
5342:
5340:
5335:
5333:
5328:
5327:
5324:
5309:
5305:
5302:
5298:
5297:
5296:
5293:
5288:
5284:
5281:
5277:
5276:
5275:
5272:
5268:
5265:
5263:
5260:
5258:
5255:
5253:
5252:Hyperparasite
5250:
5248:
5245:
5243:
5240:
5238:
5235:
5234:
5233:
5230:
5228:
5225:
5223:
5220:
5218:
5215:
5213:
5210:
5208:
5205:
5203:
5200:
5198:
5195:
5193:
5190:
5188:
5185:
5184:
5181:
5177:
5173:
5170:
5169:Inter-species
5163:
5158:
5156:
5151:
5149:
5144:
5143:
5140:
5128:
5125:
5123:
5120:
5118:
5115:
5113:
5110:
5108:
5105:
5104:
5101:
5095:
5092:
5090:
5087:
5085:
5082:
5080:
5077:
5075:
5074:Mesocarnivore
5072:
5070:
5069:Hypocarnivore
5067:
5065:
5062:
5056:
5053:
5052:
5051:
5048:
5046:
5043:
5042:
5041:
5038:
5036:
5033:
5029:
5028:Filter feeder
5026:
5024:
5021:
5019:
5018:Bottom feeder
5016:
5014:
5011:
5009:
5006:
5004:
5001:
4999:
4996:
4994:
4991:
4990:
4989:
4986:
4982:
4979:
4977:
4974:
4972:
4969:
4967:
4966:Apex predator
4964:
4962:
4959:
4958:
4957:
4954:
4953:
4951:
4947:
4941:
4938:
4936:
4933:
4931:
4928:
4926:
4923:
4921:
4918:
4916:
4913:
4911:
4908:
4906:
4903:
4901:
4898:
4896:
4893:
4891:
4888:
4886:
4883:
4881:
4878:
4877:
4875:
4871:
4865:
4862:
4860:
4857:
4856:
4854:
4850:
4844:
4841:
4839:
4836:
4834:
4831:
4829:
4826:
4824:
4821:
4819:
4816:
4814:
4811:
4809:
4806:
4804:
4801:
4799:
4796:
4795:
4793:
4791:
4787:
4782:
4768:
4765:
4763:
4760:
4758:
4755:
4753:
4750:
4749:
4747:
4745:cannibalistic
4743:
4737:
4734:
4732:
4731:Breastfeeding
4729:
4727:
4726:Placentophagy
4724:
4722:
4719:
4717:
4714:
4713:
4711:
4707:
4701:
4698:
4696:
4693:
4691:
4688:
4686:
4683:
4681:
4678:
4676:
4673:
4671:
4668:
4666:
4663:
4661:
4658:
4656:
4653:
4651:
4648:
4646:
4645:Egg predation
4643:
4641:
4638:
4637:
4635:
4631:
4628:
4626:
4622:
4618:
4611:
4606:
4604:
4599:
4597:
4592:
4591:
4588:
4582:
4579:
4577:
4576:
4571:
4569:
4568:
4563:
4561:
4558:
4557:
4553:
4549:
4548:0-632-05155-8
4545:
4541:
4537:
4535:
4534:0-632-00808-3
4531:
4527:
4523:
4521:
4520:0-521-83005-2
4517:
4513:
4509:
4507:
4503:
4499:
4496:
4492:
4491:
4487:
4476:
4473:
4468:
4462:
4443:
4436:
4430:
4427:
4422:
4418:
4414:
4410:
4406:
4402:
4395:
4392:
4387:
4383:
4379:
4375:
4370:
4365:
4361:
4357:
4353:
4349:
4345:
4338:
4335:
4330:
4324:
4316:
4312:
4307:
4302:
4298:
4294:
4287:
4284:
4279:
4275:
4270:
4265:
4261:
4257:
4253:
4246:
4243:
4238:
4234:
4229:
4224:
4220:
4216:
4213:(9): e02436.
