1400:, general economic hardship, and the decreasing availability of land. Khazen power had been significantly diminished under Bashir. To meet the latter's increased tax demands and finance their attempt to consolidate their control over Kisrawan's silk production, the Khazens took loans from Beirut lenders and accumulated significant debts. Several family members became destitute in the 1830s and 1840s and Khazen influence over the Maronite Church waned. To compensate for their economic, social and political stagnation, the Khazens increased their pressure on the peasants of Kisrawan in the late 1850s, while also spending extravagantly. The Khazens opposed the creation of the "Double Qaimaqmate" in Mount Lebanon in the 1840s, which divided Mount Lebanon into Druze and Christian-run sectors, and were incensed at the appointment of a sheikh from the mixed Druze-Christian Abu'l-Lama family as the
1406:(deputy governor) of the Maronite section of the Qaimaqamate. The Khazens feared that such an appointment would formally subordinate them to the Abu'l-Lama sheikhs. Following the Abu'l-Lama sheikh's death in 1854, his successor Bashir Ahmad Abu'l-Lama attempted to further reduce the Khazens' influence, prompting the Khazens to stir the peasants to revolt against him. The revolt against Bashir Ahmad soon turned against the Khazen sheikhs and their feudal allies. The peasant subjects of the Khazen sheikhs had long been wary of their rule due to the excessive taxes they imposed as well as the additional gifts the peasants were virtually obligated to give the sheikhs, which many peasants considered humiliating.
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presumably
Maronites, comprising 43% and 38% of the Kisrawan's 892 households. By around the mid-17th century, under the patronage of the Khazen chiefs, Maronite migration made the community the majority group in the Kisrawan. Likely during the 18th century, a proportion of the remaining Twelver Shias there converted to Maronite Christianity. Unlike in the parts of Mount Lebanon south of the Kisrawan where Druze landlords held sway, many of the Maronite peasants in the Kisrawan owned their agricultural property. Western travelers estimated the Maronite population of the Kisrawan combined with rural northern Mount Lebanon to be 50,000 in 1690 and 115,000 in 1783.
1268:, was also the chieftain of Akkar and thus a fiscal subordinate of Muhammad. He resolved to eliminate the Assaf emir and take over his territory. He refused to pay his tax arrears and when Muhammad moved against him in 1591, Sayfa had him assassinated. Afterward Sayfa married his widow and took over Assaf properties in Ghazir and gained the tax farm of the Kisrawan. Hubaysh influence took a decisive blow, with Sulayman Hubaysh and his nephews Mansur and Muhanna arrested and executed by Sayfa. The Shia Hamade clan gained influence in their place under Sayfa rule.
1138:(Damascus Province). Through the following several years the Kisrawan experienced peace and prosperity while conditions in the Druze Mountain to its south (i.e. the districts of the Matn, Gharb, Jurd and Chouf) were characterized by chaos and punitive expeditions by the Ottoman government. The Assafs ruled over the area with mildness and the government collected taxes at a relatively low rate. These conditions spurred increased resettlement of the region. Ottoman tax records indicate there were 28 villages in the subdistrict in 1523, rising to 31 in 1543.
1434:, condemned their killing as a "horrific crime". Silk and wheat warehouses belonging to the sheikhs were plundered and the goods were redistributed among the peasants of the Kisrawan. By July, the Khazens had been routed and between 500 and 600 family members had fled to Beirut in an impoverished state. Shahin broadened the peasants' main demands of tax relief and refunds for the illegal payments they had previously paid to the Khazen sheikhs to also include political and legal reforms. Shahin cited the
1301:, and its governor Bustanji Pasha attempted to wrest control of the Kisrawan but was repulsed by the Sayfas. The Sayfas permanently lost the district in 1616, when Fakhr al-Din's son Ali and brother Yunus, with Ottoman backing, defeated the Sayfas' Druze allies and caused Hasan Sayfa (Yusuf's son) to flee for Akkar. In 1621, Fakhr al-Din, who had since returned to Mount Lebanon, compelled Sayfa to relinquish to him his remaining properties in Ghazir and Antelias to settle Sayfa's mounting debt.
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also acted as intermediaries between the Assafs and their
Maronite subjects in the mostly Maronite Bilad al-Jubayl (the Byblos region). After Assaf died in 1518 his youngest son Qaytbay killed Hasan and Husayn, drove out the Hubayshes, and took over the Kisrawan from his base in Beirut. Five years later Qaytbay died and Hasan's son Mansur, with the support of the Hubaysh family, took charge of the Kisrawan.
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1009:, the Mamluks routed the Kisrawani warriors and imposed heavy penalties on the inhabitants and their leaders. Kisrawani rebel activity resumed within a few years and Aqqush led a final, large-scale campaign against the mountaineers in 1305. Hundreds of fighters were slain and the Mamluks destroyed numerous villages, churches and vineyards, while massacring and displacing many of the inhabitants.
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population had grown substantially by 1530, with 297 households and 5 bachelors, while the Muslim population grew to 404 households and 103 bachelors, the number of imams decreasing to 3. By 1543, the Muslim population decreased to 377 households, 65 bachelors and no imams, while
Christian households and bachelors rose to 372 and 34. According to the 17th-century Maronite historian
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Beirut. Barquq retook the sultanate in 1390 and dispatched Arab tribesmen from the Beqaa Valley to attack the
Turkmens, killing their leader Ali ibn al-A'ma. The Mamluks captured and soon after freed Ali's brother Umar, probably to not afford the Buhturids too much advantage from the Turkmens' losses.
