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285:. Being now cooler than the environmental air and unstable, they descend until in static equilibrium, at which point a restoring force curves the edges of the fallout back up, creating the lobed appearance. One problem with this theory is that observations show that cloud-base evaporation does not always produce mammatus. This mechanism could be responsible for the earliest stage of development, but other processes (namely process 1, above) may come into play as the lobes are formed and mature.
386:, where differential heating (cooling at the top and heating at the bottom) of a layer causes convective overturning. However, in this case of mammatus, the base is cooled by thermodynamical mechanisms mentioned above. As the cloud base descends, it happens on the scale of mammatus lobes, while adjacent to the lobes, there is a compensating ascent. This method has not proven to be observationally sound and is viewed as generally insubstantial.
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Mammatus may appear as smooth, ragged or lumpy lobes and may be opaque or translucent. Because mammatus occur as a grouping of lobes, the way they clump together can vary from an isolated cluster to a field of mammae that spread over hundreds of kilometers to being organized along a line, and may be
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is the name given to the instability that exists between two fluids of differing densities, when the denser of the two is atop the less dense fluid. Along a cloud-base/sub-cloud interface, the denser, hydrometeor-laden air could cause mixing with the less-dense sub-cloud air. This mixing would take
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along the cloud-base may cause inhomogeneous descent along the base. Frictional drag and associated eddy-like structures create the lobed appearance of the fallout. The main shortcoming of this theory is that vertical velocities in the lobes have been observed to be greater than the fall speeds of
352:
impinging upon the tropopause and spreading out in wave form over the entirety of the anvil. Therefore, this method does not explain the prevalence of mammatus clouds in one part of the anvil versus another. Furthermore, time and size scales for gravity waves and mammatus do not match up entirely.
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True to their ominous appearance, mammatus clouds are often harbingers of a coming storm or other extreme weather system. Typically composed primarily of ice, they can extend for hundreds of miles in each direction and individual formations can remain visibly static for ten to fifteen minutes at a
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There may also be destabilization at cloud base due to melting. If the cloud base exists near the freezing line, then the cooling in the immediate air caused by melting can lead to convective overturning, just as in the processes above. However, this strict temperature environment is not always
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is prevalent along cloud boundaries and results in the formation of wave-like protrusions (called Kelvin-Helmholtz billows) from a cloud boundary. Mammatus are not in the form of K-H billows, thus, it is proposed that the instability can trigger the formation of the protrusions, but that another
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is a cloud supplementary feature rather than a genus, species or variety of cloud. The distinct "lumpy" undersides are formed by cold air sinking down to form the pockets contrary to the puffs of clouds rising through the convection of warm air. These formations were first described in 1894 by
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kilometre (0.3 mi). A lobe can last an average of 10 minutes, but a whole cluster of mamma can range from 15 minutes to a few hours. They are usually composed of ice, but also can be a mixture of ice and liquid water or be composed of almost entirely liquid water.
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cloud can penetrate downward through the entire layer and emerge as mammatus at cloud-base. Another idea is that as the cloud-base warms due to radiative heating from land surface's longwave emission, the base destabilizes and overturns. This method is valid for only
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overturning can occur, creating a lumpy cloud-base. The problems with this theory are that there are observations of mammatus lobes that do not support the presence of strong subsidence in the lobes, and that it is difficult to separate the processes of
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The existence of many different types of mammatus clouds, each with distinct properties and occurring in distinct environments, has given rise to multiple hypotheses on their formation, which are also relevant to other cloud forms.
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are proposed to be the formation mechanism of linearly organized mammatus clouds. Indeed, wave patterns have been observed in the mammatus environment, but this is mostly due to gravity wave creation as a response to a convective
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Clouds undergo thermal reorganization due to radiative effects as they evolve. There are a couple of ideas as to how radiation can cause mammatus to form. One is that, because clouds radiatively cool
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clouds, as well as volcanic ash clouds. When occurring in cumulonimbus, mammatus are often indicative of a particularly strong storm. Due to the intensely sheared environment in which mammatus form,
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the form of mammatus clouds. The physical problem with this proposed method is that an instability existing along a static interface cannot necessarily be applied to the interface between two
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237:) across the anvil cloud/sub-cloud air boundary, which strongly influence interactions therein. The following are the proposed mechanisms, each described with its shortcomings:
324:. In CDI, cloudy air is mixed into the dry sub-cloud air rather than precipitating into it. The cloudy layer destabilizes due to evaporative cooling and mammatus are formed.
