31:
39:
371:
agriculture output. Kolkhoz members had to perform a minimum number of labor days per year both on the kolkhoz and on other government work (such as road building). In one kolkhoz, the official requirements were a minimum of 130 labor days a year for each able-bodied adult and 50 days per boy aged between 12 and 16. This work requirement was unevenly distributed around the year according to the agricultural cycle, ranging from 30 required labor days between
January 1 and June 15, to 30 required labor days in a single month during harvest. If kolkhoz members did not complete the required minimum, the penalties could involve confiscation of the farmer's private plot and a trial in front of a People's Court that could result in three to eight months of hard labour on the kolkhoz or up to one year in a corrective
335:), received a share of the farm's product and profit according to the number of days worked, whereas a sovkhoz employed salaried workers. In practice, most kolkhozy did not pay their members in cash at all. In 1946, 30 percent of kolkhozy paid no cash for labour at all, 10.6 paid no grain, and 73.2 percent paid 500 grams of grain or less per day worked. In addition the kolkhoz was required to sell its grain crop and other products to the State at fixed prices. These were set by Soviet government very low, and the difference between what the State paid the farm and what the State charged consumers represented a major source of income for the Soviet government. This profit was used to fund the purchase of foreign machinery to accelerate the
383:
of individual laborers were often highly disproportionate. Completing one labor day of work (nominally 8 hours) would often require multiple twelve-hour days of work to complete. Because laborers were compensated based on the number of labor days they completed, not time spent working, the labor day ultimately functioned more as an abstract method by which state authorities predetermined labor costs and kolkhoz production requirements, rather than as a method for fairly compensating workers for their labor. As such, the official rates greatly underrepresent both the labor requirements of agricultural production on kolkhozes and the demand placed on kolkhoz workers for that labor.
30:
38:
20:
148:
248:. In the late 1960s, Khrushchev's administration authorized a guaranteed wage to kolkhoz members, similarly to sovkhoz employees; this reduced the already minor distinction between state and collective farms. Essentially, his administration recognised their status as hired hands rather than authentic cooperative members. The guaranteed wage provision was incorporated in the 1969 version of the Standard Charter.
626:
268:
authorities gradually became in favour of the fixed, combined brigade – that is, the brigade with its personnel, land, equipment and draught horses fixed to it for the whole period of agricultural operations, and taking responsibility for all relevant tasks during that period. The brigade was headed by a brigade leader (
905:, a presidential decree of October 1995 initiated a process of conversion of kolkhozes into share-based farms operating on leased land, agricultural production cooperatives, and dehkan (peasant) farms. However, contrary to the practice in all other CIS countries, one-third of the 30,000 peasant farms in Tajikistan are organized as
236:
unite for the main purpose of joint agricultural production based on collective labor". It asserts that "the kolkhoz is managed according to the principles of socialist self-management, democracy, and openness, with active participation of the members in decisions concerning all aspects of internal life".
382:
Specific tasks on kolkhozes were assigned a particular number of labor days, with the rates determined in advance by state authorities. For example, thinning a tenth of a hectare of sugar beets was typically equivalent to two and a half labor days. However, the official rates and the actual ability
243:
They imposed detailed work programs and nominated their preferred managerial candidates. Since the mid-1930s, the kolkhozes had been in effect an offshoot of the state sector (although notionally they continued to be owned by their members). Nevertheless, in locations with particularly good land or
235:
was legally organized as a production cooperative. The
Standard Charter of a kolkhoz, which since the early 1930s had the force of law in the USSR, is a model of cooperative principles in print. It speaks of the kolkhoz as a "form of agricultural production cooperative of peasants that voluntarily
701:
countries in the 1990s generally indicated that, in the opinion of the members and the managers, many of the new corporate farms behaved and functioned for all practical reasons like the old kolkhozes. Formal re-registration did not produce radical internal restructuring of the traditional Soviet
378:
However, the number of labor days completed by laborers was often much higher than the minimum. For that same kolkhoz mentioned above, the average number of labor days completed by each able-bodied member was 275, more than twice the official minimum. In essence, the requirement was the amount of
239:
In practice, the collective farm that emerged after Stalin’s collectivization campaign did not have many characteristics of a true cooperative, except for nominal joint ownership of non-land assets by the members (the land in the Soviet Union was nationalized in 1917). Even the basic principle of
370:
a peasant with less than 13.5 acres (5.5 ha) was considered too poor to maintain a family. However, the productivity of such plots is reflected in the fact that in 1938 3.9 percent of total sown land was in the form of private plots, but in 1937 those plots produced 21.5 percent of gross
267:
The most basic measure was to divide the workforce into a number of groups, generally known as brigades, for working purposes. By July 1929 it was already normal practice for the large kolkhoz of 200–400 households to be divided into temporary or permanent work units of 15–30 households.' The
909:
and not family farms. These collective dehkan farms are often referred to as "kolkhozy" in the vernacular, although legally they are a different organizational form and the number of "true" kolkhozes in
Tajikistan today is less than 50. Similarly in
240:
voluntary membership was violated by the process of forced collectivization; members did not retain a right of free exit, and those who managed to leave could not take their share of assets with them (neither in kind nor in cash-equivalent form).