1258:
Assaf dominance over northern
Lebanon, including the Kisrawan persisted through Mansur's death in 1580 and the first five years under his son and successor Muhammad. In 1585 the Ottomans launched a punitive expedition against the rural chieftains of Mount Lebanon. Muhammad was arrested and imprisoned
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in 1671. Moreover, Abu Nawfal gained the influential office of French vice-consul in Beirut in 1658 and again in 1662. His descendants held the office for considerable periods through the late 17th and early 18th centuries. During this period, Abu Nawfal divided his estate in the
Kisrawan among his
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and Zouk
Amiriyya, contributed to the estrangement between them and Assaf and his household. In Ghazir the Assafs cultivated ties with the Maronites, particularly the Hubaysh family, with Assaf and his sons Hasan and Husayn recruiting the Hubaysh brothers as their stewards and agents. The Hubayshes
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in 1299, the mountaineers attacked and robbed Mamluk troops in their panicked flight through the
Kisrawani coastal roads and the road between Beirut and Damascus. The Mamluks reasserted their position in the Levant in 1300 and took punitive action against the Kisrawan. Under the Damascus governor
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At the start of
Ottoman rule, the Kisrawan was sparsely populated. Maronites from the north increasingly moved into the region through the 16th century, such that they nearly equaled the number of Twelver Shia there by the 1569 census. It showed Muslims, presumably Twelver Shias, and Christians,
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Shahin declared a republic in the
Kisrawan and a government composed of a 100-member council of representatives of the Kisrawan's villages, mostly peasants but also landowners and clergymen, presided by Shahin was established to govern the region backed by his 1,000-man militia. The republic was
1430:
Khazens' estates. Shahin and his men proceeded to attack the Khazens in other villages with little blood spilled in the process, with the exception of the wife and daughter of a Khazen sheikh who were killed in Ajaltoun in July during a raid on their home by the peasants. The Maronite patriarch,
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The takeover of the Kisrawan by Sayfa caused consternation with the provincial government in Damascus. It viewed the district's control by the governor of Tripoli (Sayfa) as effectively separating it from Damascene administration. Further, by controlling the Kisrawan, Sayfa antagonized the Druze
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The Alawites of the Kisrawan were particularly hard hit in the 1305 campaign and thereafter disappeared from the historical record. Many Shia Muslim families were relocated to Tripoli and were permanently displaced from the coastal area. They remained the majority population in the Kisrawan, but
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area to the north during the 10th century when Shia Islam was in the ascendant in Tripoli and the Islamic world at large. According to the historian Jaafar al-Muhajir, the Twelvers of Kisrawan were likely remnants of the Shias of Tripoli who relocated to the Kisrawan during or after the Crusader
1450:
and Mazraat Kfardebian, and the headquarters was originally in Zouk Mikael before being relocated to Rayfoun. Opposition to the government was strongest in the villages of Ghosta, Aramoun, Ghazir and Ftuh. Shahin's star rose among the Christians of Mount Lebanon in general, who saw in him their
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In January 1859, Shahin intensified the armed revolt against the Khazen sheikhs and with 800 of his peasant fighters, he besieged the Khazens during a summit they were holding in Ghosta. The siege prompted the sheikhs to flee the village, and the peasants under Shahin subsequently plundered the
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was overthrown by the Turkish Mamluks who had previously ruled the sultanate in 1289, the Turkmens supported the Turks, while their Buhturid rivals backed Barquq. The Turkmens assaulted the Buhturid domains, killing 130 Buhturids and sacking their lands and houses in the Gharb area southeast of
1459:
mainly between the Druze and the Christians of Mount Lebanon. Despite a proclamation that he could raise a 50,000-strong army for the Christian side, Shahin's militia mainly guarded their home region of the Kisrawan, while the Druze advanced against their Christian opponents elsewhere in Mount
1292:
of Aleppo, Fakhr al-Din allied with the rebels and took over the Kisrawan in 1606, following the flight of Sayfa from Tripoli. He installed Yusuf al-Muslimani as his deputy over the subdistrict. When Fakhr al-Din fled Mount Lebanon for Tuscany during an Ottoman punitive expedition in 1613, the
989:, the viceroy of Egypt, the second highest-ranking official in the sultanate, after the commanders of Damascus expressed reticence fighting the experienced mountaineers in the region's narrow passes. Baydara was defeated and was able to withdraw his men only after bribing the Kisrawani chiefs.
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The tax records did not distinguish different Muslim groups from each other, nor different Christian denominations. In the 1523 records, the Kisrawan had a population of 391 Muslim households, 37 Muslim bachelors, 7 imams, and 198 Christian households and 21 Christian bachelors. The Christian
1285:, whose jurisdiction bordered the Kisrawan. In 1598 Fakhr al-Din and the governor of Baalbek, Musa al-Harfush, with Damascene backing, routed the Sayfas in a battle at the Kalb River. Fakhr al-Din captured the Kisrawan but returned it to Sayfa a year later as part of an agreement with him.
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Abu Nadir consolidated Khazen control of the Kisrawan by purchasing large tracts of land there from the impoverished Twelver Shias of the district. His son Abu Nawfal continued his father's land acquisitions and, with his sons, was granted an extensive estate in the district by Sultan
1325:
in 1606. The prominence they soon acquired in the region stemmed from their close alliance with Fakhr al-Din. The head of the Khazens, Abu Nadir (d. 1647), was Fakhr al-Din's aide and held the tax farm of Kisrawan in 1616–1618 and 1621. The Khazens lost control of the district to the
1409:
In early 1858, a group of peasants from the Kisrawan lodged a formal complaint against the Khazens to Khurshid Pasha, the Ottoman governor of Beirut. Later, in March 1858, the Khazens held a summit for the people of the Kisrawan to garner support for their nomination of a new
1354:
Khazen domination of the Kisrawan facilitated its demographic transition into an overwhelmingly Maronite-populated region. Besides the tax collection rights the family obtained on a practically inheritable basis, the Khazens monopolized the silk trade in Kisrawan, fostering
984:
In the aftermath of the Crusader withdrawal from the Levant, the mountaineers of the Kisrawan frequently blocked the coastal road between Tripoli and Beirut and harassed passing Mamluk troops. The Mamluks launched a punitive campaign against them in 1292. It was led by
1234:
family. In 1541 Mansur had them both assassinated, effectively voiding the brewing opposition against Assaf–Hubaysh domination. The blow to the Hanash and Turkmens in the Kisrawan opened the door to further Maronite migration from the north. In 1545 Maronites from
1451:
defender against the Druze landlords and the traditional Maronite elites. In response to complaints of harassment of Shia Muslim villagers by local Christians in the region, Shahin assaulted and looted Shia villages in the Kisrawan and Byblos hills in late 1859.
1229:
In the late 1530s, Sunni Muslim opposition against Mansur and the Hubayshes was raised in the Kisrawan by the Turkmen chief of Zouk Mikael, who was resentful at the neglect by the Assafs in favor of the Maronites, and the Arab chief of Fatqa from the Beqaa-based
1123:
conferred on the Turkmen emir Assaf the inheritable lordship of the Kisrawan, as well as the neighboring Bilad Jubayl (the mountains of Byblos) to the north of Nahr al-Mu'amalatayn, in return for annual payment. Administratively, the Kisrawan became a
881:, community governed by village headmen by the early 9th century. The modern historian William Harris asserts that the origins of the Kisrawan Shia community in the 12th–13th centuries "are shrouded in mystery, with no clues in Arabic chronicles".