4212:
4208:
4204:
4197:
4194:
4189:
4185:
4181:
4177:
4173:
4169:
4165:
4161:
4154:
4151:
4144:
4141:
4136:
4132:
4128:
4124:
4120:
4116:
4109:
4106:
4101:
4097:
4093:
4089:
4085:
4081:
4077:
4073:
4066:
4063:
4058:
4054:
4050:
4048:0-321-04290-5
4044:
4040:
4039:
4031:
4029:
4027:
4025:
4021:
4016:
4012:
4008:
4006:0-87893-270-4
4002:
3998:
3997:
3989:
3987:
3985:
3981:
3969:
3965:
3959:
3956:
3951:
3947:
3942:
3937:
3932:
3927:
3923:
3919:
3915:
3911:
3907:
3900:
3897:
3892:
3888:
3884:
3880:
3876:
3872:
3868:
3864:
3860:
3856:
3849:
3846:
3833:
3829:
3823:
3820:
3815:
3811:
3806:
3801:
3797:
3793:
3788:
3783:
3779:
3775:
3771:
3767:
3763:
3756:
3753:
3748:
3744:
3740:
3736:
3732:
3728:
3724:
3720:
3716:
3712:
3705:
3702:
3697:
3693:
3689:
3685:
3681:
3677:
3673:
3669:
3662:
3659:
3654:
3650:
3646:
3642:
3638:
3634:
3627:
3624:
3618:
3613:
3609:
3605:
3601:
3594:
3591:
3586:
3582:
3578:
3574:
3569:
3564:
3560:
3556:
3552:
3545:
3543:
3539:
3534:
3530:
3526:
3522:
3518:
3514:
3510:
3506:
3499:
3496:
3491:
3487:
3483:
3479:
3475:
3471:
3464:
3461:
3456:
3452:
3448:
3444:
3440:
3436:
3429:
3426:
3421:
3417:
3413:
3409:
3402:
3400:
3396:
3391:
3387:
3383:
3379:
3375:
3371:
3367:
3363:
3359:
3355:
3348:
3345:
3340:
3336:
3332:
3328:
3324:
3320:
3316:
3312:
3308:
3304:
3300:
3296:
3292:
3285:
3282:
3277:
3273:
3269:
3265:
3261:
3257:
3253:
3249:
3245:
3241:
3237:
3230:
3227:
3222:
3218:
3214:
3210:
3206:
3202:
3198:
3194:
3190:
3183:
3180:
3175:
3171:
3167:
3163:
3159:
3155:
3151:
3147:
3143:
3136:
3133:
3128:
3124:
3120:
3116:
3112:
3108:
3104:
3100:
3096:
3092:
3088:
3081:
3079:
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2298:
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2259:0-691-08441-6
2255:
2251:
2250:
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2226:
2222:
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2214:
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2206:
2199:
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2167:
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2159:
2155:
2148:
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2132:
2128:
2124:
2120:
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2112:
2105:
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2097:
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2077:
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2054:
2051:
2046:
2042:
2037:
2032:
2028:
2024:
2020:
2013:
2010:
2005:
2001:
1997:
1990:
1988:
1984:
1979:
1975:
1971:
1967:
1963:
1959:
1955:
1951:
1944:
1942:
1938:
1933:
1931:0-521-36099-4
1927:
1923:
1916:
1913:
1908:
1904:
1899:
1894:
1890:
1886:
1882:
1878:
1874:
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1696:
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1649:
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1638:
1634:
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1618:
1612:
1609:
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1596:
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1588:
1584:
1580:
1576:
1572:
1568:
1564:
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1556:
1549:
1546:
1541:
1537:
1532:
1527:
1523:
1519:
1515:
1511:
1507:
1503:
1499:
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1476:
1473:
1469:
1463:
1460:
1456:
1450:
1447:
1443:
1437:
1435:
1431:
1426:
1422:
1417:
1412:
1408:
1404:
1400:
1396:
1392:
1385:
1382:
1376:
1373:
1366:
1361:
1360:Vegetarianism
1358:
1356:
1353:
1351:
1348:
1346:
1343:
1341:
1338:
1336:
1333:
1331:
1328:
1326:
1323:
1321:
1318:
1316:
1312:
1309:
1308:
1303:
1301:
1298:
1289:
1287:
1285:
1281:
1277:
1273:
1269:
1265:
1261:
1257:
1249:
1245:
1241:
1236:
1229:
1227:
1225:
1221:
1217:
1213:
1209:
1205:
1201:
1193:
1191:
1189:
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1179:
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1173:
1165:
1163:
1161:
1152:
1148:
1144:
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1136:
1132:
1129:
1125:
1121:
1117:
1113:
1109:
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1107:
1104:
1099:
1097:
1093:
1089:
1085:
1081:
1077:
1072:
1068:
1063:
1057:
1050:Plant defense
1049:
1047:
1043:
1041:
1037:
1033:
1028:
1024:
1019:
1011:
1007:
1003:
996:
994:
992:
988:
984:
980:
975:
971:
967:
963:
958:
954:
949:
947:
943:
939:
935:
930:
926:
922:
918:
913:
909:
905:
903:
899:
898:defensiveness
895:
891:
887:
883:
879:
871:
869:
866:
861:
857:
854:
838:
835:
832:
829:
826:
819:
815:
812:
809:
806:
795:
791:
788:
780:
776:
772:
769:
767:
764:
762:
759:
758:
755:
752:
750:
746:
744:
741:
740:
737:
734:
732:
729:
727:
724:
723:
720:
717:
715:
712:
710:
707:
706:
703:
699:
696:
694:
691:
689:
686:
685:
682:
678:
677:Honey possums
675:
673:
670:
668:
665:
664:
661:
657:
656:red colobuses
653:
649:
646:
644:
641:
639:
636:
635:
632:
628:
627:Ruffed lemurs
625:
623:
620:
618:
615:
614:
611:
607:
603:
599:
595:
591:
587:
584:
582:
579:
577:
574:
573:
569:
566:
563:
562:
556:
553:
550:
538:
536:
535:Kleiber's law
532:
528:
520:
518:
516:
511:
507:
503:
495:
491:
484:
482:
479:
475:
470:
466:
463:
459:
455:
451:
447:
442:
440:
434:
429:
428:Mississippian
424:
422:
417:
412:
410:
409:animal faeces
401:
397:
394:
389:
382:
380:
378:
374:
370:
366:
362:
358:
354:
350:
346:
342:
339:
335:
331:
323:
321:
319:
315:
311:
307:
303:
299:
298:
293:
292:Charles Lyell
289:
281:
279:
277:
273:
270:-rich animal
269:
265:
261:
258:
257:cross-linking
254:
250:
247:that help to
246:
242:
238:
234:
230:
226:
222:
218:
214:
211:
207:
203:
199:
195:
191:
187:
183:
180:have special
179:
175:
171:
167:
163:
159:
154:
152:
148:
144:
140:
139:plant matters
137:
133:
129:
125:
121:
118:
114:
110:
106:
102:
98:
94:
90:
86:
82:
74:
70:
65:
58:
53:
46:
41:
37:
33:
32:Herbivore men
19:
6885:
6846:Regime shift
6831:Macroecology
6552:
6548:
6488:Edge effects
6458:Biogeography
6403:Commensalism
6251:Biodiversity
6128:Allee effect
5867:kelp forests
5820:Example webs
5685:Detritivores
5606:
5524:Organotrophs
5504:Kinetotrophs
5456:Productivity
5192:Commensalism
5094:Trophallaxis
4998:Pivot feeder
4993:Lunge feeder
4971:Egg predator
4859:Phagocytosis
4789:
4709:reproductive
4680:Myrmecophagy
4670:Molluscivore
4574:
4566:
4539:
4525:
4511:
4475:
4449:. Retrieved
4429:
4404:
4400:
4394:
4351:
4347:
4337:
4323:cite journal
4299:(3): 31–37.
4296:
4292:
4286:
4262:(5): art64.
4259:
4255:
4245:
4210:
4206:
4196:
4163:
4159:
4153:
4143:
4118:
4114:
4108:
4078:(1): 55–60.
4075:
4071:
4065:
4037:
3995:
3971:. Retrieved
3968:www2.nau.edu
3967:
3958:
3913:
3909:
3899:
3858:
3854:
3848:
3836:. Retrieved
3831:
3822:
3772:(1): 11–17.
3769:
3765:
3755:
3714:
3710:
3704:
3674:(1): 70–74.
3671:
3667:
3661:
3636:
3632:
3626:
3607:
3603:
3593:
3558:
3554:
3508:
3504:
3498:
3473:
3469:
3463:
3438:
3434:
3428:
3411:
3407:
3357:
3353:
3347:
3298:
3294:
3284:
3246:(1): 33–50.