379:
labor days below which kolkhoz members would become subject to punitive state measures, but fulfilling this minimum would not then release the laborers from obligations to perform additional work demanded by the kolkhoz or state authorities.
889:, the disappearance of the kolkhoz was part of an overall individualization of agriculture, with family farms displacing corporate farms in general. In Central Asian countries, some corporate farms persist, but no kolkhozes remain. Thus, in
244:
if it happened to have capable management, some kolkhozes accumulated substantial sums of money in their bank accounts. Subsequently, numerous kolkhozes were formally nationalized by changing their status to
365:
Members of kolkhozes had the right to hold a small area of private land and some animals. The size of the private plot varied over the Soviet period, but was usually about 1 acre (0.40 ha). Before the
1351:
75:
46:
135:(TOZ), and finally the kolkhoz. This gradual shift to collective farming in the first 15 years after the October Revolution was turned into a "violent stampede" during the
1313:, Policy Brief 3, European Commission "Support for the Development, Implementation and Evaluation of Agricultural Policy in Tajikistan" Project, Dushanbe (October 2007).
922:
for agricultural cooperatives) and just five years later, in
October 2003, the government's new strategy for land reform prescribed a sweeping reorientation from
1327:
1371:
132:
1307:
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hardly changed at all between 1929 and 1953, meaning that the State came to pay less than one half or even one third of the cost of production.
336:
136:
340:
1356:
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941:
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was announced. The number of kolkhozes and sovkhozes declined rapidly after 1992, while other corporate forms gained in prominence.
665:
281:
262:
1083:
679:
343:
believed was necessary to modernise the USSR and its population to avoid military disasters like those suffered in WW1 and the
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93:
647:
359:
1335:
295:
34:
1931 propaganda poster: "Kolkhoznik, read the book! The book will help fulfill the plan of the second
Bolshevik spring!"
358:, but paid the kolkhoz roughly 8 rubles. Nor did such prices change much to keep up with inflation. Prices paid by the
1366:
1361:
367:
286:
Brigades could be subdivided into smaller units called zvenos (links) for carrying out some or all of their tasks.
1049:
911:
902:
857:
687:
392:
Kolkhozes and sovkhozes in the Soviet Union: number of farms, average size, and share in agricultural production
19:
643:
1054:
636:
995:
893:, a presidential decree of June 1995 summarily "reorganized" all kolkhozes into "peasant associations" (
886:
176:
935:
683:
344:
223:. The Russian terms for members of a kolkhoz is "kolkhoznik" (male) and "kolkhoznitsa" (female).
97:
147:
1296:
Agriculture in
Transition: Land Policies and Evolving Farm Structures in Post-Soviet Countries
882:
1068:
894:
328:
316:
68:
81:
919:
870:
691:
156:
865:
For
Moldova, land balance tables, State Land Cadastre Agency, Chisinau, various years.
92:. These were the two components of the socialized farm sector that began to emerge in
1345:
1019:
972:
706:
Number of kolkhozes and all corporate farms in Russia, Ukraine, and
Moldova 1990–2005
191:, 'collective farm'. This Russian term was adopted into other languages as a
119:
Initially, a collective farm resembled an updated version of the traditional
Russian
890:
874:
351:
85:
1202:
Karl Marx
Collective: Economy, society and religion in a Siberian collective farm
926:
to peasant farms, which since then have virtually replaced all corporate farms.
625:
372:
113:
109:
1169:
1186:
Exile and Discipline: The June 1948 campaign against Collective Farm shirkers
120:
101:
853:, statistical yearbook, State Statistical Committee, Moscow, various years.
