Megafauna - Knowledge (XXG)

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disappearance of megafauna by about a century, and most likely resulted from accumulation of fuel once browsing stopped. Over the next several centuries grass increased; sclerophyll vegetation increased with a lag of another century, and a sclerophyll forest developed after about another thousand years. During two periods of climate change about 120,000 and 75,000 years ago, sclerophyll vegetation had also increased at the site in response to a shift to cooler, drier conditions; neither of these episodes had a significant impact on megafaunal abundance. Similar conclusions regarding the culpability of human hunters in the disappearance of Pleistocene megafauna were derived from high-resolution chronologies obtained via an analysis of a large collection of eggshell fragments of the flightless Australian bird

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in a given time interval was found to scale with the interval length raised to the 0.25 power. This is thought to reflect the emergence, during a trend of increasing maximum body size, of a series of anatomical, physiological, environmental, genetic and other constraints that must be overcome by evolutionary innovations before further size increases are possible. A strikingly faster rate of change was found for large decreases in body mass, such as may be associated with the phenomenon of

1285: 1767: 1601: 1501: 1212: 1191: 1516: 1631: 69:"animal life") are large animals. The precise definition of the term varies widely, though a common threshold is approximately 45 kilograms (99 lb), with other thresholds as low as 10 kilograms (22 lb) or as high as 1,000 kilograms (2,200 lb). Large body size is generally associated with other traits, such as having a slow rate of reproduction, and in large herbivores, reduced or negligible adult mortality from being killed by predators. 1782: 1751: 1691: 1530: 1616: 1373: 545: 1736: 828: 115:'s proposed threshold of 45 kilograms (99 lb) to classify animals as megafuna. However, for freshwater species, 30 kilograms (66 lb) is the preferred threshold. Some scientists define herbivorous terrestrial megafauna as having a weight exceeding 100 kilograms (220 lb), and terrestrial carnivorous megafauna as more than 15 kilograms (33 lb). Additionally, Owen-Smith coined the term 401: 1431: 95:, including 80% of all mammals greater than 1 tonne (2,200 lb), while small animals were largely unaffected. This pronouncedly size-biased extinction is otherwise unprecedented in the geological record. Humans and climatic change have been implicated by most authors as the likely causes, though the relative importance of either factor has been the subject of significant controversy. 375:, apparently reached 600 kg, also close to this limit. A similar theoretical maximum size for mammalian carnivores has been predicted based on the metabolic rate of mammals, the energetic cost of obtaining prey, and the maximum estimated rate coefficient of prey intake. It has also been suggested that maximum size for mammalian carnivores is constrained by the stress the 1463: 1587: 1447: 748:, ever grew to masses much above 500 kg, and thus never attained the size of the largest mammalian carnivores, let alone that of the largest mammalian herbivores. It has been suggested that the increasing thickness of avian eggshells in proportion to egg mass with increasing egg size places an upper limit on the size of birds. The largest species of 1166:, their hunting and other associated ecological impacts led to the extinction of many megafaunal species there. Calculations suggest that this extinction decreased methane production by about 9.6 million tons per year. This suggests that the absence of megafaunal methane emissions may have contributed to the abrupt climatic cooling at the onset of the 434:, an elongated, serpentine whale that differed from modern whales in many respects and was not ancestral to them. Following this, the evolution of large body size in cetaceans appears to have come to a temporary halt, and then to have backtracked, although the available fossil records are limited. However, in the period from 31 Ma ago (in the 904:, these megafaunal extinctions followed a highly distinctive landmass-by-landmass pattern that closely parallels the spread of humans into previously uninhabited regions of the world, and which shows no overall correlation with climatic history (which can be visualized with plots over recent geological time periods of climate markers such as 992:, periods of abrupt warming, but only when humans were also present. Humans may have impeded processes of migration and recolonization that would otherwise have allowed the megafaunal species to adapt to the climate shift. In at least some areas, interstadials were periods of expanding human populations. 243:), suggesting that physiological or ecological constraints had been reached, after an increase in body mass of over three orders of magnitude. However, when considered from the standpoint of rate of size increase per generation, the exponential increase is found to have continued until the appearance of 235:(million years) ago, terrestrial mammals underwent a nearly exponential increase in body size as they diversified to occupy the ecological niches left vacant. Starting from just a few kg before the event, maximum size had reached ~50 kg a few million years later, and ~750 kg by the end of the 2797:

Goldbogen JA, Cade DE, Wisniewska DM, Potvin J, Segre PS, Savoca MS, Hazen EL, Czapanskiy MF, Kahane-Rapport SR, DeRuiter SL, Gero S, Tønnesen P, Gough WT, Hanson MB, Holt MM, Jensen FH, Simon M, Stimpert AK, Arranz P, Johnston DW, Nowacek DP, Parks SE, Visser F, Friedlaender AS, Tyack PL, Madsen PT,

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could have emitted 520 million tons of methane to the atmosphere annually, contributing to the warmer climate of the time (up to 10 °C warmer than at present). This large emission follows from the enormous estimated biomass of sauropods, and because methane production of individual herbivores is

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Megafauna play a significant role in the lateral transport of mineral nutrients in an ecosystem, tending to translocate them from areas of high to those of lower abundance. They do so by their movement between the time they consume the nutrient and the time they release it through elimination (or, to

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the non-avian dinosaurs and most other giant reptiles were eliminated. However, the earlier mass extinctions were more global and not so selective for megafauna; i.e., many species of other types, including plants, marine invertebrates and plankton, went extinct as well. Thus, the earlier events must

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One observation that has been made about the evolution of larger body size is that rapid rates of increase that are often seen over relatively short time intervals are not sustainable over much longer time periods. In an examination of mammal body mass changes over time, the maximum increase possible

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Smith FA, Boyer AG, Brown JH, Costa DP, Dayan T, Ernest SK, Evans AR, Fortelius M, Gittleman JL, Hamilton MJ, Harding LE, Lintulaakso K, Lyons SK, McCain C, Okie JG, Saarinen JJ, Sibly RM, Stephens PR, Theodor J, Uhen MD (2010-11-26). "The Evolution of Maximum Body Size of Terrestrial Mammals".

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advantage of large body mass in cool climates, better ability of larger organisms to cope with seasonality in food supply, or other factors; the latter correlation could be explained in terms of range and resource limitations. However, the two parameters are interrelated (due to sea level drops

111:. He described the animals as "the hugest, and fiercest, and strangest forms". In the later 20th and 21st centuries, the term usually refers to large animals. There are variations in thresholds used to define megafauna as a whole or certain groups of megafauna. Many scientific literature adopt 924:

about 41,000 years ago (after formation of a land bridge to Australia about 43,000 years ago). The role of humans in the extinction of Australia and New Guinea's megafauna has been disputed, with multiple studies showing a decline in the number of species prior to the arrival of humans on the

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vegetation. The high-resolution chronology of the changes supports the hypothesis that human hunting alone eliminated the megafauna, and that the subsequent change in flora was most likely a consequence of the elimination of browsers and an increase in fire. The increase in fire lagged the

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Because of the small initial size of all mammals following the extinction of the non-avian dinosaurs, nonmammalian vertebrates had a roughly ten-million-year-long window of opportunity (during the Paleocene) for evolution of gigantism without much competition. During this interval,

858:, including over 80% of all terrestrial animals with a body mass greater than 1,000 kilograms (2,200 lb). Small animals and other organisms like plants were generally unaffected by the extinctions, which is unprecented in previous extinctions during the last 30 million years. 1094:) to other areas is thought to have significantly impacted the region's ecology, and the effects may not yet have reached their limits. In the sea, cetaceans and pinnipeds that feed at depth are thought to translocate nitrogen from deep to shallow water, enhancing 1157:

of North America before contact with European settlers. The study estimated that the removal of the bison caused a decrease of as much as 2.2 million tons per year. Another study examined the change in the methane concentration in the atmosphere at the end of the

893:(where the local megafauna had a chance to evolve alongside modern humans) being comparatively less affected. The latter areas did suffer gradual attrition of megafauna, particularly of the slower-moving species (a class of vulnerable megafauna epitomized by 189:, with high longevity, slow population growth rates, low mortality rates, and (at least for the largest) few or no natural predators capable of killing adults. These characteristics, although not exclusive to such megafauna, make them vulnerable to human 2293:

Evans AR, Jones D, Boyer AG, Brown JH, Costa DP, Ernest SK, Fitzgerald EM, Fortelius M, Gittleman JL, Hamilton MJ, Harding LE, Lintulaakso K, Lyons SK, Okie JG, Saarinen JJ, Sibly RM, Smith FA, Stephens PR, Theodor JM, Uhen MD (2012-01-30).