3243:
3239:
3229:
3196:
3192:
3182:
3149:
3145:
3135:
3094:
3090:
3036:
3032:
3022:
2997:
2993:
2983:
2950:
2946:
2891:
2887:
2877:
2834:
2830:
2820:
2775:
2771:
2701:
2697:
2687:
2646:
2642:
2632:
2599:
2595:
2585:
2550:
2546:
2476:
2472:
2414:
2410:
2400:
2359:
2355:
2345:
2304:
2300:
2290:
2248:
2241:
2208:
2204:
2198:
2157:
2153:
2147:
2114:
2110:
2104:
2063:
2059:
2053:
2026:
2022:
2012:
2003:
1999:
1953:
1949:
1921:
1915:
1872:
1868:
1858:
1826:
1822:
1816:
1804:. Retrieved
1797:the original
1792:
1788:
1775:
1750:
1746:
1698:
1694:
1658:
1654:
1627:
1611:
1595:
1562:
1558:
1548:
1505:
1501:
1491:
1475:
1467:
1462:
1454:
1449:
1441:
1398:
1394:
1384:
1375:
1293:
1278:ecosystems.
1267:
1253:
1197:
1180:
1176:
1169:
1156:
1100:
1073:
1069:
1065:
1044:
1029:
1025:
1021:
987:grasshoppers
974:palatability
950:
912:phylogenetic
906:
890:distribution
875:
862:
858:
855:
796:
792:
785:
709:Graminivores
702:bean weevils
681:hummingbirds
667:Nectarivores
660:leaf beetles
554:
551:
539:
524:
499:
478:phylogenetic
467:
462:ornithischia
443:
425:
421:Rhynie chert
413:
405:
395:
360:
336:principally
332:in which an
327:
317:
313:
309:
305:
302:Richard Owen
295:
287:
285:
192:) to digest
160:structures (
155:
143:detritivores
117:non-vascular
80:
78:
36:
6483:Disturbance
6386:interaction
6208:Recruitment
6138:Depensation
5930:Copiotrophs
5801:Energy flow
5723:Lithotrophy
5667:Decomposers
5647:Planktivore
5622:Insectivore
5612:Heterotroph
5577:Bacterivore
5544:Phototrophs
5494:Chemotrophs
5466:Restoration
5416:Competition
5227:Synnecrosis
5207:Inquilinism
5197:Competition
4915:Planktivore
4900:Detritivore
4895:Coprophagia
4885:Bacterivore
4880:Microbivory
4864:Myzocytosis
4823:Nectarivore
4813:Graminivore
4660:Lepidophagy
4655:Insectivore
4650:Hematophagy
3414:: 641–664.
1531:11336/86217
1391:"Symbiosis"
1208:pollination
1183:coevolution
1040:amino acids
946:butterflies
917:adaptations
908:Coevolution
726:Palynivores
606:surgeonfish
494:Leaf miners
373:saprotrophs
330:consumption
290:, cited in
239:made up of
91:to feed on
73:green algae
71:, scraping
6892:Categories
6851:Sexecology
6428:Parasitism
6393:Antibiosis
6228:Resistance
6223:Resilience
6113:Population
6033:Camouflage
5985:Oligotroph
5900:Ascendency
5862:intertidal
5852:cold seeps
5806:Food chain
5607:Herbivores
5582:Carnivores
5509:Mixotrophs
5484:Autotrophs
5363:components
5308:Mycorrhiza
5287:Intraguild
5267:Parasitoid
5232:Parasitism
5222:Neutralism
5187:Amensalism
5079:Parasitism
5013:Bait balls
5003:Ram feeder
4935:Plastivore
4930:Lithotroph
4920:Saprophagy
4843:Osteophagy
4833:Palynivore
4790:Herbivores
4721:Paedophagy
4695:Spongivore
4685:Ophiophagy
4625:Carnivores
2649:(2): 139.
1470:, p. 2103.
1367:References
1297:Ecotourism
1276:coral reef
1244:coral reef
1218:, such as
1200:mutualisms
1188:speciation
1060:See also:
940:of insect
761:Xylophages
688:Granivores
631:orangutans
617:Frugivores
602:parrotfish
598:sea urchin
506:Carnivores
485:Food chain
469:Arthropods
454:piscivores
400:Cretaceous
357:autotrophs
341:autotrophs
276:carnivores
245:protozoans
233:cecotropic
229:rumination
166:mouthparts
151:fungivores
147:macrofungi
136:decomposed
120:autotrophs
18:Herbivores
6898:Herbivory
6756:Allometry
6710:Emergence
6438:Symbiosis
6423:Mutualism
6218:Stability
6123:Abundance
5935:Dominance
5893:Processes
5882:tide pool
5778:Food webs
5652:Predation
5637:Omnivores
5564:Consumers
5519:Mycotroph
5476:Producers
5421:Ecosystem
5386:Behaviour
5295:Symbiosis
5280:Carnivore
5274:Predation
5217:Mutualism
5084:Scavenger
4956:Predation
4925:Xenophagy
4905:Geophagia
4890:Fungivore
4838:Xylophagy
4828:Mellivory
4808:Frugivore
4803:Florivore
4700:Vermivore
4690:Piscivore
4675:Mucophagy
4665:Man-eater
4407:: 81–90.
