747:
950:
idiosyncratically. Bahadur defined "living units" as " those which grow, multiply, and are metabolically active in a systematic, harmonious, and synchronized manner". Then, NASA's
Exobiology Division tasked two biologists in 1967 to review and evaluate the literature so far published by Krishna Bahadur (not to replicate the experiments) on the synthesis and characteristics of the Jeewanu. The two NASA biologists did not debate whether these three criteria are an adequate
33:
588:
575:
954:, but whether the Jeewanu satisfy these criteria. The NASA report concluded that "the evidence presented on these three points is on the whole unconvincing". The report also stated that the postulated existence of these living units has not been proved and "the nature and properties of the Jeewanu remains to be clarified."
969:
Experimental duplication work published in 2013 by Gupta and Rai reported that their size varies from 0.5 μ to 3.5 μ in diameter, growth from within, metabolic activities, and "the presence of RNA-like material". The authors stated that the RNA-like material detected in the
Jeewanu protocells support
965:
theory'—an abstract model of autocatalytic chemical reactions—published first in
Hungarian and translated into English in 2003. In the context of self-organizing structures, Gánti considered the Jeewanu a promising model system to understand the origin and fundamentals of life, and one that had never
1490:
Bahadur K, Verma HC, Srivastva RB, Agrawal KM, Pandey RS, Saxena I, Malviya AN, Kumar V, Perti ON, Pathak HD (1964). "Synthesis of
Jeewanu, the Units Capable of Growth, Multiplication and Metabolic Activity. II. Photochemical Preparation of Growing and Multiplying Units with Metabolic Activities".
949:
Bahadur's publications were ambivalently received, and the overall attention of the scientific community seemed limited since
Krishna Bahadur and his co-workers reported that the Jeewanus are alive (a striking statement), the team changed the protocols frequently and documented them somewhat
1505:
Bahadur K (1964). "Synthesis of
Jeewanu, the Units Capable of Growth, Multiplication and Metabolic Activity. III. Preparation of Microspheres Capable of Growth and Division by Budding and Having Metabolic Activity with Peptides Prepared Thermally".
2706:
1475:
Bahadur K, Ranganayaki S (1964). "Synthesis of
Jeewanu, the Units Capable of Growth, Multiplication and Metabolic Activity. I. Preparation of Units Capable of Growth and Division and Having Metabolic Activity".
2699:
844:
for several days and constantly shaken, microscopic spherical particles were formed. The interesting features of these particles were that they were enclosed in a semipermeable membrane, like the typical
1876:
2692:
1794:"Histochemical characterization of protocell-like supramolecular assemblies "Jeewanu", synthesized in a irradiated sterilized aqueous mixture of some inorganic and organic substances"
304:
966:
received due attention. In 2011, a German scientist stated that the
Jeewanu story pertains to concepts of life, its beginnings, as well as possible artificially created cells.
1869:
778:
under sunlight. It appears that this experimental approach was seminal for the assays to produce
Jeewanu, which he first reported in 1963 in an obscure Indian journal,
1583:
Gupta VK, Rai RK (2013). "Histochemical localisation of RNA-like material in photochemically formed self-sustaining, abiogenic supramolecular assemblies 'Jeewanu'".
1615:"Effect of Irradiation of the PEM of 1.531211SMJ29 Jeewanu with Clinical Mercury Lamp and Sunlight on the Morphological Features of the Silicon Molybdenum Jeewanu"
1835:"Synthesis of Jeewanu, the Protocell." Bahadur, Krishna. (In English) Ram Narain Lal Beni Prasad, New Katra, Allahabad-211002 (U.P) India. ASIN: B0007JHWU0 (1966)
1662:
619:
1862:
227:
1717:"Histochemical study of lipid-like material in photochemically formed Jeewanu, the photocell, with formaldehyde partially replaced by other organic sources"
3262:
1793:
538:
1222:
865:, but did not grow on any bacterial culture medium. Bahadur reported that the Jeewanu exhibited various catalytic properties and produced their own
346:
1411:"Photosynthesis of amino-acids from paraformaldehyde involving the fixation of nitrogen in the presence of colloidal molybdenum oxide as catalyst"
1838:"Origin of Life: A Functional Approach." Bahadur K. and Ranganayaki S.Ram Narain Lal Beni Prasad, New Katra, Allahabad-211002(U.P), India, (1981)
52:
533:
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341:
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1345:
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74:
667:. Bahadur named these particles 'Jeewanu' because they exhibit some of the basic properties of a cell, such as the presence of
651:. It was first synthesised by Krishna Bahadur (20 January 1926 — 5 August 1994), an Indian chemist and his team in 1963. Using
331:
299:
3180:
2530:
2125:
1024:
553:
336:
1199:
Bahadur K, et al. (1963). "Synthesis of
Jeewanu, the units capable of growth, multiplication and metabolic activity".
3322:
3168:
2666:
605:
592:
1122:
3342:
2314:
1029:
523:
2234:
1990:
829:
O) for carbon sources were mixed with minerals commonly found in living cells. Inorganic substances such as colloidal
579:
1682:
Zentralblatt für Bakteriologie, Parasitenkunde, Infektionskrankheiten und Hygiene. Zweite Naturwissenschaftliche Abt
1550:
Zentralblatt für Bakteriologie, Parasitenkunde, Infektionskrankheiten und Hygiene. Zweite Naturwissenschaftliche Abt
1272:
Zentralblatt für Bakteriologie, Parasitenkunde, Infektionskrankheiten und Hygiene. Zweite Naturwissenschaftliche Abt
1230:
Zentralblatt für Bakteriologie, Parasitenkunde, Infektionskrankheiten und Hygiene. Zweite Naturwissenschaftliche Abt
3337:
79:
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Their initial experiment consisted of a sterilised apparatus in which inorganic nitrogenous compounds (such as
435:
430:
405:
360:
326:
320:
309:
1084:"Jeewanu, or the 'particles of life'. The approach of Krishna Bahadur in 20th century origin of life research"
647:-like structure and seem to have some functional properties; that is, they are a model of primitive cells, or
3332:
3274:
2409:
2185:
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548:
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450:
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1953:
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also means unicellular organisms such as bacteria. Bahadur specifically used the term to represent the
730:. Bahadur, while employing the traditional Hindu philosophy, attempted to incorporate the advances in
3284:
2684:
2341:
2336:
2212:
1728:
1534:
Bahadur K (January 1965). "About a Few Experiments on Preparation of Jeewanu from Thermal Peptides".