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Analysis of the variation of maximum body size over the last 40 Ma suggests that decreasing temperature and increasing continental land area are associated with increasing maximum body size. The former correlation would be consistent with

635:. Gastornithids and at least one lineage of flightless paleognath birds originated in Europe, both lineages dominating niches for large herbivores while mammals remained below 45 kg (in contrast with other landmasses like 1071:

frequency. Megafauna may help to suppress the growth of invasive plants. Large herbivores and carnivores can suppress the abundance of smaller animals, resulting in their population increase when megafauna are removed.

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in terms of being able to accelerate gastrointestinal transit in order to accommodate very large food intakes. A similar trend emerges when rates of increase of maximum body mass per generation for different mammalian

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Moleón M, Sánchez-Zapata JA, Donázar JA, Revilla E, Martín-López B, Gutiérrez-Cánovas C, Getz WM, Morales-Reyes Z, Campos-Arceiz A, Crowder LB, Galetti M, González-Suárez M, He F, Jordano P, Lewison R (2020-03-11).

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availability is thought to limit productivity in much of the region, the decrease in its transport from the western part of the basin and from floodplains (both of which derive their supply from the uplift of the

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Johnson CN, Alroy J, Beeton NJ, Bird MI, Brook BW, Cooper A, Gillespie R, Herrando-Pérez S, Jacobs Z, Miller GH, Prideaux GJ, Roberts RG, Rodríguez-Rey M, Saltré F, Turney CS, Bradshaw CJ (10 February 2016).

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Gordon IJ, Prins HH, Mallon J, Puk LD, Miranda EB, Starling-Manne C, van der Wal R, Moore B, Foley W (2019), Gordon IJ, Prins HH (eds.), "The Ecology of Browsing and Grazing in Other Vertebrate Taxa",

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over the last 450,000 years (based on Antarctic temperatures and global ice volume), showing that there were no unique climatic events that would account for any of the megafaunal extinction pulses

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whales; the latter technique is used with less dense and patchy plankton. The cooling trend in Earth's recent history may have generated more localities of high plankton abundance via wind-driven

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are another group of marine mammals which adapted to fully aquatic life around the same time as the cetaceans did. Sirenians are closely related to elephants. The largest sirenian was the

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Anderson A, Sand, C., Petchey, F., Worthy, T. H. (2010). "Faunal extinction and human habitation in New Caledonia: Initial results and implications of new research at the Pindai Caves".

1558: 206:. When normalized to generation length, the maximum rate of body mass decrease was found to be over 30 times greater than the maximum rate of body mass increase for a ten-fold change. 3170:

Buffetaut E, Angst D (November 2014). "Stratigraphic distribution of large flightless birds in the Palaeogene of Europe and its palaeobiological and palaeogeographical implications".

6186: 477:, facilitates deeper diving to access relatively easily-caught, large cephalopod prey in a less competitive environment. Compared to odontocetes, the efficiency of baleen whales' 5367:

Rule S, Brook, B. W., Haberle, S. G., Turney, C. S. M., Kershaw, A. P. (2012-03-23). "The Aftermath of Megafaunal Extinction: Ecosystem Transformation in Pleistocene Australia".

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in the near future (see examples below). Direct killing by humans, primarily for meat or other body parts, is the most significant factor in contemporary megafaunal decline.

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Müller UC, Pross J, Tzedakis PC, Gamble C, Kotthoff U, Schmiedl G, Wulf S, Christanis K (February 2011). "The role of climate in the spread of modern humans into Europe".

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Jackson FD, Varricchio DJ, Jackson RA, Vila B, Chiappe LM (2008). "Comparison of water vapor conductance in a titanosaur egg from the Upper Cretaceous of Argentina and a

536:, which reached up to 10 m (33 ft) in length and weighed 8,000 to 10,000 kg (18,000 to 22,000 lb), and was hunted to extinction in the 18th century. 3146: 5288: 1339: 4026: 5010:

Burney DA, Burney, L. P., Godfrey, L. R., Jungers, W. L., Goodman, S. M., Wright, H. T., Jull. A. J. T. (July 2004). "A chronology for late prehistoric Madagascar".

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Megafauna species have considerable effects on their local environment, including the suppression of the growth of woody vegetation, and a consequent reduction in

1270: 909: 1852: 5787: 1085:, it is estimated that such lateral diffusion was reduced over 98% following the megafaunal extinctions that occurred roughly 12,500 years ago. Given that 1040: 1645: 5096:(L.), Aves, Columbiformes) from Mauritius cave shelters highlights human predation, with a comment on the status of the family Raphidae Wetmore, 1930". 1051: 228: 1705: 442:

of a factor of 3.2 per million years) than achieved by any group of terrestrial mammals. This trend led to the largest animal of all time, the modern

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Nonavian dinosaur size was not similarly constrained because they had a different relationship between body mass and egg size than birds. The 400 kg

1227: 3736:"The late-Quaternary megafauna extinctions: Patterns, causes, ecological consequences and implications for ecosystem management in the Anthropocene" 2433: 4542:

Norton CJ, Kondo, Y., Ono, A., Zhang, Y., Diab, M. C. (2009-05-23). "The nature of megafaunal extinctions during the MIS 3–2 transition in Japan".

420:, they have dominated the top end of the marine body size range, due to the more efficient intake of oxygen possible using lungs. The ancestors of 1675: 5512:

Miller G, Magee J, Smith M, Spooner N, Baynes A, Lehman S, Fogel M, Johnston H, Williams D, Clark P, Florian C, Holst R, DeVogel S (2016-01-29).

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Brook BW, Johnson CN (2006). "Selective hunting of juveniles as a cause of the imperceptible overkill of the Australian Pleistocene megafauna".

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continent and the absence of any evidence of human predation; the impact of climate change has instead been cited for their decline. Similarly,

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was just one of a series of megafaunal extinction pulses that have occurred during the last 50,000 years over much of the Earth's surface, with

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Cooke SB, Dávalos LM, Mychajliw AM, Turvey ST, Upham NS (2017). "Anthropogenic Extinction Dominates Holocene Declines of West Indian Mammals".