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composed of either unequal or similarly-sized lobes. The individual mammatus lobe average diameters of 1–3 kilometres (0.6–1.9 mi) and lengths on average of
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gradually subsides as it spreads out from its source cloud. As air descends, it warms. However, the cloudy air will warm more slowly (at the
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with mammatus as they indicate convectively induced turbulence. Contrails may also produce lobes but these are incorrectly termed as mammatus.
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fallout is a second proposed formation mechanism. As hydrometeors fall into the dry sub-cloud air, the air containing the precipitation
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Winstead, Nathaniel S.; Verlinde, J.; Arthur, S. Tracy; Jaskiewicz, Francine; Jensen, Michael; Miles, Natasha; Nicosia, David (2001).
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process must form the protrusions into lobes. Still, the main downfall with this theory is that K-H instability occurs in a stably
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clouds. However, the nature of anvil clouds is that they are largely made up of ice, and are therefore relatively optically thin.
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This plenitude of proposed formation mechanisms shows, if nothing else, that the mammatus cloud is generally poorly understood.
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One environmental trend is shared by all of the formation mechanisms hypothesized for mammatus clouds: sharp
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fallout and cloud-base subsidence, thus rendering it unclear as to whether either process is occurring.
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Kanak, Katharine M.; Straka, Jerry M.; Schultz, David M. (2008). "Numerical
Simulation of Mammatus".
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516:; Bryan, George H.; Durant, Adam J.; Garrett, Timothy J.; Klein, Petra M.; Lilly, Douglas K. (2006).
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Lane, Todd P.; Sharman, Robert D.; Trier, Stanley B.; Fovell, Robert G.; Williams, John K. (2012).
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Schultz, David M.; Kanak, Katharine M.; Straka, Jerry M.; Trapp, Robert J.; Gordon, Brent A.;
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The above processes specifically relied on the destabilization of the sub-cloud layer due to
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Gravity wave trains may be responsible for organizing the mammatus rather than forming them.
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International Cloud Atlas. Volume I. Manual on the observation of clouds and other
Meteors
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the hydrometeors within them; thus, there should be a dynamical downward forcing, as well.
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of the fallout alone are enough to create the lobes. Inhomogeneities in the masses of the
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raincloud, although they may be attached to other classes of parent clouds. The name
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Garrett, Timothy J.; Schmidt, Clinton T.; Kihlgren, Stina; Cornet, CĂ©line (2010).
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NASA Astronomy
Picture of the Day: Mammatus Clouds Over Mexico (30 December 2007)
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518:"The Mysteries of Mammatus Clouds: Observations and Formation Mechanisms"
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time. They usually appear around, before, or even after severe weather.
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environment, and the mammatus environment is usually at least somewhat
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332:) very efficiently at their tops, entire pockets of cool, negatively
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and also severe thunderstorms. They often extend from the base of a
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Mammatus Clouds over St Albans, Hertfordshire, UK on 12 August 2008
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The last proposed formation mechanism is that mammatus arise from
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and selected species, supplementary features, and other airborne
416:"Contrail lobes or mamma? The importance of correct terminology"
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effects of hydrometeor fallout, another mechanism proposes that
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608:"Mammatus Clouds as a Response to Cloud-Base Radiative Heating"
567:"Recent Advances in the Understanding of Near-Cloud Turbulence"
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Cumulus castellanus (unofficial alternative name for Cu con))
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Cloudland: A study on the structure and characters of clouds
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No differentiated sub-types; tends to resemble cirrostratus
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10.1175/1520-0493(2001)129<0159:HRAROO>2.0.CO;2
27:
Distinct pattern of pouches on the underside of some clouds
30:"Mammatus" redirects here. For the Ninjago character, see
657:"High-Resolution Airborne Radar Observations of Mammatus"
498:. London, England: Edward Stanford. pp. 104–105.