1422:
1370:
1004:
971:
862:
410:
182:
67:
24:
683:. Further, like living cells, they had several catalytic activities. Jeewanu are cited as models of
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2375:
2331:
2069:
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500:
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37:
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1808:
1448:
1388:
1114:
790:
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543:
475:
259:
187:
152:
726:
not only through the use of Sanskrit but also by inferring ideas on the origin of life from the
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2326:
1697:
1656:
1629:
1592:
1557:
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1315:
1309:
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938:
771:
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32:
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767:
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279:
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2615:
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2020:
989:
869:
by metabolic reactions. Bahadur's later work on the Jeewanu also detected the presence of
830:
775:
692:
232:
222:
84:
1732:
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3005:
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2010:
1940:
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314:
217:
1854:
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1283:
1241:
1161:. Vol. Golden Jubilee Conmmemoration Volume. National Academy of Sciences, India.
758:
In 1954 and 1958 Krishna Bahadur and co-workers published the successful synthesis of
3316:
3279:
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3100:
3068:
3054:
3033:
3019:
2970:
2963:
2882:
2755:
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2610:
2453:
2443:
2414:
2047:
2040:
846:
680:
676:
644:
465:
137:
1812:
1118:
782:. His detailed syntheses were published in Germany in 1964 in a series of articles.
3296:
3229:
3093:
3061:
3026:
3012:
2984:
2910:
2889:
2632:
2475:
2435:
2402:
2174:
2160:
2058:
1452:
1392:
894:
854:
850:
822:
731:
485:
470:
254:
249:
167:
714:, meaning the "smallest part of something", or the "indivisible". In contemporary
1647:
Bahadur K (June 1973), "Photochemical Formation of Self Sustaining Coacervates",
1335:
3158:
2903:
2656:
2522:
2470:
2465:
1978:
999:
984:
882:
794:
735:
688:
672:
495:
212:
162:
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3236:
2823:
2736:
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2512:
2505:
2500:
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2321:
2256:
2005:
1947:
1102:
1083:
1047:
934:
930:
870:
834:
759:
656:
269:
192:
147:
127:
41:
1633:
1596:
2896:
2875:
2777:
2569:
2554:
2541:
2293:
2081:
2000:
1995:
1985:
1973:
1912:
1359:"Photosynthesis of Amino-Acids from Paraformaldehylde and Potassium Nitrate"
1270:
Bahadur K (1975). "Photochemical formation of self-sustaining coacervates".
994:
684:
648:
528:
142:
62:
1444:
1110:
1701:
1561:
1520:
Bahadur K (1964). "Conversion of Lifeless Matter into the Living System".
1291:
1249:
574:
3269:
3214:
2801:
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2600:
2546:
2448:
2392:
2387:
2278:
2239:
2195:
2097:
1902:
962:
937:
as a cofactor, the Jeewanu showed capability of reversible photochemical
914:
886:
866:
841:
751:
704:
636:
518:
117:
3301:
3219:
2760:
2745:
2460:
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2229:
1932:
1907:
918:
910:
906:
890:
858:
1435:
1410:
1383:
3247:
3190:
3175:
3125:
2855:
2673:
2651:
2348:
2271:
2266:
2031:
1922:
1917:
926:
922:
878:
941:, and released a gas mixture of oxygen and hydrogen at a 1:2 ratio.
857:. In addition, they were claimed to have reproductive capability by
3224:
2851:
2795:
2790:
2155:
2147:
1965:
1927:
874:
745:
727:
715:
1622:
International Journal of Engineering Research and General Science
1314:. New York (US): Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers. p. 329.
3163:
2767:
2715:
2661:
2353:
1894:
951:
849:. Like living cells, they were reported to contain amino acids,
2688:
1858:
902:
898:
750:
The three main structures phospholipids form in solution; the
1772:"A review of some experiments on the synthesis of 'Jeewanu'"
1649:
4th International Symposium of 'Origin of Life on the Earth'
1848:
1548:
Bahadur K (1966). "Synthesis of Jeewanu, the Protocell".
659:, microscopic cell-like spheres from a mixture of simple
1678:"Photochemical formation of self-sustaining coacervates"
1409:
Bahadur K, Ranganayaki S, Santamaria L (December 1958).
1223:"Photochemical formation of self-sustaining coacervates"
837:
compounds supposedly acted as cofactors and catalysts.
1152:
Bahadur K, Ranganayaki S, Folsome C, Smith A (1980).
3144:
3118:
3085:
2941:
2927:
2920:
2867:
2850:
2843:
2811:
2776:
2734:
2727:
2593:
2521:
2434:
2302:
2184:
2173:
2146:
2118:
2068:
2057:
2030:
2019:
1964:
1893:
1155:
A functional approach to the origin of life problem
1781:. Moffett Field, California: Ames Research Center.
1608:
1606:
643:") are synthetic chemical particles that possess
754:(a closed bilayer), the micelle and the bilayer.