4386:182023675
4378:0269-8463
4315:1874-2130
4278:2150-8925
4256:Ecosphere
4237:2150-8925
4207:Ecosphere
4115:Evolution
3796:0027-8424
3577:1758-4469
3476:: 17–37.
3441:: 57–92.
3354:Oecologia
3323:0029-8549
3295:Oecologia
3268:0012-9615
3221:0012-9658
3166:0003-0147
3111:0003-0147
3061:0169-5347
3014:0036-8075
2916:0036-8075
2861:1366-9516
2794:0029-8549
2772:Oecologia
2736:0169-5347
2671:0030-1299
2616:0003-0147
2569:0022-0477
2503:0029-8549
2473:Oecologia
2439:1572-8889
2384:1573-8477
2329:0040-5809
2276:cite book
1587:0304-3770
1540:1146-609X
1457:, p. 791.
1311:Carnivore
1220:wallowing
1194:Mutualism
1135:alkaloids
1116:phenolics
1080:trichomes
1010:plant sap
966:community
886:diversity
882:community
878:ecosystem
743:Mucivores
638:Folivores
594:sea snail
576:Algivores
570:Examples
510:omnivores
446:tetrapods
306:Herbivora
288:herbivora
282:Etymology
253:cellulose
237:gut flora
221:tree bark
190:cellulase
81:herbivore
6811:Endolith
6740:Xerosere
6652:networks
6468:Ecocline
6014:Defense,
5690:Detritus
5592:Foraging
5461:Resource
5035:Browsing
4910:Omnivore
4852:Cellular
4798:Folivore
4498:Archived
4461:cite web
4442:Archived
4057:44391592
4015:31816245
3973:10 April
3950:11158598
3891:25360410
3883:24242340
3838:10 April
3814:11607449
3747:26751736
3739:17841820
3585:29982736
3490:15012383
3455:11729069
3382:28308595
3339:10990079
3331:23673470
3174:86725259
3127:15722747
3119:18707340
3069:21232484
2975:23448096
2869:86779418
2812:19756762
2744:21238294
2624:84801707
2577:88658391
2521:18335250
2447:42555491
2392:25400875
2268:13902831
2233:23501715
2190:20010229
2182:17755969
2096:87270733
2006:: 61–73.
1978:23873922
1907:21199247
1851:16683226
1723:86335068
1508:: 9–16.
1425:17055966
1355:Veganism
1315:omnivore
1304:See also
1172:predator
1147:morphine
1143:nicotine
1139:caffeine
1124:hormones
1112:terpenes
970:latitude
944:such as
921:tolerate
771:Termites
652:gorillas
610:flamingo
531:browsing
458:dinosaur
416:Mesozoic
369:microbes
353:bacteria
343:such as
334:organism
294:'s 1830
241:bacteria
122:such as
99:such as
6801:Ecopath
6608:Habitat
6478:Ecotype
6473:Ecotone
6450:ecology
6448:Spatial
6384:Species
6244:Species
6115:ecology
6100:Ecology
6048:Mimicry
6016:counter
5960:f-ratio
5708:Archaea
5396:Biomass
5369:General
5361:Trophic
5353:Ecology
5212:Mimicry
5176:ecology
5050:Grazing
4949:Methods
4736:Weaning
4716:Oophagy
4640:Avivore
4451:24 July
4409:Bibcode
4356:Bibcode
4215:Bibcode
4188:3544054
4168:Bibcode
4135:2406212
4100:3544043
4080:Bibcode
3918:Bibcode
3863:Bibcode
3774:Bibcode
3719:Bibcode
3711:Science
3696:3544045
3676:Bibcode
3641:Bibcode
3604:Ecology
3533:2389971
3513:Bibcode
3362:Bibcode
3303:Bibcode
3276:1942571
3248:Bibcode
3201:Bibcode
3193:Ecology
3041:Bibcode
2994:Science
2955:Bibcode
2924:9563952
2896:Bibcode
2888:Science
2839:Bibcode
2803:2776151
2706:Bibcode
2679:3565460
2651:Bibcode
2512:2373415
2481:Bibcode
2419:Bibcode
2364:Bibcode
2337:1273796
2309:Bibcode
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