306:
192:
1043:
1328:
Kolkhozs: How collectivization changed the Latvian countryside, utterly
947:
878:
650: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
105:
89:
1228:
Collective Farming in Russia: A Political Study of the Soviet Kolkhozy
1230:, University of Kansas Publications, Lawrence, Kansas (1958), p. 120.
196:
42:
24:
612:, various years, State Statistical Committee of the USSR, Moscow.
146:
126:
37:
29:
18:
1176:(Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1980), p.59.
619:
355:
1082:
Bilynsky, Andrii; Holubnychy, Vsevolod; Shumelda, Yakiv.
914:
the 1998 Land Code renamed all kolkhozes and sovkhozes
218:
206:
45:
growers at the "Zarya Vostoka" (Eastern Dawn) kolkhoz,
1204:, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge (1983), p. 96.
350:
In 1948 the Soviet government charged wholesalers 335
944:– working subunit of the brigade in a collective farm
186:
170:
1352:
Agricultural organizations based in the Soviet Union
272:). This was usually a local man (a few were women).
16:
Type of agricultural cooperative in the Soviet Union
1042:
938:– similar type or organization in other countries
199:equivalents from native roots, such as Ukrainian
1298:, Lexington Books, Lanham, MD (2004), Chapter 4.
869:Kolkhozes have disappeared almost completely in
212:
200:
123:"commune", the generic "farming association" (
88:. Kolkhozes existed along with state farms or
1006:яйство, soviet ownership or state ownership,
989:
302:for general discussion of Soviet agriculture.
180:
164:
58:
8:
1196:
1194:
1290:
1288:
1109:, Agropromizdat, Moscow (1989), pp. 4,37 (
859:Rethinking Agricultural Reform in Ukraine
666:Learn how and when to remove this message
133:Association for Joint Cultivation of Land
709:
682:in December 1991, the general policy of
395:
1310:How many farms are there in Tajikistan?
1280:The History of a Soviet Collective Farm
1267:The History of a Soviet Collective Farm
1241:The History of a Soviet Collective Farm
1124:The History of a Soviet Collective Farm
1034:
960:
616:Disappearance of the kolkhoz after 1991
290:Kolkhoz conditions in the Stalin period
100:of 1917, as an antithesis both to the
387:Basic statistics for the Soviet Union
337:industrialisation of the Soviet Union
67:
7:
1326:Mārtiņš Ķibilds (November 9, 2018).
1174:The Soviet Collective Farm 1929–1930
1154:Agricultural Cooperation in the USSR
1069:participating institution membership
648:adding citations to reliable sources
1294:Z. Lerman, C. Csaki, and G. Feder,
1217:, Macmillan, London (1939), p. 233.
1215:The Economics of Soviet Agriculture
1282:, Praeger, New York (1955), p. 86.
1269:, Praeger, New York (1955), p. 88.
1243:, Praeger, New York (1955), p. 87.
1126:, Praeger, New York (1955), p. 82.
697:Still, field surveys conducted in
14:
942:Zveno (Soviet collective farming)
311:In a kolkhoz, a member, called a
282:Zveno (Soviet collective farming)
1372:Cooperatives in the Soviet Union
1156:, Agropromizdat, Moscow (1991) (
1088:Internet Encyclopedia of Ukraine
624:
610:Statistical Yearbook of the USSR
263:Brigade (Soviet collective farm)
195:; however, some other languages
680:dissolution of the Soviet Union
635:needs additional citations for
300:agriculture in the Soviet Union
112:landlords and to individual or
1338:. Retrieved November 19, 2018.
1139:, Naukova Dumka, Kiev (1991) (
1:
1336:Public Broadcasting of Latvia
139:campaign that began in 1928.
296:collectivisation in the USSR
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368:Russian Revolution of 1917
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104:structure of impoverished
1357:Agricultural cooperatives
1050:Oxford English Dictionary
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720:
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688:centrally planned economy
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227:Organization of kolkhozes
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188:kollektívnoye khozyáystvo
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1107:Standard Kolkhoz Charter
1014:aystvo. Russian plural:
231:As a collective farm, a
137:forced collectivization
1188:by Jean Levesque, p. 13
1137:Cooperation and the Law
1055:Oxford University Press
907:collective dehkan farms
862:, IAMO, Halle, Germany.