1466:
1464:
1462:
1147:
1145:
1143:
1141:
1139:
1137:
1135:
2700:
1870:
1721:Journal of the British Interplanetary Society
1578:
1576:
1574:
933:-like activity. Bahadur stated that by using
613:
8:
1765:
1763:
1761:
1077:
1075:
1073:
1071:
1069:
1067:
1065:
1063:
3263:Reverse transcriptase-related cellular gene
2924:
2864:
2847:
2731:
2707:
2693:
2685:
2181:
2065:
2027:
1877:
1863:
1855:
1661:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
620:
606:
15:
1585:Int. Res. J. Of Science & Engineering
1434:
1382:
1311:Chemoton Theory: Theory of Living Systems
1404:
1402:
1128:from the original on September 24, 2015.
961:discussed the Jeewanu at length in his '
925:. Bahadur also reported having detected
3244:Retroelements not elsewhere classified
1303:
1301:
1059:
23:
1654:
1216:
1214:
1194:
1192:
7:
1792:Kumar Gupta V, Chaturvedi I (2013).
957:In the 1980s, the Hungarian chemist
3196:Integrative and conjugative element
1201:Vijnana Parishad Anusandhan Patrika
780:Vijnana Parishad Anusandhan Patrika
1015:Evolutionary developmental biology
840:When the apparatus was exposed to
14:
3253:Diversity-generating retroelement
1770:Caren LD, Ponnamperuma C (1967).
3258:Telomerase reverse transcriptase
2830:Microbes with highly unusual DNA
1779:NASA Technical Memorandum X-1439
793:) and organic compounds such as
587:
586:
573:
31:
1851:Dr. Krishna Bahadur's homepage.
580:Evolutionary biology portal
3181:Defective interfering particle
2531:Last universal common ancestor
2126:Defective interfering particle
1748:"Matter contrives to be alive"
1025:Lipid bilayer characterization
724:Indian philosophical tradition
539:Creation–evolution controversy
293:History of evolutionary theory
1:
3169:Clonally transmissible cancer
2667:Clonally transmissible cancer
2103:Satellite-like nucleic acids
1694:10.1016/s0044-4057(75)80076-1
1284:10.1016/S0044-4057(75)80076-1
1242:10.1016/s0044-4057(75)80076-1
1522:Zentr. Bakteriol. Parasitenk
1508:Zentr. Bakteriol. Parasitenk
1493:Zentr. Bakteriol. Parasitenk
1478:Zentr. Bakteriol. Parasitenk
1030:Lipid bilayer phase behavior
524:Evolution as fact and theory
2722:, and comparable structures
1340:, Oxford University Press.
905:building blocks) including
3359:
2223:Class II or DNA transposon
2218:Class I or retrotransposon
1746:Gupta VK (22 March 2002).
1357:Bahadur K (12 June 1954).
1082:Grote M (September 2011).
559:Nature-nurture controversy
2536:Earliest known life forms
2410:Repeated sequences in DNA
1103:10.1007/s12038-011-9087-0
446:Evolutionary neuroscience
421:Evolutionary epistemology
401:Evolutionary anthropology
381:Applications of evolution
3186:Endogenous viral element
2383:Endogenous viral element
2201:Horizontal gene transfer
1173:"Jeewanu – Introduction"
703:Jeewanu is derived from
436:Evolutionary linguistics
431:Evolutionary game theory
406:Evolutionary computation
2080:dsDNA satellite virus (
1020:Last universal ancestor
549:Objections to evolution
456:Evolutionary psychology
451:Evolutionary physiology
396:Evolutionary aesthetics
375:Fields and applications
357:History of paleontology
2638:Helper dependent virus
1954:Biological dark matter
1337:The Principles of Life
1091:Journal of Biosciences
755:
710:, meaning "life", and
669:semipermeable membrane
653:photochemical reaction
481:Speciation experiments
461:Experimental evolution
416:Evolutionary economics
238:Recent human evolution
96:Processes and outcomes
2398:Endogenous retrovirus
2371:Origin of replication
2087:ssDNA satellite virus
2077:ssRNA satellite virus
1752:Frontier Perspectives
1613:Srivastava D (2016).
863:unicellular organisms
749:
441:Evolutionary medicine
386:Biosocial criminology
352:History of speciation
265:Evolutionary taxonomy
228:Timeline of evolution
3323:Evolutionary biology
3285:Transposable element
3275:Spiegelman's Monster
2342:Secondary chromosome
2337:Extrachromosomal DNA
2213:Transposable element
1005:Endosymbiotic theory
972:RNA world hypothesis
873:in peptide form and
411:Evolutionary ecology
25:Evolutionary biology
3343:Prebiotic chemistry
2578:Model lipid bilayer
2420:Interspersed repeat
1733:1981JBIS...34..100B
1427:1958Natur.182.1668B
1375:1954Natur.173.1141B
1035:Model lipid bilayer
665:inorganic compounds
513:Social implications
501:Universal Darwinism
491:Island biogeography
426:Evolutionary ethics
391:Ecological genetics
337:Molecular evolution
275:Transitional fossil
103:Population genetics
19:Part of a series on
3154:Bio-like structure
3076:Tolecusatellitidae
1888:organic structures
1676:Bahadur K (1975).
1651:, Barcelona, Spain
1221:Bahadur K (1974).
952:definition of life
945:Scientific reviews
895:nucleic acid bases
791:ammonium molybdate
787:ammonium phosphate
762:from a mixture of
756:
734:to the concept of
544:Theistic evolution
476:Selective breeding
188:Parallel evolution
153:Adaptive radiation
3338:Synthetic biology
3310:
3309:
3140:
3139:
3114:
3113:
3110:
3109:
3048:Portogloboviridae
2950:Alphasatellitidae
2844:Non-cellular life
2839:
2838:
2720:non-cellular life
2682:
2681:
2623:Non-cellular life
2430:
2429:
2169:
2168:
2142:
2141:
2096:ssRNA satellite (
1801:Asian J. Exp. Sci
1715:Varma PK (1981).