941:
faith of the Damascene rulers and may not have been enthusiastic supporters of their cause against the Crusaders, possibly even cooperating with the latter, although there's no historical evidence or mention of such a cooperation in the
1263:
but returned the next year. At that point his authority was expanded to include the tax farms for all the districts of northern Mount Lebanon, excluding the city of Tripoli. The governor of Tripoli and a former dependent of the Assafs,
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rule in 1517. In alliance with the Maronite Hubaysh family, whose members served as their stewards and agents, the Assafs patronized Maronite settlement and prosperity in the region. The last Assaf emir was killed in 1591 by
1460:
Lebanon. Under pressure by the Maronite Church and the Ottomans, Shahin practically disbanded his peasants' republic. The following year, after an international intervention ended the civil war, a rival Maronite leader,
1013:
their numbers never recovered. The Maronites also suffered significantly, but the displacement of Shia and Alawite communities eventually paved the way for Maronites from northern Mount Lebanon to settle in their place.
1025:
in the coastal villages of the Kisrawan in 1306 to serve as a permanent direct guard for the government over the region and the road to Beirut. Their territory extended along the coastal region of the Kisrawan between
138:
gradually came to dominate the area, purchasing large tracts of land from Shia Muslim villagers. Their activities fostered the overwhelming Maronite majority of the region that persists until the present day.
1454:
In May 1860, Shahin's militiamen intervened on the side of Christian villagers in the neighboring Matn region to the south during clashes with their Druze counterparts. The tit-for-tat clashes spiraled into a
1414:. Instead, the peasants participating in the summit voiced their dissent against the Khazens and in October, several villages in the Kisrawan allied against the Khazen sheikhs. A muleteer and youths boss from
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against the mountaineers of the Kisrawan. The assaults caused wide scale destruction and displacement, with Maronites from northern Mount Lebanon gradually migrating to depopulated villages in the region.
913:–1291), the Kisrawan was a rural borderland between the Crusader dominions along the Mediterranean coast and the Muslim states in the interior regions of the Levant. Its inhabitants were Twelver Shia,
929:, as well as the Muslim rulers of Damascus, all of whom claimed control of the Kisrawan. The Maronite chiefs there likely cooperated with the Crusaders and were strongly allied with the
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1182:
and smaller hamlets. Christians from northern Mount Lebanon continued to migrate to the Kisrawan, with Maronites from al-Majdal moving to Aramoun and the Hubaysh family of
966:(subdistrict) of Baalbek, which was part of the al-Safaqa al-Shamaliyya (Northern Region) of Mamlakat Dimashq (Damascus Province). According to Salibi, it was part of the
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1044:-holders in principal were only granted the right to an area's revenues as a salary and to provide for their troops, the Turkmens, like their Druze
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150:, the area largely avoided the bloodshed and destruction of that conflict. Shahin was defeated and disbanded the republic after his defeat by
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over control of the Kisrawan, the Sayfas permanently lost their hold over the region to them in 1616. Under the patronage of the Ma'nid emir
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The Foundation for the History of the Shiites in Lebanon and Syria: The First Scientific Study on the History of the Shiites in the Region
1464:, defeated Shahin at a battle between Rayfoun and Ashqout. They reconciled soon afterward and Shahin formally relinquished the republic.
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126:, the governor of Tripoli, who proceeded to take over the Kisrawan and kill the Hubayshes. After a number of struggles with the Druze
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This article is about a historical region in modern Lebanon. For the eponymous administrative district in modern Lebanon, see
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Information about the Christians of the Kisrawan before the 12th century is scant, though the local, 19th-century chronicler
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in 1366 to escape punishment by the Mamluks for failing to heed unspecified government orders. When the Circassian sultan
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146:, who declared a republic over the Kisrawan in 1859. Although the Kisrawani militia played a key role sparking the
56:
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Frustration had been mounting among the peasants of the Kisrawan from the mid-19th century, due to the burdens of
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Les provinces arabes de l'Empire Ottoman aux Archives du Ministère des affaires étrangères de France, 1793-1918
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178:, "the very name Kisrawan must have originally been that of a Persian clan called the Kisra". "Kisra" is the
1480:(LF). In 1990 the LF retained control of the area, as well as East Beirut, despite a monthlong offensive by
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settlements in the coastal part of the Kisrawan to keep guard over the region. Their chiefs from the
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The Culture of Sectarianism: Community, History, and Violence in Nineteenth-Century Ottoman Lebanon
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after Fakhr al-Din's downfall in 1633, but regained it four years later when Fakhr al-Din's nephew
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and Ain Shaqif. His move away from his Turkmen tribesmen's abodes closer to the coast, namely
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2413:"Peasant Protest in the Late Ottoman Empire: Moral Economy, Revolt, and the Tanzimat Reforms"
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1422:, was chosen by this alliance of peasants as their leader in December, and was declared the
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Notables and Clergy in Mount Lebanon: The Khāzin Sheikhs and the Maronite Church, 1736–1840
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Assaf moved his headquarters to Ghazir; previously he divided his time between estates at
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Salibi, Kamal (June 1967). "Northern Lebanon under the Dominance of Ġazīr (1517–1591)".
854:), settled Persian civilians and soldiers from other parts of the Levant in Baalbek and
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eight sons. The sons and their descendants mainly based themselves in the villages of
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and Maronite tribesmen. The mountaineers of the Kisrawan acted independently of the
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in the 630s. Salibi holds that Mu'awiya also settled the Persians in the Kisrawan.
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Justice Interrupted: The Struggle for Constitutional Government in the Middle East
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2610:"The Buḥturids of the Garb. Mediaeval Lords of Beirut and of Southern Lebanon"
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The Khazens lost their grip over the region during a peasants' revolt led by
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1396:(unpaid labor for a landlord) that had been imposed during the rule of Emir
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coast, extending eastward to the western slopes of the Mount Lebanon range.
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there and the migration of Maronite peasants from northern Mount Lebanon.
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of the district, particularly the Hubaysh family, at the expense of their
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Kisrawan was restored to the Sayfas by the commander of the expedition,
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communities may have been established in the Kisrawan and the bordering
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neighbors to the south, held them on a practically inheritable basis.