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term for Cu con and "Cu cas" is
Towering cumulus ))
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1717:(Mother cloud)+mutatus (e.g. cumulomutatus (cumut)
1714:(Mother cloud)+genitus (e.g. cumulogenitus (cugen)
571:Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society
210:Several pouches of mammatus clouds seen under
41:Mammatus clouds formation in Coimbatore, India
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316:Another method, that was first proposed by
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188:Panorama of mammatus cloud formations in
815:Latin terminology except where indicated
767:at the BBC News web site. 21 August 2008
745:Forming Mammatus Clouds Time Lapse Video
133:Mammatus are most often associated with
49:Mammatus clouds over the Nepal Himalayas
1118:Mutatus non-height specific (see below)
750:Mammatus clouds over Hastings, Nebraska
414:Schultz, David M.; Hancock, Y. (2016).
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233:in temperature, moisture and momentum (
249:) than the sub-cloud, dry air (at the
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1520:Stratocumulus stratiformis (Sc str)
1515:Stratocumulus lenticularis (Sc len)
698:Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences
612:Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences
522:Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences
1505:Stratocumulus castellanus (Sc cas)
1061:Cirrocumulus stratiformis (Cc str)
1056:Cirrocumulus lenticularis (Cc len)
357:Kelvin–Helmholtz (K–H) instability
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1177:Altocumulus stratiformis (Ac str)
1172:Altocumulus lenticularis (Ac len)
1046:Cirrocumulus castellanus (Cc cas)
180:Hypothesized formation mechanisms
1282:Cumulonimbus capillatus (Cb cap)
1157:Altocumulus castellanus (Ac cas)
915:polar stratospheric clouds (PSC)
153:are strongly cautioned to avoid
1461:St-only genitus cloud and other
1097:Cirrostratus nebulosus (Cs neb)
1530:Stratocumulus volutus (Sc vol)
1510:Stratocumulus floccus (Sc flo)
1291:Cb-only supplementary features
1092:Cirrostratus fibratus (Cs fib)
141:, but may also be found under
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1468:Stratus silvagenitus (St sil)
1326:Cumulonimbus flumen ((Cb flu)
1319:Cb-only accessories and other
1167:Altocumulus lacunosus (Ac la)
1051:Cirrocumulus floccus (Cc flo)
492:Ley, William Clement (1894).
1277:Cumulonimbus calvus (Cb cal)
1182:Altocumulus volutus (Ac vol)
1162:Altocumulus floccus (Ac flo)
856:Noctilucent type III billows
1231:Nimbostratus virga (Ns vir)
974:Cirrus castellanus (Ci cas)
372:Rayleigh–Taylor instability
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1452:Stratus nebulosus (St neb)
1386:Cumulus congestus (Cu con)
1380:Cumulus mediocris (Cu med)
1015:Cirrus vertebratus (Ci ve)
859:Noctilucent type IV whirls
384:Rayleigh–Bénard convection
300:effects. Discounting the
247:moist adiabatic lapse rate
80:is derived from the Latin
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1309:Cumulonimbus murus ((mur)
1298:Cumulonimbus cauda ((cau)
989:Cirrus spissatus (Ci spa)
853:Noctilucent type II bands
592:10.1175/BAMS-D-11-00062.1
102:International Cloud Atlas
1447:Stratus fractus (St fra)
1375:Cumulus humilis (Cu hum)
1354:Variable vertical extent
1304:Cumulonimbus incus (inc)
979:Cirrus fibratus (Ci fib)
850:Noctilucent type I veils
844:Polar mesospheric clouds
251:dry adiabatic lapse rate
1525:Stratocumulus Undulatus
1010:Cirrus intortus (Ci in)
994:Cirrus uncinus (Ci unc)
984:Cirrus floccus (Ci flo)
1665:Supplementary features
1545:supplementary features
661:Monthly Weather Review
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190:Swifts Creek, Victoria
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1708:and human-made clouds
1204:Altostratus undulatus
913:Nitric acid and water
728:10.1175/2007JAS2469.1
633:10.1175/2010JAS3513.1
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125:Mammatus clouds on a
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330:Stefan–Boltzmann law
201:Visakhapatnam, India
1726:Homomutatus (homut)
1722:Homogenitus (hogen)
1692:Praecipitatio (pra)
904:Lenticular nacreous
710:2008JAtS...65.1606K
673:2001MWRv..129..159W
624:2010JAtS...67.3891G
583:2012BAMS...93..499L
534:2006JAtS...63.2409S
435:2016Wthr...71..203S
111:William Clement Ley
1488:Stratocumulus (Sc)
1475:(Fg) Surface level
1416:Trade wind cumulus
901:Cirriform nacreous
458:Anonymous (1975).