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250 years ago. Nearly all of the world's isolated islands could furnish similar examples of extinctions occurring shortly after the arrival of

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constraints on increases in body size may be associated with suspension in water as opposed to standing against the force of gravity, and with

3480: 1304: 516:, which can reach more than 6 m (20 ft) in length and weigh up to 5,000 kg (11,000 lb). Other large pinnipeds include the 5751: 5713: 4739: 4700: 4663: 3874: 3595: 3463: 3374: 3337: 3303: 154:, but all the others were formerly more wide-ranging, with their ranges and populations continually shrinking and decreasing over time. Wild 2434:"The maximum attainable body size of herbivorous mammals: morphophysiological constraints on foregut, and adaptations of hindgut fermenters" 1249: 3791: 1485: 6176: 719:

during most of the Cenozoic but declined and ultimately went extinct after eutherian predators arrived from North America (as part of the

6439: 2121:"Determinants of loss of mammal species during the Late Quaternary 'megafauna' extinctions: life history and ecology, but not body size" 1543: 2930:

Churchill M, Clementz MT, Kohno N (2014-12-19). "Cope's rule and the evolution of body size in Pinnipedimorpha (Mammalia: Carnivora)".

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were minimal; the change was accompanied by an increase in charcoal, and was followed by a transition from rainforest to fire-tolerant

4343: 5132: 1284: 1174:, was 2–4 times more rapid than any other decrease in the last half million years, suggesting that an unusual mechanism was at work. 4723: 4639: 1877: 1660: 6437:

Kelliher FM, Clark, H. (2010-03-15). "Methane emissions from bison—An historic herd estimate for the North American Great Plains".

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fungal spores (which derive mainly from the dung of megaherbivores) in swamp sediment cores spanning the last 130,000 years from

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occurred earlier in Earth's geologic history, in which some or all of the megafauna of the time also died out. Famously, in the

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Holdaway RN, Jacomb, C. (2000-03-24). "Rapid Extinction of the Moas (Aves: Dinornithiformes): Model, Test, and Implications".

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megafaunal extinctions and extirpations over the last 56,000 years has revealed a tendency for such events to cluster within

162:, specifically Africa and Asia. Megafaunal species may be categorized according to their dietary type: megaherbivores (e.g., 5765: 5280: 4753: 3888: 3207:"Tinamous and moa flock together: mitochondrial genome sequence analysis reveals independent losses of flight among ratites" 819: 428:, no larger than dogs, of about 53 million years (Ma) ago. By 40 Ma ago, cetaceans had attained a length of 20 m or more in 214: 3735: 2432:

Clauss M, Frey, R., Kiefer, B., Lechner-Doll, M., Loehlein, W., Polster, C., Roessner, G. E., Streich, W. J. (2003-04-24).

3977: 1842: 1190: 253:, increasing generation times with increasing size cause the log mass vs. time plot to curve downward from a linear fit.) 6551: 5473:

Miller GH, Magee JW, Johnson BJ, Fogel ML, Spooner NA, McCulloch MT, Ayliffe LK (1999-01-08). "Pleistocene Extinction of

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Correlations between times of first appearance of humans and unique megafaunal extinction pulses on different land masses

1500: 839: 814: 438:) to the present, cetaceans underwent a significantly more rapid sustained increase in body mass (a rate of increase in 119:

to describe herbivores that weighed over 1,000 kilograms (2,200 lb), which has seen some use by other researchers.

92: 1630: 1887: 1837: 1600: 1577: 870: 866: 862: 6583: 3816: 2802:(2019). "Why whales are big but not bigger: Physiological drivers and ecological limits in the age of ocean giants". 654:, have traditionally been viewed as representing a lineage separate from that of their small flighted relatives, the 3481:"Ecological history and latent conservation potential: large and giant tortoises as a model for taxon substitutions" 481:

scales more favorably with increasing size when planktonic food is dense, making larger size more advantageous. The

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Fiedal S (2009). "Sudden Deaths: The Chronology of Terminal Pleistocene Megafaunal Extinction". In Haynes G (ed.).

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Fiedel S (2009). "Sudden Deaths: The Chronology of Terminal Pleistocene Megafaunal Extinction". In Haynes G (ed.).

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Analysis indicates that 35 genera of North American mammals went extinct more or less simultaneously in this event.

1009:, Australia, showed that the megafauna of that region virtually disappeared about 41,000 years ago, at a time when 874: 720: 20: 6505:

Stuart AJ (November 1991). "Mammalian extinctions in the Late Pleistocene of northern Eurasia and North America".

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Wroe S, Field JH, Archer M, Grayson DK, Price GJ, Louys J, Faith JT, Webb GE, Davidson I, Mooney SD (2013-05-28).

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Wroe S, Field JH, Archer M, Grayson DK, Price GJ, Louys J, Faith JT, Webb GE, Davidson I, Mooney SD (2013-09-03).

1766: 1211: 692:. Later in the Cenozoic, however, they were displaced by advanced carnivorans and died out. In North America, the 1515: 1110:

Large populations of megaherbivores have the potential to contribute greatly to the atmospheric concentration of

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Depletion of herbivorous megafauna results in increased growth of woody vegetation, and a consequent increase in

3976:, Ayliffe LK, Yoshida H, Olley JM, Prideaux GJ, Laslett GM, Baynes A, Smith MA, Jones R, Smith BL (2001-06-08). 3422: 2771: 2752: 392:

accompanying increased glaciation), making the driver of the trends in maximum size more difficult to identify.

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after the extinction of megafauna in the Americas. After early humans migrated to the Americas about 13,000

756:, may have gone extinct after it attained the maximum avian body mass and was then outcompeted by marsupial 4477:"Climate change frames debate over the extinction of megafauna in Sahul (Pleistocene Australia-New Guinea)" 371: 6214:(2013-08-11). "The legacy of the Pleistocene megafauna extinctions on nutrient availability in Amazonia". 5514:"Human predation contributed to the extinction of the Australian megafaunal bird Genyornis newtoni ~47 ka" 4951:"Megafaunal meiolaniid horned turtles survived until early human settlement in Vanuatu, Southwest Pacific" 4425: 4141:, Roberts RG, Reid C, Fifield LK, Higham TF, Jacobs Z, Kemp N, Colhoun EA, Kalin RM, Ogle N (2008-08-21). 2388: 2193: 1529: 1145:

Recent studies have indicated that the extinction of megafaunal herbivores may have caused a reduction in

517: 513: 455: 83:, megafauna were diverse across the globe, with most continental ecosystems exhibiting similar or greater 661:. However, recent genetic studies have found that tinamous nest well within the ratite tree, and are the 2482: 1882: 1857: 1812: 878: 104: 33: 1760:, the largest macropredatory fish and one of the largest carnivorous shark species, is found worldwide. 1735: 469:

Among toothed whales, maximum body size appears to be limited by food availability. Larger size, as in

5622:"Pleistocene Megafaunal Collapse, Novel Plant Communities, and Enhanced Fire Regimes in North America" 4774:

Simmons AH, Mandel, R. D. (December 2007). "Not Such a New Light: A Response to Ammerman and Noller".

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Svenning JC, Lemoine RT, Bergman J, Buitenwerf R, Le Roux E, Lundgren E, Mungi N, Pedersen RØ (2024).

3248:"Genomic Support for a Moa-Tinamou Clade and Adaptive Morphological Convergence in Flightless Ratites" 76:

frequency. Megafauna also play a role in regulating and stabilizing the abundance of smaller animals.

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Sorkin B (2008-04-10). "A biomechanical constraint on body mass in terrestrial mammalian predators".

2450: 2380: 2309: 2246: 2185: 2075: 2008: 1802: 1615: 1126: 851: 533: 458:. Also, the greater heat capacity and thermal conductivity of water compared to air may increase the 269: 265: 2393: 2176:

Barnosky AD (2004-10-01). "Assessing the Causes of Late Pleistocene Extinctions on the Continents".