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of 1975–1990, the Kisrawan was a stronghold of the Maronite-dominated
2577:"The Maronites of Lebanon under Frankish and Mamluk Rule (1099–1516)"
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During the early Muslim period (630s–1099), the Kisrawan was part of
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2442:(PhD). School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London.
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An Occasion for War: Civil Conflict in Lebanon and Damascus in 1860
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During the 1975-1990 civil war the Kisrawan became a stronghold of
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The Khazens of Ballouneh had relocated to the Kisrawan village of
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in the south and Nahr al-Mu'amalatayn, just north of the Bay of
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Middle East International No 369, 16 February 1990, Publishers
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858:. These Persian settlers had remained in the Levant after the
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A House of Many Mansions: The History of Lebanon Reconsidered
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Middle East International No 370, 2nd March 1990, Publishers
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In the 12th–13th centuries it was a borderland between the
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The Ottoman Province of Damascus in the Sixteenth Century
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1297:. The following year a new province was established, the
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The Kisrawan is traditionally defined as the part of the
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conquered the Crusader realms, they launched a series of
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All Honourable Men: The Social Origins of War in Lebanon
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in 1289 and Beirut in 1291. According to the geographer
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mainly supported by the villages of Rayfoun, Ajaltoun,
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led the peasants of Kisrawan in revolt against their
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The Shiites of Lebanon under Ottoman Rule, 1516–1788
1438:, which mandated equality for all Ottoman citizens.
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The Turkmens temporarily evacuated the Kisrawan for
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and "Kisrawan" is the Persian plural form of Kisra.
1488:which caused extensive damage and many casualties.
1347:, Ajaltoun and Zouk Mikael, and to a lesser extent
992:When the Mamluks were routed by the Mongols of the
2711:
1201:in the Kisrawan was settled by Shia Muslims from
1034:. The Turkmens were granted this territory as an
970:of Beirut, part of the same region and province.
117:continued to rule the Kisrawan with the onset of
2438:Bakhit, Muhammad Adnan Salamah (February 1972).
1255:and the Kumayd family moved to the Ghazir area.
2495:(in French). Editions universitaires du Liban.
1095:lords of Kisrawan moved their headquarters to
877:held there was an organized Christian, likely
66:along the coast and the Muslim governments in
1103:), where they cultivated close ties with the
925:, which controlled Sidon and Beirut, and the
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8:
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2396:. Beirut: American University of Beirut.
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1363:Peasants' revolt and the 1860 civil war
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1893:
1881:
1869:
1857:
1845:
1833:
1821:
1806:
1791:
1779:
1767:
1755:
1740:
1728:
1716:
1701:
1689:
1677:
1665:
1653:
1641:
1629:
1614:
1585:
1570:
1558:
1529:
1512:
962:(d. 1327), the region was part of the
587:Israeli occupation of Southern Lebanon
51:. It is administered by the eponymous
2242:
2230:
2084:
1541:
1146:, Shia Muslims from Baalbek moved to
627:Syrian Civil War spillover in Lebanon
515:Double Qaim-Maqamate of Mount Lebanon
7:
2527:. Leiden, New York and Koln: Brill.
1119:in 1516–1517 and the Ottoman sultan
174:origins. According to the historian
70:. Its inhabitants at that time were
2567:(in Arabic). Beirut: Dar Al-Malak.
2548:. University of California Press.
2453:. University of California Press.
14:
2608:Salibi, Kamal S. (January 1961).
1021:The Mamluks settled Sunni Muslim
866:and converted to Islam after the
103:punitive expeditions in 1292–1305
775:
246:
182:form of the common Persian name
2689:Thompson, Elizabeth F. (2013).
1277:chief and district governor of
1134:(Sidon-Beirut District) of the
849:
210:in the south. It straddles the
2739:. Cambridge University Press.
2542:Makdisi, Ussama Samir (2000).
1089:Ottoman conquest of the Levant
980:Kisrawan campaigns (1292–1305)
1:
2521:van Leeuwen, Richard (1994).
1313:The Maronite Patriarchate in
1017:Establishment of the Turkmens
907:
2695:. Harvard University Press.
2471:Lebanon: A History, 600–2011
906:rule in Tripoli and Beirut (
831:) and was administered from
690:
632:Lebanese presidential crisis
592:Syrian occupation of Lebanon
148:1860 Mount Lebanon civil war
2714:A History of Modern Lebanon
2563:Al-Muhajir, Ja'far (1992).
2474:. Oxford University Press.
2411:Aytekin, E. Attila (2012).
1334:defeated the Alam al-Dins.
998:Battle of Wadi al-Khaznadar
894:in the early 12th century.
617:2007 North Lebanon conflict
521:Mount Lebanon Mutasarrifate
2785:
2710:Trablousi, Fawwaz (2007).
1366:
1076:
977:
956:conquered Crusader Tripoli
827:(the military district of
612:2006–08 political protests
57:Keserwan-Jbeil Governorate
15:
2670:Salibi, Kamal S. (2005).
2500:Johnson, Michael (2001).
2489:Hokayem, Antoine (1988).
2430:10.1017/S0020859012000193
1205:in the early 16th century
637:Maritime boundary dispute
2468:Harris, William (2012).
1484:troops loyal to General
1288:During the rebellion of
1271:
1259:in the imperial capital
622:2008 conflict in Lebanon
485:Emirate of Mount Lebanon
109:The Mamluks established
2733:Winter, Stefan (2010).
2655:10.1163/157005867X00029
2626:10.1163/157005861X00043
2593:10.1163/157005857X00057
2388:Abu-Husayn, Abdul-Rahim
1389:
1318:
1206:
1112:
839:, the governor of the
572:Palestinian insurgency
170:The name Kisrawan has
2447:Fawaz, L. T. (1994).
2245:, pp. 54, 66–68.
1376:
1312:
1196:
1130:(subdistrict) of the
1086:
843:in 639–661 and first
652:2020 Beirut explosion
597:2005 Lebanon bombings
533:Allied administration
206:in the north and the
2764:Geography of Lebanon
1457:full-scale civil war
923:Kingdom of Jerusalem
428:Kingdom of Jerusalem
198:region northeast of
154:in 1861. During the
72:Twelver Shia Muslims
39:coast, north of the
31:is a region between
2269:, pp. 389–390.
2114:, pp. 205–206.
1908:, pp. 163–165.