1536:Agra Univ. J. Res
1436:10.1038/1821668a0
1384:10.1038/1731141a0
1334:Gánti, T. (2003)
1048:Pseudo-panspermia
939:electron transfer
772:potassium nitrate
641:particles of life
630:
629:
321:Origin of Species
123:Natural selection
3350:
3328:Membrane biology
2925:
2865:
2848:
2732:
2709:
2702:
2695:
2686:
2359:Gene duplication
2182:
2178:self-replication
2066:
2028:
1886:Self-replicating
1879:
1872:
1865:
1856:
1824:
1823:
1821:
1815:. Archived from
1798:
1789:
1783:
1782:
1776:
1767:
1756:
1755:
1743:
1737:
1736:
1712:
1706:
1705:
1673:
1667:
1666:
1660:
1652:
1644:
1638:
1637:
1619:
1610:
1601:
1600:
1580:
1569:
1565:
1543:
1529:
1515:
1500:
1485:
1468:
1457:
1456:
1438:
1406:
1397:
1396:
1386:
1354:
1348:
1332:
1326:
1325:
1308:Gànti T (2003).
1305:
1296:
1295:
1267:
1261:
1260:
1258:
1252:. Archived from
1227:
1218:
1209:
1208:
1196:
1187:
1186:
1184:
1183:
1169:
1163:
1162:
1160:
1149:
1130:
1129:
1127:
1088:
1079:
1041:Protocell Circus
1010:Entropy and life
811:paraformaldehyde
768:molybdenum oxide
764:paraformaldehyde
693:artificial cells
655:, they produced
622:
615:
608:
595:
590:
589:
582:
578:
577:
554:Level of support
347:Current research
332:Modern synthesis
327:Before synthesis
280:Extinction event
38:Darwin's finches
35:
16:
3358:
3357:
3353:
3352:
3351:
3349:
3348:
3347:
3313:
3312:
3311:
3306:
3146:
3136:
3106:
3081:
2992:Finnlakeviridae
2937:
2916:
2858:
2854:
2835:
2807:
2772:
2723:
2713:
2683:
2678:
2628:Synthetic virus
2616:Artificial cell
2589:
2517:
2426:
2315:RNA replication
2310:DNA replication
2298:
2289:Group II intron
2187:
2177:
2165:
2156:Mammalian prion
2138:
2114:
2093:dsRNA satellite
2090:ssDNA satellite
2060:
2053:
2022:
2015:
1960:
1889:
1883:
1845:
1832:
1827:
1819:
1796:
1791:
1790:
1786:
1774:
1769:
1768:
1759:
1745:
1744:
1740:
1714:
1713:
1709:
1675:
1674:
1670:
1653:
1646:
1645:
1641:
1617:
1612:
1611:
1604:
1582:
1581:
1572:
1568:
1547:
1533:
1519:
1504:
1489:
1484:(11): 367–5740.
1474:
1469:
1460:
1408:
1407:
1400:
1356:
1355:
1351:
1333:
1329:
1322:
1307:
1306:
1299:
1269:
1268:
1264:
1256:
1225:
1220:
1219:
1212:
1198:
1197:
1190:
1181:
1179:
1171:
1170:
1166:
1158:
1151:
1150:
1133:
1125:
1086:
1081:
1080:
1061:
1057:
1052:
990:Artificial cell
980:
947:
877:in the form of
831:ferric chloride
828:
820:
816:
808:
804:
800:
776:ferric chloride
744:
701:
626:
585:
572:
571:
564:
563:
514:
506:
505:
376:
368:
367:
366:
294:
286:
285:
284:
233:Human evolution
223:History of life
207:
206:Natural history
199:
198:
197:
97:
89:
44:
12:
11:
5:
3356:
3354:
3346:
3345:
3340:
3335:
3333:Origin of life
3330:
3325:
3315:
3314:
3308:
3307:
3305:
3304:
3299:
3294:
3293:
3292:
3282:
3277:
3272:
3267:
3266:
3265:
3260:
3255:
3250:
3242:
3234:
3233:
3232:
3222:
3217:
3212:
3203:
3198:
3193:
3188:
3183:
3178:
3173:
3172:
3171:
3166:
3156:
3150:
3148:
3142:
3141:
3138:
3137:
3135:
3134:
3129:
3122:
3120:
3116:
3115:
3112:
3111:
3108:
3107:
3105:
3104:
3097:
3089:
3087:
3083:
3082:
3080:
3079:
3072:
3065:
3058:
3051:
3044:
3041:Polydnaviridae
3037:
3030:
3023:
3016:
3009:
3006:Globuloviridae
3002:
2999:Fuselloviridae
2995:
2988:
2981:
2978:Bicaudaviridae
2974:
2967:
2960:
2957:Ampullaviridae
2953:
2945:
2943:
2939:
2938:
2934:Naldaviricetes
2931:
2929:
2922:
2918:
2917:
2915:
2914:
2907:
2900:
2893:
2886:
2879:
2871:
2869:
2862:
2845:
2841:
2840:
2837:
2836:
2834:
2833:
2827:
2819:
2817:
2814:Incertae sedis
2809:
2808:
2806:
2805:
2798:
2793:
2788:
2782:
2780:
2774:
2773:
2771:
2770:
2765:
2764:
2763:
2758:
2748:
2742:
2740:
2729:
2725:
2724:
2714:
2712:
2711:
2704:
2697:
2689:
2680:
2679:
2677:
2676:
2671:
2670:
2669:
2664:
2654:
2648:
2642:
2641:
2640:
2635:
2625:
2620:
2619:
2618:
2613:
2603:
2597:
2595:
2591:
2590:
2588:
2587:
2586:
2585:
2580:
2572:
2567:
2562:
2557:
2551:
2550:
2549:
2538:
2533:
2527:
2525:
2519:
2518:
2516:
2515:
2510:
2509:
2508:
2503:
2495:
2493:Kappa organism
2490:
2489:
2488:
2483:
2478:
2473:
2468:
2458:
2457:
2456:
2451:
2440:
2438:
2432:
2431:
2428:
2427:
2425:
2424:
2423:
2422:
2417:
2407:
2406:
2405:
2400:
2395:
2390:
2380:
2379:
2378:
2368:
2367:
2366:
2364:Non-coding DNA
2361:
2356:
2346:
2345:
2344:
2339:
2334:
2329:
2319:
2318:
2317:
2306:
2304:
2300:
2299:
2297:
2296:
2291:
2286:
2284:Group I intron
2281:
2276:
2275:
2274:
2264:
2263:
2262:
2259:
2250:
2247:
2242:
2237:
2227:
2226:
2225:
2220:
2210:
2209:
2208:
2206:Genomic island
2203:
2192:
2190:
2186:Mobile genetic
2179:
2171:
2170:
2167:
2166:
2164:
2163:
2158:
2152:
2150:
2144:
2143:
2140:
2139:
2137:
2136:
2135:
2134:
2131:
2122:
2120:
2116:
2115:
2113:
2112:
2111:
2110:
2107:
2101:
2094:
2091:
2088:
2085:
2078:
2074:
2072:
2063:
2055:
2054:
2052:
2051:
2044:
2036:
2034:
2025:
2017:
2016:
2014:
2013:
2011:dsDNA-RT virus
2008:
2006:ssRNA-RT virus
2003:
2001:(−)ssRNA virus
1998:
1996:(+)ssRNA virus
1993:
1988:
1983:
1982:
1981:
1970:
1968:
1962:
1961:
1959:
1958:
1957:
1956:
1951:
1941:Incertae sedis
1937:
1936:
1935:
1930:
1925:
1920:
1910:
1905:
1899:
1897:
1891:
1890:
1884:
1882:
1881:
1874:
1867:
1859:
1853:
1852:
1844:
1843:External links
1841:
1840:
1839:
1836:
1831:
1828:
1826:
1825:
1822:on 2019-02-20.
1784:
1757:
1754:. Farlex, Inc.
1738:
1707:
1668:
1639:
1602:
1570:
1567:
1566:
1556:(3): 291–319.
1544:
1530:
1528:(11): 671–694.
1516:
1514:(11): 585–602.
1501:
1499:(11): 573–584.
1486:
1470:
1458:
1421:(4650): 1668.
1398:
1369:(4415): 1141.
1349:
1327:
1320:
1297:
1262:
1259:on 2013-10-19.
1210:
1188:
1164:
1131:
1058:
1056:
1053:
1051:
1050:
1045:
1037:
1032:
1027:
1022:
1017:
1012:
1007:
1002:
997:
992:
987:
981:
979:
976:
946:
943:
826:
818:
814:
806:
802:
798:
743:
740:
700:
697:
689:origin of life
628:
627:
625:
624:
617:
610:
602:
599:
598:
597:
596:
583:
566:
565:
562:
561:
556:
551:
546:
541:
536:
534:Social effects
531:
526:
521:
515:
512:
511:
508:
507:
504:
503:
498:
493:
488:
483:
478:
473:
468:
463:
458:
453:
448:
443:
438:
433:
428:
423:
418:
413:
408:
403:
398:
393:
388:
383:
377:
374:
373:
370:
369:
365:
364:
354:
349:
344:
339:
334:
329:
324:
317:
312:
307:
302:
296:
295:
292:
291:
288:
287:
283:
282:
277:
272:
267:
262:
260:Classification
257:
252:
247:
242:
241:
240:
230:
225:
220:
218:Common descent
215:
213:Origin of life
209:
208:
205:
204:
201:
200:
196:
195:
190:
185:
180:
175:
170:
165:
160:
155:
150:
145:
140:
135:
130:
125:
120:
115:
110:
105:
99:
98:
95:
94:
91:
90:
88:
87:
82:
77:
71:
70:
65:
60:
55:
49:
46:
45:
36:
28:
27:
21:
20:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3355:
3344:
3341:
3339:
3336:
3334:
3331:
3329:
3326:
3324:
3321:
3320:
3318:
3303:
3300:
3298:
3295:
3291:
3288:
3287:
3286:
3283:
3281:
3280:Tandem repeat
3278:
3276:
3273:
3271:
3268:
3264:
3261:
3259:
3256:
3254:
3251:
3249:
3246:
3245:
3243:
3241:
3238:
3235:
3231:
3228:
3227:
3226:
3223:
3221:
3218:
3216:
3213:
3210:
3209:
3208:Nanobacterium
3204:
3202:
3199:
3197:
3194:
3192:
3189:
3187:
3184:
3182:
3179:
3177:
3174:
3170:
3167:
3165:
3162:
3161:
3160:
3157:
3155:
3152:
3151:
3149:
3143:
3133:
3130:
3127:
3124:
3123:
3121:
3117:
3103:
3102:
3101:Rhizidiovirus
3098:
3096:
3095:
3091:
3090:
3088:
3084:
3078:
3077:
3073:
3071:
3070:
3069:Thaspiviridae
3066:
3064:
3063:
3059:
3057:
3056:
3055:Pospiviroidae
3052:
3050:
3049:
3045:
3043:
3042:
3038:
3036:
3035:
3034:Plasmaviridae
3031:
3029:
3028:
3024:
3022:
3021:
3020:Halspiviridae
3017:
3015:
3014:
3010:
3008:
3007:
3003:
3001:
3000:
2996:
2994:
2993:
2989:
2987:
2986:
2982:
2980:
2979:
2975:
2973:
2972:
2971:Avsunviroidae