643:, which saw the earlier evolution of larger mammals) and were the largest European tetrapods in the 6603: 5729: 4823: 3852: 3824: 3513: 3488: 2198: 1667: 1453: 1146: 1036: 1029: 843: 446:. Several reasons for the more rapid evolution of large body size in cetaceans are possible. Fewer 112: 4143:"Late-surviving megafauna in Tasmania, Australia, implicate human involvement in their extinction" 3088:

Mitchell KJ, Llamas B, Soubrier J, Rawlence NJ, Worthy TH, Wood J, Lee MS, Cooper A (2014-05-23).

6598: 6532: 6507: 6487: 5660: 5602: 5402: 5344: 5224: 4904: 4801: 4793: 4335: 4300:"What does the occurrence of Sporormiella (Preussia) spores mean in Australian fossil sequences?" 4119: 4063: 4018: 3434: 3138: 3090:"Ancient DNA reveals elephant birds and kiwi are sister taxa and clarifies ratite bird evolution" 2845: 2639: 2623: 2604:

Ashton KG, Tracy, M. C., de Queiroz, A. (October 2000). "Is Bergmann's Rule Valid for Mammals?".

2474: 2414: 2262: 2219: 1822: 1637: 1462: 1430: 1379: 1218: 1095: 938: 781: 738: 682: 451: 6400:

Smith FA, Elliot, S. M., Lyons, S. K. (2010-05-23). "Methane emissions from extinct megafauna".

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Haley MP, Deutsch CJ, Boeuf BJ (April 1991). "A method for estimating mass of large pinnipeds".

2120: 1947: 1807: 1446: 384: 6524: 6402: 6348: 6292: 6216: 6157: 6092: 6053: 6035: 5996: 5978: 5936: 5897: 5757: 5747: 5709: 5652: 5594: 5551: 5494: 5455: 5394: 5369: 5336: 5311: 5216: 5074: 5049: 5029: 4992: 4869: 4776: 4745: 4735: 4696: 4659: 4620: 4524: 4506: 4453: 4406: 4388: 4327: 4276: 4184: 4111: 4010: 3985: 3978:"New Ages for the Last Australian Megafauna: Continent-Wide Extinction About 46,000 Years Ago" 3940: 3880: 3870: 3856: 3757: 3716: 3698: 3649: 3631: 3591: 3560: 3459: 3453: 3426: 3380: 3370: 3333: 3327: 3299: 3269: 3228: 3130: 3065: 3047: 2998: 2955: 2947: 2912: 2894: 2837: 2776: 2722: 2631: 2581: 2466: 2406: 2371: 2337: 2211: 2158: 2140: 2101: 2093: 2044: 2026: 1977: 1832: 1757: 1565: 1159: 1130: 1020: 1002: 962: 958: 581: 5932: 5733: 3293: 1586: 256:

Megaherbivores eventually attained a body mass of over 10,000 kg. The largest of these,

6608: 6516: 6479: 6456: 6419: 6338: 6282: 6272: 6233: 6147: 6137: 6084: 6043: 6027: 5986: 5970: 5928: 5887: 5877: 5838: 5701: 5644: 5586: 5541: 5533: 5486: 5445: 5437: 5386: 5328: 5261: 5206: 5156: 5113: 5066: 5021: 4982: 4972: 4931: 4896: 4859: 4849: 4785: 4727: 4688: 4651: 4610: 4600: 4561: 4514: 4496: 4445: 4426:"The timing and cause of megafauna mass deaths at Lancefield Swamp, south-eastern Australia" 4396: 4378: 4319: 4268: 4174: 4164: 4103: 4086: 4055: 4002: 3932: 3747: 3706: 3688: 3639: 3623: 3583: 3550: 3505: 3418: 3259: 3218: 3187: 3120: 3112: 3055: 3037: 2990: 2939: 2902: 2884: 2827: 2819: 2799: 2766: 2712: 2615: 2571: 2561: 2528: 2458: 2398: 2327: 2317: 2254: 2203: 2148: 2132: 2083: 2034: 2016: 1967: 1959: 1827: 1697: 1550: 1395: 1310: 1047: 978: 970: 800:

of the Miocene, were considerably larger, weighing more than 2,000 kg (4,400 lb).

615: 525: 459: 388: 203: 190: 146:. Of these five categories of large herbivores, only bovines are presently found outside of 88: 84: 4826:, MacPhee RD, Jull AJ, McDonald HG, Woods CA, Iturralde-Vinent M, Hodgins GW (2005-08-16). 4299: 688:

Predatory megafaunal flightless birds were often able to compete with mammals in the early

6321: 6211: 6111: 4900: 3366: 1862: 1507: 1400: 1291: 1239: 678: 293:(1.2) and proboscids (1.1), all of which are hindgut fermenters. The rate of increase for 6317:"Could methane produced by sauropod dinosaurs have helped drive Mesozoic climate warmth?" 3539:"The Broken Zig-Zag: Late Cenozoic large mammal and tortoise extinction in South America" 1129:

in digestion, and release it through belching or flatulence. Today, around 20% of annual

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are another example of megafauna, but their current ranges are largely restricted to the

6452: 6415: 6334: 6268: 6229: 6133: 5873: 5834: 5640: 5582: 5529: 5382: 5324: 5257: 5202: 5152: 5109: 5062: 4968: 4845: 4596: 4557: 4492: 4441: 4374: 4315: 4264: 4160: 4099: 3998: 3684: 3501: 3183: 3108: 3033: 2986: 2880: 2815: 2708: 2692: 2658: 2524: 2454: 2384: 2313: 2250: 2189: 2079: 2012: 504:

Cetaceans are not the only marine mammals to reach tremendous sizes. The largest mammal

6520: 6287: 6252: 6152: 6115: 6048: 5991: 5892: 5859: 5621: 5546: 5513: 5450: 5425: 5160: 4987: 4950: 4864: 4827: 4819: 4615: 4580: 4519: 4476: 4401: 4358: 4179: 4142: 3711: 3668: 3644: 3611: 3060: 3017: 2994: 2907: 2864: 2576: 2547: 2332: 2295: 2153: 2039: 1996: 1817: 1652: 1569: 1276: 1163: 1150: 1149:. This hypothesis is relatively new. One study examined the methane emissions from the 1115: 894: 768: 610: 599: 478: 409: 278: 245: 239:. This trend of increasing body mass appears to level off about 40 Ma ago (in the late 4359:"Reply to Brook et al: No empirical evidence for human overkill of megafauna in Sahul" 544: 6592: 6181: 6072: 5664: 5606: 4805: 4339: 4081: 3509: 3142: 2849: 2643: 2532: 2478: 1727: 1682: 1295: 1255: 1167: 946: 934: 930: 716: 708: 693: 674: 636: 590: 565: 482: 413: 321: 286: 218:

Large terrestrial mammals compared in size to one of the largest sauropod dinosaurs,

183: 116: 53: 37: 6536: 6491: 6460: 5958: 5406: 5348: 5265: 5228: 4908: 4449: 4220: 4123: 4067: 4022: 3669:"New insights on the anatomy and ontogeny of the largest extinct freshwater turtles" 3612:"The evolution of island gigantism and body size variation in tortoises and turtles" 3438: 3191: 2418: 2266: 2223: 4138: 3973: 3913: 2552: 1592: 1521: 1492: 1437: 1326: 1154: 1082: 997: 989: 901: 827: 712: 662: 620: 474: 447: 430: 417: 357: 352: 326: 257: 135: 123: 6116:"Lateral Diffusion of Nutrients by Mammalian Herbivores in Terrestrial Ecosystems" 5070: 4255:. Peopling the last new worlds: the first colonisation of Sahul and the Americas. 3693: 727:. In contrast, large herbivorous flightless ratites have survived to the present. 619:

in South America). This is also the period when megafaunal flightless herbivorous

400: 182:

Megafauna animals – in the sense of the largest mammals and birds – are generally

6277: 6142: 5957:

Malhi Y, Doughty CE, Galetti M, Smith FA, Svenning JC, Terborgh JW (2016-01-26).