1896:, pp. 162–163.
1884:, pp. 160–161.
1872:, pp. 159–160.
1860:, pp. 155–156.
1848:, pp. 152–153.
1809:, pp. 150–151.
1782:, pp. 149–150.
1743:, pp. 145–146.
1704:, pp. 299–300.
1492:Demographic history
1279:Sidon-Beirut Sanjak
1272:Sayfa–Ma'n conflict
1132:Sidon-Beirut Sanjak
883:Twelver Shia Muslim
819:Early Muslim period
562:1958 Lebanon crisis
554:Republic of Lebanon
84:Maronite Christians
2769:Regions of Lebanon
2575:(September 1957).
1426:(first delegate).
1390:
1380:of the village of
1319:
1207:
1144:Istifan al-Duwayhi
1113:
974:Punitive campaigns
782:Lebanon portal
665:By city and region
577:Lebanese Civil War
368:Rashidun Caliphate
347:Sassanid interlude
156:Lebanese Civil War
2681:978-1-86064-912-7
2317:Dennis Walters MP
2296:Dennis Walters MP
1968:, pp. 24–25.
1432:Paul Peter Massad
1295:Hafiz Ahmed Pasha
1283:Fakhr al-Din Ma'n
927:County of Tripoli
875:Tannus al-Shidyaq
816:
815:
422:County of Tripoli
404:Ikhshidid dynasty
398:Fatimid Caliphate
380:Abbasid Caliphate
374:Umayyad Caliphate
94:. Soon after the
53:Keserwan District
47:and south of the
18:Keserwan District
2776:
2750:
2729:
2717:
2706:
2685:
2666:
2637:
2604:
2573:Salibi, Kamal S.
2568:
2559:
2538:
2517:
2496:
2485:
2464:
2443:
2434:
2432:
2407:
2375:
2369:
2363:
2357:
2348:
2342:
2336:
2330:
2324:
2309:
2303:
2288:
2282:
2276:
2270:
2264:
2258:
2252:
2246:
2240:
2234:
2228:
2222:
2216:
2210:
2204:
2198:
2192:
2186:
2180:
2174:
2168:
2155:
2149:
2138:
2132:
2115:
2109:
2103:
2097:
2088:
2082:
2071:
2068:van Leeuwen 1994
2065:
2059:
2056:van Leeuwen 1994
2053:
2047:
2044:van Leeuwen 1994
2041:
2032:
2029:van Leeuwen 1994
2026:
2017:
2011:
2005:
1999:
1993:
1987:
1981:
1975:
1969:
1963:
1957:
1951:
1945:
1939:
1933:
1927:
1921:
1915:
1909:
1903:
1897:
1891:
1885:
1879:
1873:
1867:
1861:
1855:
1849:
1843:
1837:
1831:
1825:
1819:
1810:
1804:
1795:
1789:
1783:
1777:
1771:
1765:
1759:
1753:
1744:
1738:
1732:
1726:
1720:
1714:
1705:
1699:
1693:
1687:
1681:
1675:
1669:
1663:
1657:
1651:
1645:
1639:
1633:
1627:
1618:
1612:
1601:
1595:
1589:
1583:
1574:
1568:
1562:
1556:
1545:
1539:
1533:
1527:
1516:
1510:
1436:Edict of Gülhane
1398:Bashir Shihab II
1351:and Sahel Alma.
1101:pictured in 1893
912:
909:
892:siege of Tripoli
853:
851:
808:
801:
794:
780:
779:
778:
642:Liquidity crisis
602:Cedar Revolution
509:El Assaad Family
440:Mamluk Sultanate
410:Mirdasid dynasty
392:Hamdanid dynasty
335:Hellenistic rule
250:
240:
222:
2784:
2783:
2779:
2778:
2777:
2775:
2774:
2773:
2754:
2753:
2747:
2732:
2726:
2718:. Pluto Press.
2709:
2703:
2688:
2682:
2674:. I.B. Tauris.
2669:
2640:
2607:
2571:
2562:
2556:
2541:
2535:
2520:
2514:
2499:
2488:
2482:
2467:
2461:
2446:
2437:
2410:
2404:
2386:
2383:
2378:
2370:
2366:
2358:
2351:
2343:
2339:
2331:
2327:
2310:
2306:
2289:
2285:
2277:
2273:
2265:
2261:
2253:
2249:
2241:
2237:
2229:
2225:
2217:
2213:
2205:
2201:
2193:
2189:
2181:
2177:
2169:
2158:
2150:
2141:
2133:
2118:
2110:
2106:
2098:
2091:
2083:
2074:
2066:
2062:
2054:
2050:
2042:
2035:
2027:
2020:
2014:Abu-Husayn 1985
2012:
2008:
2002:Abu-Husayn 1985
2000:
1996:
1990:Abu-Husayn 1985
1988:
1984:
1978:Abu-Husayn 1985
1976:
1972:
1966:Abu-Husayn 1985
1964:
1960:
1954:Abu-Husayn 1985
1952:
1948:
1942:Abu-Husayn 1985
1940:
1936:
1928:
1924:
1916:
1912:
1904:
1900:
1892:
1888:
1880:
1876:
1868:
1864:
1856:
1852:
1844:
1840:
1832:
1828:
1820:
1813:
1805:
1798:
1790:
1786:
1778:
1774:
1766:
1762:
1754:
1747:
1739:
1735:
1727:
1723:
1715:
1708:
1700:
1696:
1688:
1684:
1676:
1672:
1664:
1660:
1652:
1648:
1640:
1636:
1628:
1621:
1613:
1604:
1598:Al-Muhajir 1992
1596:
1592:
1584:
1577:
1569:
1565:
1557:
1548:
1540:
1536:
1528:
1519:
1511:
1507:
1503:
1494:
1478:Lebanese Forces
1470:
1371:
1365:
1307:
1274:
1197:The village of
1136:Damascus Eyalet
1081:
1075:
1070:
1019:
1007:Aqqush al-Afram
982:
976:
952:
910:
900:
898:Crusader period
868:Muslim conquest
864:Sasanian Empire
848:
821:
812:
776:
774:
769:
768:
714:
706:
705:
666:
658:
657:
656:
556:
546:
545:
544:
473:
465:
464:
463:
362:
354:
353:
352:
329:
321:
320:
319:
308:Babylonian rule
269:
238:
231:
220:
192:
168:
160:Lebanese Forces
134:, the Maronite
132:Fakhr al-Din II
64:Crusader states
21:
12:
11:
5:
2782:
2780:
2772:
2771:
2766:
2756:
2755:
2752:
2751:
2745:
2730:
2724:
2707:
2701:
2686:
2680:
2667:
2649:(2): 144–166.