339:, which Stalin and the
220:kolektývne hospodárstvo
214:колективне господарство
898:
182:коллективное хозяйство
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151:Map of the kolkhozes (
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23:A former kolkhoz near
851:Agriculture in Russia
354:for 100 kilograms of
280:Further information:
261:Further information:
150:
41:
33:
22:
1213:Leonard E. Hubbard,
744:All corporate farms
644:improve this article
420:Share of households
47:Checheno-Ingush ASSR
1200:Caroline Humphrey,
1053:(Online ed.).
741:Number of kolkhozes
738:All corporate farms
735:Number of kolkhozes
732:All corporate farms
729:Number of kolkhozes
405:Number of sovkhozes
402:Number of kolkhozes
1367:Collective farming
1362:Agricultural labor
936:Collective farming
417:Share of sovkhozes
414:Share of kolkhozes
345:Russo-Japanese War
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125:zemledel’cheskaya
98:October Revolution
94:Soviet agriculture
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1308:Murat Aminjanov,
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850:
849:For Russia,
842:
841:
705:
704:
696:
677:
662:
653:
642:Please help
637:verification
634:
609:
607:
391:
390:
381:
377:
364:
349:
325:kolkhoznitsa
324:
312:
310:
285:
269:
266:
245:
242:
238:
232:
230:
162:
152:
124:
118:
110:aristocratic
86:Soviet Union
54:
52:
996:contraction
950:, in Israel
877:states. In
373:labour camp
333:колхо́зница
177:contraction
1346:Categories
1170:R W Davies
1093:2021-01-25
1071:required.)
1060:2021-01-25
1020:anglicized
973:anglicized
955:References
912:Uzbekistan
903:Tajikistan
887:Azerbaijan
684:transition
321:колхо́зник
313:kolkhoznik
305:See also:
96:after the
1024:sovkhozes
977:kolkhozes
678:With the
246:sovkhozes
155:) of the
121:obshchina
1332:Atslēgas
1254:op. cit.
1022:plural:
1016:sovkhozy
1010:etskoye
975:plural:
969:kolkhozy
930:See also
924:shirkats
916:shirkats
721:Moldova
608:Source:
307:Trudoden
270:brigadir
193:loanword
1158:Russian
1141:Russian
1111:Russian
1002:етское
991:совхо́з
948:Kibbutz
895:Turkmen
883:Georgia
879:Armenia
843:Sources
718:Ukraine
329:Russian
317:Russian
257:Brigade
233:kolkhoz
211:, from
208:kolhósp
202:колгосп
197:calqued
172:kolkhóz
153:kolūkis
131:), the
106:serfdom
90:sovkhoz
84:in the
60:колхо́з
55:kolkhoz
901:). In
885:, and
836:1,846
830:17,671
824:22,135
813:1,386
807:14,308
801:27,645
790:1,232
784:10,914
778:26,874
767:1,891
761:10,792
755:29,400
752:12,800
715:Russia
702:farm.
593:15,300
587:23,500
584:29,100
567:16,100
561:22,700
558:26,200
541:17,200
535:21,100
532:25,900
515:18,900
509:18,100
506:28,500
489:20,800
483:15,000
480:33,000
463:24,600
457:11,700
454:36,300
437:26,200
428:44,000
352:rubles
166:колхоз
102:feudal
49:, 1938
43:Cotton
25:Jermuk
1065:
920:Uzbek
821:2,000
798:3,000
775:5,522
758:8,354
690:to a
590:5,900
564:6,500
538:6,600
512:6,400
486:6,100
460:6,100
434:6,600
431:7,400
276:Zveno
175:is a
127:artel
1012:khoz
994:, a
873:and
818:2005
795:2000
772:1995
749:1990
726:Year
602:26%
581:1990
576:28%
555:1985
550:29%
529:1980
524:32%
503:1975
498:32%
477:1970
472:35%
451:1965
446:38%
425:1960
399:Year
341:AUCP
298:and
294:See
143:Name
108:and
65:IPA:
1008:sov
1004:хоз
1000:сов
998:of
845::
787:490
781:450
764:531
699:CIS
646:by
599:38%
596:36%
573:36%
570:36%
547:36%
544:35%
521:31%
518:37%
495:28%
492:40%
469:24%
466:41%
443:18%
440:44%
375:.
356:rye
179:of
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