5737: 5490: 5117: 5025: 4717: 4565: 4272: 3860: 3587: 3355: 2566: 1995:

Malhi Y, Doughty CE, Galetti M, Smith FA, Svenning JC, Terborgh JW (2016-01-26).

1170:. The decrease in atmospheric methane that occurred at that time, as recorded in 1028:

fungal spores from a lake in eastern North America and from study of deposits of

6253:"The Whale Pump: Marine Mammals Enhance Primary Productivity in a Coastal Basin" 5917:"Consequences of the Cretaceous/Paleogene Mass Extinction for Marine Ecosystems" 5705: 5185:

Cooper A, Turney C, Hughen KA, Brook BW, McDonald HG, Bradshaw CJ (2015-07-23).

5133:"Competition, Predation, and the Evolution and Extinction of Steller's Sea Cow, 4692: 4655: 3295:

Magnificent Mihirungs: The Colossal Flightless Birds of the Australian Dreamtime

1788: 1607: 1099: 1014: 954: 882: 796: 670: 594: 490: 470: 334: 317: 294: 220: 80: 6088: 4249:"Looking for the archaeological signature in Australian Megafaunal extinctions" 3936: 3667:

Cadena EA, Link A, Cooke SB, Stroik LK, Vanegas AF, Tallman M (December 2021).

730:

However, none of the flightless birds of the Cenozoic, including the predatory

122:

Among living animals, the term megafauna is most commonly used for the largest

6343: 6316: 5788:"The killing of large species is pushing them towards extinction, study finds" 4789: 4059: 2757: 2627: 2462: 2258: 2088: 2063: 1742: 1535: 1350: 1346: 1331: 1122: 1086: 1006: 950: 757: 732: 624: 443: 366: 361: 139: 6096: 6039: 5982: 5940: 4949:

White AW, Worthy, T. H., Hawkins, S., Bedford, S., Spriggs, M. (2010-08-16).

4828:"Asynchronous extinction of late Quaternary sloths on continents and islands" 4510: 4457: 4392: 4331: 4280: 3948: 3761: 3702: 3635: 3564: 3430: 3051: 3002: 2951: 2898: 2780: 2144: 2097: 2064:"Rethinking Trade-Driven Extinction Risk in Marine and Terrestrial Megafauna" 2030: 1981: 1081:

a much lesser extent, through decomposition after death). In South America's

1035:

Continuing human hunting and environmental disturbance has led to additional

5974: 5882: 5761: 5648: 5590: 5390: 5332: 5211: 5187:"Abrupt warming events drove Late Pleistocene Holarctic megafaunal turnover" 5186: 4977: 4854: 4749: 4719:

Faunal extinction in an island society: pygmy hippopotamus hunters of Cyprus

4605: 4501: 4383: 4169: 4006: 3884: 3384: 3264: 3247: 3223: 3206: 3116: 3042: 2889: 2823: 2717: 2441: 2402: 2322: 2207: 2021: 1909: 1867: 1773: 1469: 1417: 1356: 1234: 1056: 985: 913: 744: 703: 655: 644: 605: 505: 498: 463: 435: 425: 340: 298: 261: 236: 232: 163: 159: 61: 6474:

Tsubamoto T (2012). "Estimating body mass from the astragalus in mammals".

6352: 6296: 6161: 6057: 6031: 6000: 5959:"Megafauna and ecosystem function from the Pleistocene to the Anthropocene" 5901: 5656: 5598: 5555: 5459: 5441: 5398: 5340: 5220: 5078: 5033: 4996: 4873: 4624: 4528: 4410: 4188: 4115: 4014: 3944: 3720: 3653: 3627: 3273: 3232: 3134: 3069: 2959: 2916: 2841: 2726: 2635: 2585: 2470: 2410: 2341: 2215: 2162: 2136: 2105: 2048: 1997:"Megafauna and ecosystem function from the Pleistocene to the Anthropocene" 1963: 775:

megafaunas, being present in every nonpolar continent until the arrival of

19:

This article is about living or extinct large animals. For other uses, see

6528: 6483: 5739:

Twilight of the Mammoths: Ice Age Extinctions and the Rewilding of America

5498: 3862:

Twilight of the Mammoths: Ice Age Extinctions and the Rewilding of America

3555: 3538: 3479:

Hansen DM, Donlan, C. J., Griffiths, C. J., Campbell, K. J. (April 2010).

281:

time scales). Among terrestrial mammals, the fastest rates of increase of

6120: 5620:

Gill JL, Williams JW, Jackson ST, Lininger KB, Robinson GS (2009-11-20).

2125:

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series B: Biological Sciences

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habits, had the lowest rate (0.39) among the mammalian groups studied.

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Mungi NA, Jhala YV, Qureshi Q, le Roux E, Svenning JC (October 2023).

4935: 3125: 2943: 1972: 6237: 6016:"Ecological consequences of Late Quaternary extinctions of megafauna" 4323: 1573: 917: 886: 673:

of New Zealand have been found to be the sister group of the extinct

651: 632: 521: 290: 240: 147: 6423: 5860:"Dynamics of origination and extinction in the marine fossil record" 4731: 4424:

Dortch J, Cupper M, Grün R, Harpley B, Lee K, Field J (2016-08-01).

4247:

Field J, Wroe S, Trueman CN, Garvey J, Wyatt-Spratt S (2013-02-08).

4107: 6552:"Great white shark is more endangered than tiger, claims scientist" 2619: 681:

and gigantism arose independently multiple times among ratites via

350:) all reached a maximum size of about 1000 kg (the carnivoran 87:

in megafauna as compared to ecosystems in Africa today. During the

1091: 1055:

have been caused by more generalized types of disturbances to the

966: 926: 826: 818: 543: 399: 274: 213: 65: 3918:"Fifty millennia of catastrophic extinctions after human contact" 4955: 3357:

Eggs, Nests, and Baby Dinosaurs: A Look at Dinosaur Reproduction

1622: 1032:

dung left in over half a dozen caves in the American Southwest.

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Callaway E (2016-09-21). "Human remains found in hobbit cave".

2691:

Heim NA, Knope ML, Schaal EK, Wang SC, Payne JL (2015-02-20).

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lost most of its megafauna apparently about 30,000 years ago,

881:

or other causes. However, this extinction near the end of the

666: 549: 297:(0.74) was about a third that of perissodactyls. The rate for 5694:

American Megafaunal Extinctions at the End of the Pleistocene

4681:

American Megafaunal Extinctions at the End of the Pleistocene

4644:

American Megafaunal Extinctions at the End of the Pleistocene

3582:, Cham: Springer International Publishing, pp. 339–404, 3828: 861:

Various theories have attributed the wave of extinctions to

593:

niches were often occupied by reptiles, such as terrestrial

126:

terrestrial mammals, which includes (but is not limited to)

6584:

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10.1666/0094-8373(2008)034[0229:COWVCI]2.0.CO;2

2772:

10.1641/0006-3568(2001)051[1037:WOAAPC]2.0.CO;2

623:

birds evolved in the Northern Hemisphere, while flightless

193:, in part because of their slow population recovery rates. 103:

One of the earliest occurrences of the term "megafauna" is

3817:"Megafauna — First Victims of the Human-Caused Extinction" 36:(foreground), Earth's largest extant land animal, and the 6315:

Wilkinson DM, Nisbet, E. G., Ruxton, G. D. (2012-05-08).

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Janoo A (April 2005). "Discovery of isolated dodo bones (

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Phillips MJ, Gibb GC, Crimp EA, Penny D (January 2010).