2638:
2605:
2587:(3): 288–303.
2569:
2560:
2554:
2539:
2533:
2518:
2512:
2506:. I.B.Tauris.
2497:
2486:
2480:
2465:
2459:
2444:
2435:
2423:(2): 191–227.
2408:
2402:
2382:
2379:
2377:
2376:
2374:, p. 128.
2364:
2362:, p. 125.
2349:
2347:, p. 109.
2337:
2325:
2304:
2283:
2271:
2259:
2257:, p. 158.
2247:
2235:
2223:
2211:
2199:
2187:
2185:, p. 157.
2175:
2156:
2152:Trablousi 2007
2139:
2116:
2104:
2089:
2072:
2060:
2048:
2033:
2018:
2006:
1994:
1982:
1970:
1958:
1946:
1934:
1932:, p. 166.
1922:
1920:, p. 165.
1910:
1898:
1886:
1874:
1862:
1850:
1838:
1836:, p. 152.
1826:
1811:
1796:
1794:, p. 150.
1784:
1772:
1770:, p. 148.
1760:
1758:, p. 147.
1745:
1733:
1731:, p. 300.
1721:
1706:
1694:
1682:
1680:, p. 299.
1670:
1658:
1656:, p. 298.
1646:
1634:
1619:
1617:, p. 145.
1602:
1590:
1575:
1563:
1546:
1534:
1532:, p. 139.
1517:
1504:
1502:
1499:
1493:
1490:
1469:
1466:
1367:Main article:
1364:
1361:
1306:
1305:Khazen control
1303:
1273:
1270:
1261:Constantinople
1249:Gemayel family
1077:Main article:
1074:
1071:
1069:
1068:Ottoman period
1066:
1018:
1015:
975:
972:
951:
948:
899:
896:
852: 661–680
820:
817:
814:
813:
811:
810:
803:
796:
788:
785:
784:
771:
770:
767:
766:
761:
756:
751:
746:
741:
736:
731:
726:
721:
715:
712:
711:
708:
707:
704:
703:
698:
693:
688:
683:
678:
673:
667:
664:
663:
660:
659:
655:
654:
649:
639:
634:
629:
624:
619:
614:
609:
604:
599:
594:
589:
584:
574:
569:
564:
558:
557:
552:
551:
548:
547:
543:
542:
536:
530:
527:Beirut Vilayet
524:
518:
512:
506:
500:
494:
491:Tripoli Eyalet
488:
482:
475:
474:
471:
470:
467:
466:
462:
461:
455:
449:
443:
437:
434:Zengid dynasty
431:
425:
419:
413:
407:
401:
395:
389:
383:
377:
371:
364:
363:
360:
359:
356:
355:
351:
350:
344:
343:(64 BC–646 AD)
338:
331:
330:
327:
326:
323:
322:
318:
317:
311:
305:
299:
298:(1600–1178 BC)
293:
292:(1550–1077 BC)
287:
277:
271:
270:
265:
264:
261:
260:
252:
251:
243:
242:
233:
232:
225:
219:
216:
191:
188:
167:
164:
55:, part of the
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2781:
2770:
2767:
2765:
2762:
2761:
2759:
2748:
2746:9781139486811
2742:
2738:
2737:
2731:
2727:
2725:9780745324371
2721:
2716:
2715:
2708:
2704:
2702:9780674076099
2698:
2694:
2693:
2687:
2683:
2677:
2673:
2668:
2664:
2660:
2656:
2652:
2648:
2644:
2639:
2635:
2631:
2627:
2623:
2619:
2615:
2611:
2606:
2602:
2598:
2594:
2590:
2586:
2582:
2578:
2574:
2570:
2566:
2561:
2557:
2555:9780520922792
2551:
2547:
2546:
2540:
2536:
2534:90-04-09978-6
2530:
2526:
2525:
2519:
2515:
2513:9781860647154
2509:
2505:
2504:
2498:
2494:
2493:
2487:
2483:
2481:9780195181111
2477:
2473:
2472:
2466:
2462:
2460:9780520087828
2456:
2452:
2451:
2445:
2441:
2436:
2431:
2426:
2422:
2418:
2414:
2409:
2405:
2403:9780815660729
2399:
2395:
2394:
2389:
2385:
2384:
2380:
2373:
2368:
2365:
2361:
2356:
2354:
2350:
2346:
2341:
2338:
2335:, p. 87.
2334:
2329:
2326:
2322:
2318:
2314:
2308:
2305:
2301:
2297:
2293:
2287:
2284:
2281:, p. 43.
2280:
2275:
2272:
2268:
2263:
2260:
2256:
2251:
2248:
2244:
2239:
2236:
2233:, p. 50.
2232:
2227:
2224:
2221:, p. 97.
2220:
2215:
2212:
2209:, p. 98.
2208:
2203:
2200:
2197:, p. 37.
2196:
2195:Thompson 2013
2191:
2188:
2184:
2179:
2176:
2173:, p. 99.
2172:
2167:
2165:
2163:
2161:
2157:
2154:, p. 30.
2153:
2148:
2146:
2144:
2140:
2137:, p. 42.
2136:
2135:Thompson 2013
2131:
2129:
2127:
2125:
2123:
2121:
2117:
2113:
2108:
2105:
2102:, p. 96.
2101:
2096:
2094:
2090:
2087:, p. 44.
2086:
2081:
2079:
2077:
2073:
2070:, p. 85.
2069:
2064:
2061:
2058:, p. 84.
2057:
2052:
2049:
2046:, p. 83.
2045:
2040:
2038:
2034:
2031:, p. 82.
2030:
2025:
2023:
2019:
2016:, p. 49.
2015:
2010:
2007:
2004:, p. 40.
2003:
1998:
1995:
1992:, p. 36.
1991:
1986:
1983:
1980:, p. 33.
1979:
1974:
1971:
1967:
1962:
1959:
1956:, p. 23.
1955:
1950:
1947:
1944:, p. 22.