2968:
2966:
2965:
2964:Anelloviridae
2961:
2959:
2958:
2954:
2952:
2951:
2947:
2946:
2944:
2940:
2936:
2935:
2930:
2926:
2923:
2919:
2913:
2912:
2908:
2906:
2905:
2901:
2899:
2898:
2894:
2892:
2891:
2887:
2885:
2884:
2883:Duplodnaviria
2880:
2878:
2877:
2873:
2872:
2870:
2866:
2863:
2861:
2857:
2853:
2849:
2846:
2842:
2831:
2828:
2826:
2825:
2821:
2820:
2818:
2816:
2815:
2810:
2803:
2799:
2797:
2794:
2792:
2789:
2787:
2784:
2783:
2781:
2779:
2775:
2769:
2766:
2762:
2759:
2757:
2756:Mitochondrion
2754:
2753:
2752:
2749:
2747:
2744:
2743:
2741:
2738:
2733:
2730:
2728:Cellular life
2726:
2721:
2717:
2710:
2705:
2703:
2698:
2696:
2691:
2690:
2687:
2675:
2672:
2668:
2665:
2663:
2660:
2659:
2658:
2655:
2653:
2649:
2647:
2646:Nanobacterium
2643:
2639:
2636:
2634:
2631:
2630:
2629:
2626:
2624:
2621:
2617:
2614:
2612:
2611:Cell division
2609:
2608:
2607:
2604:
2602:
2599:
2598:
2596:
2592:
2584:
2581:
2579:
2576:
2575:
2573:
2571:
2568:
2566:
2563:
2561:
2558:
2556:
2552:
2548:
2545:
2544:
2543:
2539:
2537:
2534:
2532:
2529:
2528:
2526:
2524:
2520:
2514:
2511:
2507:
2504:
2502:
2499:
2498:
2496:
2494:
2491:
2487:
2484:
2482:
2479:
2477:
2474:
2472:
2469:
2467:
2464:
2463:
2462:
2459:
2455:
2454:Hydrogenosome
2452:
2450:
2447:
2446:
2445:
2444:Mitochondrion
2442:
2441:
2439:
2437:
2436:Endosymbiosis
2433:
2421:
2418:
2416:
2415:Tandem repeat
2413:
2412:
2411:
2408:
2404:
2401:
2399:
2396:
2394:
2391:
2389:
2386:
2385:
2384:
2381:
2377:
2374:
2373:
2372:
2369:
2365:
2362:
2360:
2357:
2355:
2352:
2351:
2350:
2347:
2343:
2340:
2338:
2335:
2333:
2330:
2328:
2325:
2324:
2323:
2320:
2316:
2313:
2312:
2311:
2308:
2307:
2305:
2303:Other aspects
2301:
2295:
2292:
2290:
2287:
2285:
2282:
2280:
2277:
2273:
2270:
2269:
2268:
2265:
2260:
2258:
2254:
2251:
2248:
2246:
2243:
2241:
2238:
2236:
2233:
2232:
2231:
2228:
2224:
2221:
2219:
2216:
2215:
2214:
2211:
2207:
2204:
2202:
2199:
2198:
2197:
2194:
2193:
2191:
2189:
2183:
2180:
2176:
2172:
2162:
2159:
2157:
2154:
2153:
2151:
2149:
2145:
2132:
2129:
2128:
2127:
2124:
2123:
2121:
2117:
2108:
2105:
2104:
2102:
2099:
2095:
2092:
2089:
2086:
2083:
2079:
2076:
2075:
2073:
2071:
2067:
2064:
2062:
2056:
2050:
2049:
2048:Avsunviroidae
2045:
2043:
2042:
2041:Pospiviroidae
2038:
2037:
2035:
2033:
2029:
2026:
2024:
2018:
2012:
2009:
2007:
2004:
2002:
1999:
1997:
1994:
1992:
1989:
1987:
1984:
1980:
1977:
1976:
1975:
1972:
1971:
1969:
1967:
1963:
1955:
1952:
1950:
1949:
1945:
1944:
1943:
1942:
1938:
1934:
1931:
1929:
1926:
1924:
1921:
1919:
1916:
1915:
1914:
1911:
1909:
1906:
1904:
1901:
1900:
1898:
1896:
1895:Cellular life
1892:
1887:
1880:
1875:
1873:
1868:
1866:
1861:
1860:
1857:
1850:
1847:
1846:
1842:
1837:
1834:
1833:
1829:
1818:
1814:
1810:
1806:
1802:
1795:
1788:
1785:
1780:
1773:
1766:
1764:
1762:
1758:
1753:
1749:
1742:
1739:
1734:
1730:
1726:
1722:
1718:
1711:
1708:
1703:
1699:
1695:
1691:
1687:
1683:
1679:
1672:
1669:
1664:
1658:
1650:
1643:
1640:
1635:
1631:
1627:
1623:
1616:
1609:
1607:
1603:
1598:
1594:
1590:
1586:
1579:
1577:
1575:
1571:
1563:
1559:
1555:
1551:
1545:
1541:
1537:
1531:
1527:
1523:
1517:
1513:
1509:
1502:
1498:
1494:
1487:
1483:
1479:
1472:
1471:
1467:
1465:
1463:
1459:
1454:
1450:
1446:
1442:
1437:
1432:
1428:
1424:
1420:
1416:
1412:
1405:
1403:
1399:
1394:
1390:
1385:
1380:
1376:
1372:
1368:
1364:
1360:
1353:
1350:
1347:
1346:9780198507260
1343:
1339:
1338:
1331:
1328:
1323:
1321:9780306477850
1317:
1313:
1312:
1304:
1302:
1298:
1293:
1289:
1285:
1281:
1277:
1273:
1266:
1263:
1255:
1251:
1247:
1243:
1239:
1235:
1231:
1224:
1217:
1215:
1211:
1206:
1202:
1195:
1193:
1189:
1178:
1174:
1168:
1165:
1157:
1156:
1148:
1146:
1144:
1142:
1140:
1138:
1136:
1132:
1124:
1120:
1116:
1112:
1108:
1104:
1100:
1097:(4): 563–70.