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Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences

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Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences

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Baker AJ, Haddrath O, McPherson JD, Cloutier A (2014).

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Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences

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shared the dominant predatory niches with metatherian

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5819:"Are we eating the world's megafauna to extinction?" 4889:

Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics

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Baker J, Meade A, Pagel M, Venditti C (2015-04-21).

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Archived from 3937:10.1016/j.tree.2005.04.022 3353:Kenneth Carpenter (1999). 916:and nearby islands (e.g., 812: 809:Timing and possible causes 721:Great American Interchange 21:Megafauna (disambiguation) 18: 6344:10.1016/j.cub.2012.03.042 6175:Marshall M (2013-08-11). 5131:Anderson PK (July 1995). 4790:10.1080/00438240701676169 4060:10.1038/nature.2016.20656 2463:10.1007/s00442-003-1254-z 2259:10.1080/03115510609506854 2119:Johnson CN (2002-11-07). 2089:10.1016/j.cub.2016.05.026 627:evolved to large size on 166:), megacarnivores (e.g., 6014:Johnson C (2009-07-22). 5915:D'Hondt S (2005-12-01). 5285:Scientific American news 5098:Annales de Paléontologie 4545:Quaternary International 4253:Quaternary International 3363:Indiana University Press 2548:"The Costs of Carnivory" 1713:Chinese giant salamander 1345:Life restoration of the 1114:, which is an important 900:Outside the mainland of 574:Anomalopteryx didiformis 558:Dinornis novaezealandiae 325:– formerly considered a 5975:10.1073/pnas.1502540113 5883:10.1073/pnas.0802597105 5649:10.1126/science.1179504 5591:10.1126/science.1182770 5391:10.1126/science.1214261 5333:10.1126/science.1220176 5279:Biello D (2012-03-22). 5212:10.1126/science.aac4315 4978:10.1073/pnas.1005780107 4855:10.1073/pnas.0502777102 4606:10.1073/pnas.0908153106 4502:10.1073/pnas.1302698110 4384:10.1073/pnas.1310440110 4170:10.1073/pnas.0801360105 4007:10.1126/science.1060264 3117:10.1126/science.1251981 3043:10.1073/pnas.1804077115 2890:10.1073/pnas.1419823112 2824:10.1126/science.aax9044 2718:10.1126/science.1260065 2607:The American Naturalist 2403:10.1126/science.1194830 2323:10.1073/pnas.1120774109 2208:10.1126/science.1101476 2022:10.1073/pnas.1502540113 1848:List of largest mammals 961:400 years ago, and the 937:about 500 years later, 875:extraterrestrial impact 508:of all time are marine 408:Since tetrapods (first 6032:10.1098/rspb.2008.1921 5858:Alroy J (2008-08-12). 5442:10.1098/rspb.2015.2399 3628:10.1098/rsbl.2010.1084 3407:Megaloolithus siruguei 2137:10.1098/rspb.2002.2130 1964:10.1098/rspb.2019.2643 1948:"Rethinking megafauna" 1578:Quaternary extinctions 1576:narrowly survived the 1416:Reconstructed jaws of 941:10,000 years ago, the 906:marine oxygen isotopes 836: 824: 736:, possibly omnivorous 603:), large snakes (e.g. 585: 518:northern elephant seal 514:southern elephant seal 456:terrestrial locomotion 405: 338:, and the carnivorans 224: 210:In terrestrial mammals 41: 6484:10.4202/app.2011.0067 5518:Nature Communications 5141:Marine Mammal Science 4642:. In Haynes G (ed.). 3556:10.22179/REVMACN.5.26 3265:10.1093/molbev/msu153 3224:10.1093/sysbio/syp079 3172:Earth-Science Reviews 2975:Marine Mammal Science 2657:Webb J (2015-02-19). 1883:Pleistocene megafauna 1858:Megafauna (mythology) 1813:Charismatic megafauna 1787:Examination of a 9 m 933:13,000 years ago and 830: 822: 547: 403: 372:Proborhyaena gigantea 217: 105:Alfred Russel Wallace 34:African bush elephant 31: 6210:Doughty CE, Wolf A, 6110:Wolf A, Doughty CE, 5823:Conservation Letters 4212:Australasian Science 3869:. pp. 118–128. 1803:Australian megafauna 1398:and rhino relative 1127:foregut fermentation 1039:, and has created a 852:Australia-New Guinea 840:Numerous extinctions 6453:2010AgFM..150..473K 6416:2010NatGe...3..374S 6335:2012CBio...22.R292W 6269:2010PLoSO...513255R 6230:2013NatGe...6..761D 6134:2013PLoSO...871352W 6026:(1667): 2509–2519. 5874:2008PNAS..10511536A 5835:2019ConL...12E2627R 5641:2009Sci...326.1100G 5635:(5956): 1100–1103. 5583:2009Sci...326.1072J 5577:(5956): 1072–1073. 5538:10.1038/ncomms10496 5530:2016NatCo...710496M 5383:2012Sci...335.1483R 5377:(6075): 1483–1486. 5325:2012Sci...335.1452M 5319:(6075): 1452–1453. 5258:2011QSRv...30..273M 5203:2015Sci...349..602C 5153:1995MMamS..11..391A 5110:2005AnPal..91..167J 5063:2000Sci...287.2250H 5057:(5461): 2250–2254. 4969:2010PNAS..10715512W 4963:(35): 15512–15516. 4846:2005PNAS..10211763S 4840:(33): 11763–11768. 4716:Simmons AH (1999). 4597:2009PNAS..10620641F 4591:(49): 20641–20645. 4558:2010QuInt.211..113N 4493:2013PNAS..110.8777W 4442:2016QSRv..145..161D 4375:2013PNAS..110E3369W 4316:2018JQS....33..380D 4265:2013QuInt.285...76F 4161:2008PNAS..10512150T 4155:(34): 12150–12153. 4100:2008Natur.454..835D 3999:2001Sci...292.1888R 3993:(5523): 1888–1892. 3775:Corlett RT (2006). 3685:2021Heliy...708591C 3502:2010Ecogr..33..272H 3184:2014ESRv..138..394B 3109:2014Sci...344..898M 3034:2018PNAS..115.3995G 2987:1991MMamS...7..157H 2881:2015PNAS..112.5093B 2816:2019Sci...366.1367G 2810:(6471): 1367–1372. 