1943:
1938:
1935:
1931:
1926:
1923:
1919:
1914:
1911:
1907:
1902:
1899:
1895:
1890:
1887:
1883:
1878:
1875:
1871:
1866:
1863:
1859:
1854:
1851:
1847:
1842:
1839:
1835:
1830:
1827:
1824:, p. 75.
1823:
1818:
1816:
1812:
1808:
1803:
1801:
1797:
1793:
1788:
1785:
1781:
1776:
1773:
1769:
1764:
1761:
1757:
1752:
1750:
1746:
1742:
1737:
1734:
1730:
1725:
1722:
1719:, p. 72.
1718:
1713:
1711:
1707:
1703:
1698:
1695:
1692:, p. 71.
1691:
1686:
1683:
1679:
1674:
1671:
1668:, p. 70.
1667:
1662:
1659:
1655:
1650:
1647:
1644:, p. 69.
1643:
1638:
1635:
1632:, p. 74.
1631:
1626:
1624:
1620:
1616:
1611:
1609:
1607:
1603:
1599:
1594:
1591:
1588:, p. 45.
1587:
1582:
1580:
1576:
1573:, p. 42.
1572:
1567:
1564:
1561:, p. 65.
1560:
1555:
1553:
1551:
1547:
1544:, p. 43.
1543:
1538:
1535:
1531:
1526:
1524:
1522:
1518:
1515:, p. 60.
1514:
1509:
1506:
1500:
1498:
1491:
1489:
1487:
1483:
1482:Lebanese Army
1479:
1475:
1467:
1465:
1463:
1462:Youssef Karam
1458:
1452:
1449:
1445:
1439:
1437:
1433:
1427:
1425:
1421:
1420:Tanyus Shahin
1417:
1413:
1407:
1405:
1404:
1399:
1395:
1388:lords in 1859
1387:
1383:
1379:
1378:Tanyus Shahin
1375:
1370:
1369:Tanyus Shahin
1360:
1358:
1352:
1350:
1346:
1341:
1335:
1333:
1329:
1324:
1316:
1311:
1304:
1302:
1300:
1296:
1291:
1286:
1284:
1280:
1269:
1267:
1262:
1256:
1254:
1250:
1246:
1242:
1241:Khazen family
1238:
1233:
1227:
1224:
1220:
1216:
1212:
1204:
1200:
1195:
1191:
1189:
1185:
1181:
1177:
1173:
1169:
1165:
1161:
1157:
1153:
1149:
1145:
1139:
1137:
1133:
1129:
1128:
1122:
1118:
1110:
1106:
1102:
1098:
1094:
1091:in 1516, the
1090:
1085:
1080:
1079:Assaf dynasty
1072:
1067:
1065:
1062:
1058:
1054:
1049:
1047:
1043:
1039:
1038:
1033:
1029:
1024:
1016:
1014:
1010:
1008:
1003:
999:
995:
990:
988:
981:
973:
971:
969:
965:
961:
957:
950:Mamluk period
949:
947:
946:of the time.
945:
940:
936:
932:
928:
924:
920:
916:
905:
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633:
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628:
625:
623:
620:
618:
615:
613:
610:
608:
607:2006 July War
605:
603:
600:
598:
595:
593:
590:
588:
585:
582:
578:
575:
573:
570:
568:
567:Chehabist era
565:
563:
560:
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555:
550:
549:
540:
537:
534:
531:
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416:Seljuk Empire
414:
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375:
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349:(610s–628 AD)
348:
345:
342:
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333:
332:
325:
324:
315:
312:
309:
306:
303:
302:Assyrian rule
300:
297:
294:
291:
290:Egyptian rule
288:
286:(2500–333 BC)
285:
281:
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273:
272:
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254:
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245:
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234:
229:
223:
217:
215:
213:
212:Mediterranean
209:
205:
204:Ibrahim River
201:
197:
196:Mount Lebanon
189:
187:
185:
181:
177:
173:
165:
163:
161:
157:
153:
152:Youssef Karam
149:
145:
144:Tanyus Shahin
140:
137:
136:Khazen family
133:
129:
125:
120:
116:
115:Assaf dynasty
112:
107:
104:
100:
97:
93:
89:
85:
81:
77:
73:
69:
65:
60:
58:
54:
50:
49:Ibrahim River
46:
42:
38:
37:Mediterranean
34:
33:Mount Lebanon
30:
26:
19:
2735:
2713:
2691:
2671:
2646:
2642:
2620:(1): 74–97.
2617:
2613:
2584:
2580:
2564:
2544:
2523:
2502:
2491:
2470:
2449:
2439:
2420:
2416:
2392:
2381:Bibliography
2367:
2340:
2328:
2307:
2286:
2279:Johnson 2001
2274:
2267:Hokayem 1988
2262:
2255:Makdisi 2000
2250:
2238:
2226:
2219:Makdisi 2000
2214:
2207:Makdisi 2000
2202:
2190:
2178:
2171:Makdisi 2000
2112:Aytekin 2012
2107:
2100:Makdisi 2000
2063:
2051:
2009:
1997:
1985:
1973:
1961:
1949:
1937:
1925:
1913:
1901:
1889:
1877:
1865:
1853:
1841:
1829:
1787:
1775:
1763:
1736:
1724:
1697:
1685:
1673:
1661:
1649:
1637:
1593:
1566:
1537:
1508:
1495:
1474:Samir Geagea
1471:
1468:Modern times
1453:
1440:
1428:
1423:
1411:
1408:
1401:
1391:
1353:
1336:
1328:Alam al-Dins
1320:
1299:Sidon Eyalet
1290:Ali Janbulad
1287:
1275:
1257:
1228:
1208:
1186:settling in
1140:
1125:
1114:
1100:
1055:-controlled
1050:
1041:
1035:
1020:
1011:
991:
983:
967:
963:
954:The Mamluks
953:
939:Sunni Muslim
901:
872:
825:Jund Dimashq
822:
764:10th century
497:Sidon Eyalet
479:Ottoman rule
316:(538–332 BC)
314:Persian rule
310:(605–538 BC)