1096:
1092:
1085:
1078:
1076:
1074:
1072:
1070:
1068:
1066:
1064:
1060:
1054:
1049:
1046:
1043:
1042:
1038:
1036:
1033:
1031:
1028:
1026:
1023:
1021:
1018:
1016:
1013:
1011:
1008:
1006:
1003:
1001:
998:
996:
993:
991:
988:
986:
983:
982:
977:
975:
973:
967:
964:
960:
955:
953:
944:
942:
940:
936:
932:
928:
924:
920:
916:
912:
908:
904:
900:
896:
893:, as well as
892:
888:
884:
880:
876:
872:
868:
864:
860:
856:
855:carbohydrates
853:membrane and
852:
848:
847:cell membrane
843:
838:
836:
832:
824:
812:
796:
792:
788:
783:
781:
777:
773:
769:
765:
761:
753:
748:
741:
739:
737:
733:
729:
725:
721:
717:
713:
709:
706:
698:
696:
694:
690:
686:
682:
681:carbohydrates
678:
677:phospholipids
674:
670:
666:
662:
658:
654:
650:
646:
642:
638:
634:
623:
618:
616:
611:
609:
604:
603:
601:
600:
594:
584:
581:
576:
570:
569:
568:
567:
560:
557:
555:
552:
550:
547:
545:
542:
540:
537:
535:
532:
530:
527:
525:
522:
520:
517:
516:
510:
509:
502:
499:
497:
494:
492:
489:
487:
484:
482:
479:
477:
474:
472:
469:
467:
466:Phylogenetics
464:
462:
459:
457:
454:
452:
449:
447:
444:
442:
439:
437:
434:
432:
429:
427:
424:
422:
419:
417:
414:
412:
409:
407:
404:
402:
399:
397:
394:
392:
389:
387:
384:
382:
379:
378:
372:
371:
362:
358:
355:
353:
350:
348:
345:
343:
340:
338:
335:
333:
330:
328:
325:
323:
322:
318:
316:
313:
311:
310:Before Darwin
308:
306:
303:
301:
298:
297:
290:
289:
281:
278:
276:
273:
271:
268:
266:
263:
261:
258:
256:
253:
251:
248:
246:
243:
239:
236:
235:
234:
231:
229:
226:
224:
221:
219:
216:
214:
211:
210:
203:
202:
194:
191:
189:
186:
184:
181:
179:
176:
174:
171:
169:
166:
164:
161:
159:
156:
154:
151:
149:
146:
144:
141:
139:
138:Genetic drift
136:
134:
131:
129:
126:
124:
121:
119:
116:
114:
111:
109:
106:
104:
101:
100:
93:
92:
86:
83:
81:
78:
76:
73:
72:
69:
66:
64:
61:
59:
56:
54:
51:
50:
48:
47:
43:
39:
34:
30:
29:
26:
22:
18:
17:
3297:Transpoviron
3230:Fungal prion
3206:
3200:
3099:
3094:Dinodnavirus
3092:
3074:
3067:
3062:Spiraviridae
3060:
3053:
3046:
3039:
3032:
3027:Ovaliviridae
3025:
3018:
3013:Guttaviridae
3011:
3004:
2997:
2990:
2985:Clavaviridae
2983:
2976:
2969:
2962:
2955:
2948:
2932:
2911:Varidnaviria
2909:
2902:
2895:
2890:Monodnaviria
2888:
2881:
2874:
2822:
2812:
2633:Viral vector
2582:
2476:Gerontoplast
2403:Transpoviron
2175:Nucleic acid
2161:Fungal prion
2059:Helper-virus
2046:
2039:
1946:
1939:
1817:the original
1807:(2): 23–28.
1804:
1800:
1787:
1778:
1751:
1741:
1724:
1720:
1710:
1688:(3): 211–8.
1685:
1681:
1671:
1648:
1642:
1625:
1621:
1588:
1584:
1553:
1549:
1539:
1535:
1525:
1521:
1511:
1507:
1496:
1492:
1481:
1477:
1418:
1414:
1366:
1362:
1352:
1336:
1330:
1310:
1278:(3): 211–8.
1275:
1271:
1265:
1254:the original
1236:(3): 211–8.
1233:
1229:
1204:
1200:
1180:. Retrieved
1176:
1167:
1154:
1094:
1090:
1039:
968:
956:
948:
861:, much like
851:phospholipid
839:
823:formaldehyde
784:
779:
766:, colloidal
757:
732:cell biology
719:
711:
707:
702:
640:
632:
631:
486:Sociobiology
471:Paleontology
319:
255:Biogeography
250:Biodiversity
168:Coextinction
158:Co-operation
133:Polymorphism
58:Introduction
3240:microsphere
3159:Cancer cell
2904:Ribozyviria
2657:Cancer cell
2523:Abiogenesis
2471:Chromoplast
2466:Chloroplast
2249:Degradative
1991:dsRNA virus
1986:ssDNA virus
1979:Giant virus
1974:dsDNA virus
1849:jeewanu.com
1727:: 100–102.
1542:(I): 41–48.
1000:Endocytosis
985:Abiogenesis
959:Tibor Gánti
883:deoxyribose
871:amino acids
795:citric acid
760:amino acids
736:abiogenesis
673:amino acids
657:coacervates
496:Systematics
305:Renaissance
183:Convergence
173:Contingency
163:Coevolution
3317:Categories
3290:Retroposon
3237:Proteinoid
3147:structures
3145:Comparable
2921:Unassigned
2824:Parakaryon
2737:Prokaryota
2565:Proteinoid
2560:Coacervate
2513:Nitroplast
2506:Trophosome
2501:Bacteriome
2486:Apicoplast
2481:Leucoplast
2322:Chromosome
2240:Resistance
1948:Parakaryon
1591:(1): 1–4.
1207:: 117–127.