2709:2015Sci...347..867H 2560:(2, e22): 363–368. 2525:2008Letha..41..333S 2455:2003Oecol.136...14C 2385:2010Sci...330.1216S 2379:(6008): 1216–1219. 2314:2012PNAS..109.4187E 2251:2006Alch...30S..39B 2190:2004Sci...306...70B 2131:(1506): 2221–2227. 2080:2016CBio...26.1640M 2013:2016PNAS..113..838M 1668:saltwater crocodile 1454:Kelenken guillermoi 1147:atmospheric methane 1030:Shasta ground sloth 1024:, from analysis of 957:700 years ago, the 844:Last Glacial Period 540:In flightless birds 178:Ecological strategy 6508:Biological Reviews 5844:10.1111/conl.12627 5746:. pp. 78–99. 5700:. pp. 21–37. 5436:(1824): 20152399. 5135:Hydrodamalis gigas 4687:. pp. 21–37. 3753:10.1017/ext.2024.4 3211:Systematic Biology 1958:(1922): 20192643. 1823:Deep-sea gigantism 1638:southern cassowary 1470:Gastornis gigantea 1380:Dromornis stirtoni 1219:Diprotodon optatum 1153:that occupied the 1096:ocean productivity 1046:A number of other 837: 825: 782:Megalochelys atlas 739:Dromornis stirtoni 683:parallel evolution 586: 452:swimming movements 406: 270:foregut fermenters 266:hindgut fermenters 227:Subsequent to the 225: 42: 6403:Nature Geoscience 6217:Nature Geoscience 6083:(10): 1645–1653. 5753:978-0-520-23141-2 5715:978-1-4020-8792-9 5485:(5399): 205–208. 5475:Genyornis newtoni 5094:Raphus cucullatus 4777:World Archaeology 4741:978-0-306-46088-3 4702:978-1-4020-8792-9 4665:978-1-4020-8792-9 4650:. pp. 1–20. 4638:Haynes G (2009). 4487:(22): 8777–8781. 4094:(7206): 835–836. 3876:978-0-520-23141-2 3827:). Archived from 3597:978-3-030-25865-8 3465:978-0-253-34282-9 3409:egg from Spain". 3376:978-0-253-33497-8 3339:978-0-253-34282-9 3305:978-0-253-34282-9 3103:(6186): 898–900. 3028:(16): 3995–3997. 2944:10.1111/evo.12560 2875:(16): 5093–5098. 2765:(12): 1037–1049. 2703:(6224): 867–870. 2308:(11): 4187–4190. 2074:(12): 1640–1646. 1833:Largest organisms 1758:great white shark 1160:Pleistocene epoch 1131:methane emissions 1021:Genyornis newtoni 963:Commander Islands 953:2,000 years ago, 945:6,000 years ago, 582:Dinornis robustus 534:Steller's sea cow 396:In marine mammals 279:macroevolutionary 6621: 6572: 6571: 6569: 6567: 6547: 6541: 6540: 6502: 6496: 6495: 6471: 6465: 6464: 6434: 6428: 6427: 6397: 6386: 6385: 6383: 6382: 6363: 6357: 6356: 6346: 6329:(9): R292–R293. 6312: 6301: 6300: 6290: 6280: 6248: 6242: 6241: 6238:10.1038/ngeo1895 6207: 6198: 6197: 6195: 6194: 6172: 6166: 6165: 6155: 6145: 6107: 6101: 6100: 6068: 6062: 6061: 6051: 6011: 6005: 6004: 5994: 5954: 5945: 5944: 5912: 5906: 5905: 5895: 5885: 5855: 5849: 5848: 5846: 5814: 5808: 5807: 5805: 5803: 5783: 5777: 5776: 5774: 5773: 5726: 5720: 5719: 5689: 5683: 5682: 5680: 5679: 5673: 5626: 5617: 5611: 5610: 5566: 5560: 5559: 5549: 5509: 5503: 5502: 5470: 5464: 5463: 5453: 5420: 5411: 5410: 5364: 5353: 5352: 5306: 5300: 5299: 5297: 5296: 5276: 5270: 5269: 5252:(3–4): 273–279. 5239: 5233: 5232: 5214: 5182: 5176: 5175: 5173: 5172: 5163:. Archived from 5128: 5122: 5121: 5089: 5083: 5082: 5044: 5038: 5037: 5007: 5001: 5000: 4990: 4980: 4946: 4940: 4939: 4919: 4913: 4912: 4884: 4878: 4877: 4867: 4857: 4816: 4810: 4809: 4771: 4765: 4764: 4762: 4761: 4713: 4707: 4706: 4676: 4670: 4669: 4635: 4629: 4628: 4618: 4608: 4576: 4570: 4569: 4552:(1–2): 113–122. 4539: 4533: 4532: 4522: 4504: 4472: 4466: 4465: 4421: 4415: 4414: 4404: 4386: 4354: 4348: 4347: 4324:10.1002/jqs.3020 4295: 4289: 4288: 4244: 4235: 4234: 4232: 4231: 4225: 4208: 4199: 4193: 4192: 4182: 4172: 4134: 4128: 4127: 4078: 4072: 4071: 4047: 4041: 4040: 4038: 4037: 4031: 3982: 3969: 3963: 3962: 3960: 3959: 3953: 3947:. Archived from 3922: 3909: 3900: 3899: 3897: 3896: 3849: 3840: 3839: 3837: 3836: 3812: 3806: 3805: 3803: 3802: 3796: 3781: 3772: 3766: 3765: 3755: 3731: 3725: 3724: 3714: 3696: 3664: 3658: 3657: 3647: 3607: 3601: 3600: 3575: 3569: 3568: 3558: 3534: 3528: 3527: 3525: 3524: 3519:on July 24, 2011 3518: 3512:. Archived from 3485: 3476: 3470: 3469: 3449: 3443: 3442: 3402: 3396: 3395: 3393: 3391: 3360: 3350: 3344: 3343: 3323: 3317: 3316: 3314: 3312: 3289: 3278: 3277: 3267: 3258:(7): 1686–1696. 3243: 3237: 3236: 3226: 3202: 3196: 3195: 3167: 3161: 3160: 3158: 3157: 3151: 3128: 3094: 3085: 3074: 3073: 3063: 3045: 3013: 3007: 3006: 2970: 2964: 2963: 2927: 2921: 2920: 2910: 2892: 2860: 2854: 2853: 2835: 2794: 2785: 2784: 2774: 2748: 2742: 2741: 2739: 2738: 2720: 2688: 2682: 2681: 2679: 2678: 2654: 2648: 2647: 2601: 2590: 2589: 2579: 2569: 2543: 2537: 2536: 2506: 2497: 2496: 2494: 2493: 2487: 2481:. Archived from 2438: 2429: 2423: 2422: 2396: 2365: 2346: 2345: 2335: 2325: 2290: 2271: 2270: 2234: 2228: 2227: 2201: 2173: 2167: 2166: 2156: 2116: 2110: 2109: 2091: 2059: 2053: 2052: 2042: 2024: 1992: 1986: 1985: 1975: 1942: 1923: 1920: 1914: 1905: 1828:Island gigantism 1784: 1769: 1753: 1738: 1723: 1708: 1693: 1678: 1663: 1648: 1633: 1618: 1603: 1589: 1561: 1551:black rhinoceros 1546: 1532: 1518: 1503: 1488: 1465: 1449: 1433: 1422:Otodus megalodon 1413: 1391: 1375: 1342: 1321: 1307: 1287: 1273: 1252: 1230: 1214: 1193: 1048:mass extinctions 979:island gigantism 971:Hawaiian Islands 764:In giant turtles 631:land masses and 616:Paleopsilopterus 526:Steller sea lion 460:thermoregulatory 389:thermoregulatory 204:insular dwarfism 191:overexploitation 89:Late Pleistocene 85:species richness 6629: 6628: 6624: 6623: 6622: 6620: 6619: 6618: 6589: 6588: 6580: 6575: 6565: 6563: 6549: 6548: 6544: 6504: 6503: 6499: 6473: 6472: 6468: 6436: 6435: 6431: 6424:10.1038/ngeo877 6399: 6398: 6389: 6380: 6378: 6371:BBC Nature News 6365: 6364: 6360: 6322:Current Biology 6314: 6313: 6304: 6250: 6249: 6245: 6209: 6208: 6201: 6192: 6190: 6174: 6173: 6169: 6109: 6108: 6104: 6070: 6069: 6065: 6013: 6012: 6008: 5956: 5955: 5948: 5914: 5913: 5909: 5857: 5856: 5852: 5816: 5815: 5811: 5801: 5799: 5785: 5784: 5780: 5771: 5769: 5754: 5728: 5727: 5723: 5716: 5691: 5690: 5686: 5677: 5675: 5671: 5624: 5619: 5618: 5614: 5568: 5567: 5563: 5511: 5510: 5506: 5472: 5471: 5467: 5422: 5421: 5414: 5366: 5365: 5356: 5308: 5307: 5303: 5294: 5292: 5278: 5277: 5273: 5241: 5240: 5236: 5197:(6248): 602–6. 