304:(883–605 BC)
296:Hittite rule
255:
202:between the
193:
176:Kamal Salibi
169:
141:
108:
96:Sunni Muslim
61:
28:
24:
22:
2372:Harris 2012
2360:Harris 2012
2345:Harris 2012
2333:Harris 2012
2313:Lord Mayhew
2292:Lord Mayhew
2183:Harris 2012
1930:Salibi 1967
1918:Salibi 1967
1906:Salibi 1967
1894:Salibi 1967
1882:Salibi 1967
1870:Salibi 1967
1858:Salibi 1967
1846:Salibi 1967
1834:Salibi 1967
1822:Bakhit 1972
1807:Salibi 1967
1792:Salibi 1967
1780:Salibi 1967
1768:Salibi 1967
1756:Salibi 1967
1741:Salibi 1967
1729:Salibi 1957
1717:Harris 2012
1702:Salibi 1957
1690:Harris 2012
1678:Salibi 1957
1666:Harris 2012
1654:Salibi 1957
1642:Harris 2012
1630:Bakhit 1972
1615:Salibi 1967
1586:Harris 2012
1571:Harris 2012
1559:Salibi 2005
1530:Salibi 2005
1513:Winter 2010
1486:Michel Aoun
1424:wakil awwal
1357:sericulture
1332:Mulhim Ma'n
1266:Yusuf Sayfa
1223:Zouk Mosbeh
1219:Zouk Kharab
1215:Zouk Mikael
1040:. Although
960:al-Dimashqi
911: 1099
759:9th century
754:8th century
749:7th century
744:6th century
739:5th century
734:4th century
729:3rd century
724:2nd century
719:1st century
541:(1920–1943)
539:French rule
535:(1918–1920)
529:(1888–1917)
523:(1861–1918)
517:(1843-1861)
511:(1749–1957)
505:(1697–1842)
499:(1660–1864)
493:(1579–1864)
487:(1516–1840)
481:(1516–1918)
460:(1493–1860)
454:(1490–1697)
448:(1306–1591)
442:(1291–1515)
436:(1127–1250)
430:(1099–1291)
424:(1099–1291)
418:(1037–1194)
412:(1024–1080)
337:(332–64 BC)
237:History of
124:Yusuf Sayfa
2758:Categories
2243:Fawaz 1994
2231:Fawaz 1994
2085:Fawaz 1994
1542:Fawaz 1994
1501:References
1317:, Kisrawan
1170:, Fiqqay,
1164:Sahel Alma
1087:After the
1073:Assaf rule
978:See also:
944:chronicles
860:Byzantines
837:Mu'awiya I
713:By century
458:Harfushids
400:(909–1171)
394:(890–1004)
382:(750–1258)
341:Roman rule
275:Prehistory
208:Kalb River
1340:Mehmed IV
1251:moved to
1245:Ballouneh
1243:moved to
1105:Maronites
994:Ilkhanate
933:lords of
681:Kfarsghab
581:Aftermath
406:(935–969)
388:(868–905)
376:(661–750)
370:(636–661)
328:Classical
284:Phoenicia
190:Geography
166:Etymology
162:militia.
2390:(1985).
2323:pp.6,7,8
2321:Jim Muir
2300:Jim Muir
1412:qaimaqam
1403:qaimaqam
1323:Ajaltoun
1211:Aintoura
1180:Brummana
1168:Faitroun
1111:kinsmen.
1057:Anatolia
1046:Buhturid
1028:Antelias
1023:Turkmens
931:Embriaci
904:Crusader
879:Maronite
847:caliph (
829:Damascus
691:Kisrawan
646:Reaction
472:Colonial
452:Ma'anids
386:Tulunids
361:Medieval
257:Timeline
228:a series
226:Part of
76:Alawites
68:Damascus
43:capital
41:Lebanese
35:and the
29:Keserwan
25:Kisrawan
2663:4055631
2643:Arabica
2634:4054971
2614:Arabica
2601:4055054
2581:Arabica
1444:Ashqout
1416:Rayfoun
1382:Rayfoun
1349:Daraoun
1253:Bikfaya
1203:Baalbek
1176:Jdeideh
1172:Aramoun
1156:Harajil
1152:Bekataa
1109:Turkmen
1053:Ottoman
1032:Jounieh
996:at the
987:Baydara
915:Alawite
902:During
856:Tripoli
845:Umayyad
833:Baalbek
701:Tripoli
503:Shihabs
267:Ancient
239:Lebanon
218:History
184:Khosrow
172:Persian
119:Ottoman
111:Turkmen
99:Mamluks
88:Tripoli
2743:
2722:
2699:
2678:
2661:
2632:
2599:
2552:
2531:
2510:
2478:
2457:
2400:
2302:pp.5,6
1448:Qleiat
1394:corvée
1386:Khazen
1345:Ghosta
1315:Bkerke
1247:, the
1232:Hanash
1199:Faraya
1188:Ghazir
1184:Yanouh
1148:Faraya
1127:nahiya
1097:Ghazir
1061:Barquq
935:Byblos
887:Byblos
841:Levant
671:Beirut
446:Assafs
280:Canaan
230:on the
200:Beirut
180:Arabic
92:Byblos
45:Beirut
2659:JSTOR
2630:JSTOR
2597:JSTOR
1160:Fatqa
1121:Selim
1093:Assaf
1000:near
919:Druze
686:Sidon
676:Chouf
128:Ma'ns
80:Druze
2741:ISBN
2720:ISBN
2697:ISBN
2676:ISBN
2550:ISBN
2529:ISBN
2508:ISBN
2476:ISBN
2455:ISBN
2398:ISBN
1174:and
1154:and
1115:The
1042:iqta
1037:iqta
1002:Homs
968:amal
964:amal
696:Tyre
90:and
82:and
23:The
2651:doi
2622:doi
2589:doi
2425:doi
1476:’s
1237:Jaj
27:or
2760::
2657:.
2647:14
2645:.
2628:.
2616:.
2612:.
2595:.
2583:.
2579:.
2421:57
2419:.
2415:.
2352:^
2319:;
2315:,
2298:;
2294:,
2159:^
2142:^
2119:^
2092:^
2075:^
2036:^
2021:^
1814:^
1799:^
1748:^
1709:^
1622:^
1605:^
1578:^
1549:^
1520:^
1446:,
1418:,
1281:,
1221:,
1217:,
1190:.
1166:,
1162:,
1150:,
917:,
908:c.
850:r.
835:.
78:,
74:,
59:.
2749:.
2728:.
2705:.
2684:.
2665:.
2653::
2636:.
2624::
2618:8
2603:.
2591::
2585:4
2558:.
2537:.
2516:.
2484:.
2463:.
2433:.
2427::
2406:.
1600:.
1099:(
807:e
800:t
793:v
648:)
644:(
583:)
579:(
282:/
20:.
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