379:atmospheric flows.
243:cumulonimbus cloud
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318:Kerry Emanuel
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56:(also called
55:
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19:
1686:
1590:Pannus (pan)
1580:Pileus (pil)
1552:Arcus ((arc)
1430:Stratus (St)
1351:Cumulus (Cu)
1328:Beaver tail)
1130:Medium-level
939:Tropospheric
809:hydrometeors
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618:(12): 3891.
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528:(10): 2409.
525:
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494:
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476:. Retrieved
469:the original
460:
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389:
310:hydrometeors
255:destabilizes
228:
224:
174:
159:
155:cumulonimbus
135:anvil clouds
132:
127:cumulonimbus
105:
96:
81:
77:
74:cumulonimbus
61:
57:
53:
52:
1697:Virga (vir)
1687:Mamma (mam)
1677:Cavum (cav)
1636:Opacus (op)
1585:Velum (vel)
1558:Tuba ((tub)
1311:Wall cloud)
1300:Tail cloud)
1217:Multi-level
957:Cirrus (Ci)
840:Noctilucent
822:Mesospheric
704:(5): 1606.
322:entrainment
283:sublimation
279:evaporation
271:hydrometeor
264:hydrometeor
143:altostratus
1748:Categories
1610:Non-height
947:High-level
577:(4): 499.
478:2017-05-13
429:(8): 203.
394:References
362:stratified
259:convective
235:wind shear
129:capillatus
86:(meaning "
1619:Varieties
1573:and other
1411:Horseshoe
1337:Hot tower
1248:Low-level
1224:Varieties
714:CiteSeerX
366:turbulent
294:adiabatic
231:gradients
1612:specific
886:15–30 km
832:80–85 km
642:54938314
552:53128552
306:dynamics
289:present.
151:aviators
78:mammatus
54:Mammatus
18:Mammatus
1759:Cumulus
1594:Other-
1497:Species
1439:Species
1370:Fractus
1362:Species
1269:Species
1149:Species
1084:Species
1038:Species
966:Species
949:3–18 km
706:Bibcode
669:Bibcode
620:Bibcode
579:Bibcode
530:Bibcode
431:Bibcode
423:Weather
377:sheared
350:updraft
334:buoyant
277:due to
166:⁄
1554:Shelf)
1250:0–2 km
1132:2–8 km
805:genera
716:
640:
550:
220:Laguna
147:cirrus
145:, and
92:breast
90:" or "
1404:Other
842:(NLC)
802:Cloud
638:S2CID
548:S2CID
472:(PDF)
465:(PDF)
419:(PDF)
275:cools
216:Biñan
106:mamma
88:udder
83:mamma
70:cloud
68:of a
58:mamma
1394:ICAO
257:and
94:").
66:base
60:or
1473:Fog
813:WMO
724:doi
677:doi
665:129
628:doi
587:doi
538:doi
439:doi
296:or
281:or
214:in
99:WMO
1750::
811:-
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504:^
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402:^
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433::
368:.
328:(
168:2
164:1
34:.
20:)
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