1182:2014-03-22
1055:References
935:molybdenum
931:peroxidase
929:-like and
835:molybdenum
685:protocells
649:protocells
270:Cladistics
193:Extinction
178:Divergence
148:Speciation
128:Adaptation
42:John Gould
2897:Riboviria
2876:Adnaviria
2860:Satellite
2778:Eukaryota
2574:Research
2555:Protocell
2294:Retrozyme
2253:Virulence
2235:Fertility
2082:Virophage
2070:Satellite
2061:dependent
1913:Eukaryota
1634:2091-2730
1597:2322-0015
995:Emergence
742:Synthesis
699:Etymology
691:, and as
529:Dysgenics
245:Phylogeny
143:Gene flow
113:Diversity
108:Variation
3270:Ribozyme
3215:Phagemid
2942:Families
2802:Protista
2786:Animalia
2751:Bacteria
2601:Organism
2594:See also
2570:Sulphobe
2547:Ribozyme
2542:RNA life
2449:Mitosome
2393:Prophage
2388:Provirus
2376:Replicon
2332:Circular
2279:Phagemid
2196:Mobilome
2188:elements
2098:Virusoid
2021:Subviral
1933:Protista
1918:Animalia
1903:Bacteria
1813:42341118
1657:citation
1445:13622608
1123:Archived
1119:19551399
1111:21857103
1044:– a film
978:See also
963:chemoton
915:cytosine
887:fructose
867:peptides
842:sunlight
752:liposome
705:Sanskrit
687:for the
637:Sanskrit
593:Category
519:Eugenics
361:timeline
342:Evo-devo
300:Overview
118:Mutation
80:Evidence
75:Glossary
3302:Xenobot
3220:Plasmid
3201:Jeewanu
3132:Obelisk
2928:Classes
2796:Plantae
2761:Plastid
2746:Archaea
2583:Jeewanu
2497:Organs
2461:Plastid
2261:Cryptic
2230:Plasmid
1928:Plantae
1908:Archaea
1729:Bibcode
1702:1242552
1562:4878619
1453:4261578
1423:Bibcode
1393:4172011
1371:Bibcode
1292:1242552
1250:1242552
1177:Jeewanu
919:thymine
911:guanine
907:adenine
891:glucose
859:budding
821:H) and
720:jeewanu
661:organic
633:Jeewanu
85:History
68:Outline
3248:Retron
3191:Fosmid
3176:Cosmid
3126:Nanobe
3086:Genera
2868:Realms
2856:Viroid
2674:Virome
2652:Nanobe
2349:Genome
2327:Linear
2272:Fosmid
2267:Cosmid
2032:Viroid
2023:agents
1811:
1700:
1632:
1595:
1560:
1451:
1443:
1415:Nature
1391:
1363:Nature
1344:
1318:
1290:
1248:
1117:
1109:
927:ATPase
923:uracil
879:ribose
875:sugars
813:(OH(CH
591:
315:Darwin
3225:Prion
3119:Other
2852:Virus
2791:Fungi
2148:Prion
2119:Other
1966:Virus
1923:Fungi
1830:Books
1820:(PDF)
1809:S2CID
1797:(PDF)
1775:(PDF)
1628:(4).
1618:(PDF)
1449:S2CID
1389:S2CID
1257:(PDF)
1226:(PDF)
1159:(PDF)
1126:(PDF)
1115:S2CID
1087:(PDF)
728:Vedas
716:Hindi
708:jeewa
639:for "
53:Index
3164:HeLa
2768:LUCA
2716:Life
2662:HeLa
2606:Cell
2354:Gene
1698:PMID
1663:link
1630:ISSN
1593:ISSN
1558:PMID
1441:PMID
1342:ISBN
1316:ISBN
1288:PMID
1246:PMID
1107:PMID
970:the
921:and
901:and
889:and
789:and
774:and
679:and
663:and
645:cell
63:Main
3128:(?)
2832:(?)
2245:Col
2133:DNA
2130:RNA
2109:DNA
2106:RNA
1690:doi
1686:130
1554:121
1546:6)
1532:5)
1526:118
1518:4)
1512:117
1503:3)
1497:117
1488:2)
1482:117
1473:1)
1431:doi
1419:182
1379:doi
1367:173
1280:doi
1276:130
1238:doi
1234:130
1099:doi
903:RNA
899:DNA
833:or
825:(CH
809:),
770:or
712:anu
40:by
3319::
2718:,
2257:Ti
1805:27
1803:.
1799:.
1777:.
1760:^
1750:.
1725:34
1723:.
1719:.
1696:.
1684:.
1680:.
1659:}}
1655:{{
1624:.
1620:.
1605:^
1587:.
1573:^
1552:.
1540:14
1538:.
1524:.
1510:.
1495:.
1480:.
1461:^
1447:.
1439:.
1429:.
1417:.
1413:.
1401:^
1387:.
1377:.
1365:.
1361:.
1300:^
1286:.
1274:.
1244:.
1232:.
1228:.
1213:^
1203:.
1191:^
1175:.
1134:^
1121:.
1113:.
1105:.
1095:36
1093:.
1089:.
1062:^
974:.
917:,
913:,
909:,
885:,
881:,
817:O)
797:(C
738:.
718:,
695:.
675:,
671:,
3211:"
3205:"
2804:'
2800:'
2739:"
2735:"
2708:e
2701:t
2694:v
2650:?
2644:?
2553:†
2540:?
2255:/
2100:)
2084:)
1878:e
1871:t
1864:v
1735:.
1731::
1704:.
1692::
1665:)
1636:.
1626:4
1599:.
1589:1
1564:.
1455:.
1433::
1425::
1395:.
1381::
1373::
1324:.
1294:.
1282::
1240::
1205:9
1185:.
1101::
897:(
827:2
819:n
815:2
807:7
805:O
803:8
801:H
799:6
635:(
621:e
614:t
607:v
363:)
359:(
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