5184: 5183: 5179: 5170: 5168: 5130: 5129: 5125: 5091: 5090: 5086: 5046: 5045: 5041: 5009: 5008: 5004: 4948: 4947: 4943: 4921: 4920: 4916: 4886: 4885: 4881: 4818: 4817: 4813: 4773: 4772: 4768: 4759: 4757: 4742: 4732:10.1007/b109876 4726:. p. 382. 4715: 4714: 4710: 4703: 4678: 4677: 4673: 4666: 4637: 4636: 4632: 4578: 4577: 4573: 4541: 4540: 4536: 4474: 4473: 4469: 4423: 4422: 4418: 4356: 4355: 4351: 4297: 4296: 4292: 4246: 4245: 4238: 4229: 4227: 4223: 4206: 4201: 4200: 4196: 4136: 4135: 4131: 4108:10.1038/454835a 4080: 4079: 4075: 4049: 4048: 4044: 4035: 4033: 4029: 3980: 3971: 3970: 3966: 3957: 3955: 3951: 3920: 3911: 3910: 3903: 3894: 3892: 3877: 3851: 3850: 3843: 3834: 3832: 3814: 3813: 3809: 3800: 3798: 3794: 3779: 3774: 3773: 3769: 3733: 3732: 3728: 3666: 3665: 3661: 3616:Biology Letters 3609: 3608: 3604: 3598: 3577: 3576: 3572: 3545:. Nueva Serie. 3536: 3535: 3531: 3522: 3520: 3516: 3483: 3478: 3477: 3473: 3466: 3451: 3450: 3446: 3404: 3403: 3399: 3389: 3387: 3377: 3352: 3351: 3347: 3340: 3325: 3324: 3320: 3310: 3308: 3306: 3291: 3290: 3281: 3245: 3244: 3240: 3204: 3203: 3199: 3169: 3168: 3164: 3155: 3153: 3149: 3092: 3087: 3086: 3077: 3015: 3014: 3010: 2972: 2971: 2967: 2929: 2928: 2924: 2862: 2861: 2857: 2796: 2795: 2788: 2750: 2749: 2745: 2736: 2734: 2690: 2689: 2685: 2676: 2674: 2656: 2655: 2651: 2603: 2602: 2593: 2545: 2544: 2540: 2508: 2507: 2500: 2491: 2489: 2485: 2436: 2431: 2430: 2426: 2394:10.1.1.383.8581 2367: 2366: 2349: 2292: 2291: 2274: 2245:(sup1): 39–48. 2236: 2235: 2231: 2184:(5693): 70–75. 2175: 2174: 2170: 2118: 2117: 2113: 2068:Current Biology 2061: 2060: 2056: 1994: 1993: 1989: 1944: 1943: 1936: 1932: 1927: 1926: 1921: 1917: 1906: 1902: 1897: 1892: 1863:Megafaunal wolf 1808:Bergmann's rule 1798: 1791: 1785: 1776: 1770: 1761: 1754: 1745: 1739: 1730: 1724: 1715: 1709: 1700: 1694: 1685: 1679: 1670: 1664: 1655: 1649: 1640: 1634: 1625: 1619: 1610: 1604: 1595: 1590: 1581: 1562: 1553: 1547: 1538: 1533: 1524: 1519: 1510: 1508:eastern gorilla 1504: 1495: 1489: 1480: 1473: 1466: 1457: 1450: 1441: 1434: 1425: 1414: 1405: 1401:Paraceratherium 1392: 1383: 1376: 1367: 1360: 1343: 1334: 1324:Restoration of 1322: 1313: 1308: 1299: 1292:subfossil lemur 1288: 1279: 1274: 1265: 1253: 1244: 1240:Varanus priscus 1231: 1222: 1215: 1206: 1194: 1185: 1180: 1108: 1078: 1065: 1011:climate changes 995:An analysis of 895:giant tortoises 854:, and northern 817: 811: 806: 769:Giant tortoises 766: 742:or herbivorous 665:of the extinct 611:varanid lizards 542: 398: 385:Bergmann's rule 212: 199: 180: 101: 24: 17: 12: 11: 5: 6627: 6625: 6617: 6616: 6611: 6606: 6601: 6591: 6590: 6587: 6586: 6579: 6578:External links 6576: 6574: 6573: 6542: 6515:(4): 453–562. 6497: 6466: 6447:(3): 473–577. 6429: 6410:(6): 374–375. 6387: 6373:. 2012-05-07. 6358: 6302: 6263:(10): e13255. 6243: 6224:(9): 761–764. 6199: 6167: 6102: 6063: 6006: 5969:(4): 838–846. 5946: 5927:(1): 295–317. 5907: 5850: 5809: 5778: 5752: 5721: 5714: 5684: 5612: 5561: 5504: 5465: 5412: 5354: 5301: 5271: 5234: 5177: 5147:(3): 391–394. 5123: 5104:(2): 167–180. 5084: 5039: 5020:(1–2): 25–63. 5002: 4941: 4914: 4895:(1): 301–327. 4879: 4811: 4784:(4): 475–482. 4766: 4740: 4708: 4701: 4671: 4664: 4630: 4571: 4534: 4467: 4416: 4349: 4310:(4): 380–392. 4290: 4236: 4194: 4129: 4073: 4042: 3964: 3931:(7): 395–401. 3901: 3875: 3841: 3825:Paul S. Martin 3807: 3767: 3726: 3679:(12): e08591. 3659: 3622:(4): 558–561. 3602: 3596: 3570: 3529: 3496:(2): 272–284. 3471: 3464: 3444: 3417:(2): 229–246. 3397: 3375: 3345: 3338: 3318: 3304: 3279: 3238: 3197: 3162: 3075: 3008: 2981:(2): 157–164. 2965: 2938:(1): 201–215. 2922: 2855: 2786: 2743: 2683: 2649: 2628:10.1086/303400 2620:10.1086/303400 2614:(4): 390–415. 2591: 2538: 2519:(4): 333–347. 2498: 2424: 2347: 2272: 2229: 2199:10.1.1.574.332 2168: 2111: 2054: 2007:(4): 838–846. 1987: 1933: 1931: 1928: 1925: 1924: 1915: 1899: 1898: 1896: 1893: 1891: 1890: 1885: 1880: 1875: 1870: 1865: 1860: 1855: 1850: 1845: 1840: 1835: 1830: 1825: 1820: 1815: 1810: 1805: 1799: 1797: 1794: 1793: 1792: 1786: 1779: 1777: 1771: 1764: 1762: 1755: 1748: 1746: 1740: 1733: 1731: 1725: 1718: 1716: 1710: 1703: 1701: 1698:green anaconda 1695: 1688: 1686: 1680: 1673: 1671: 1665: 1658: 1656: 1653:common ostrich 1650: 1643: 1641: 1635: 1628: 1626: 1620: 1613: 1611: 1605: 1598: 1596: 1593:Hippopotamuses 1591: 1584: 1582: 1564:Unlike woolly 1563: 1556: 1554: 1548: 1541: 1539: 1534: 1527: 1525: 1520: 1513: 1511: 1505: 1498: 1496: 1490: 1483: 1479: 1476: 1475: 1474: 1467: 1460: 1458: 1451: 1444: 1442: 1435: 1428: 1426: 1415: 1408: 1406: 1393: 1386: 1384: 1377: 1370: 1366: 1363: 1362: 1361: 1344: 1337: 1335: 1323: 1316: 1314: 1309: 1302: 1300: 1289: 1282: 1280: 1277:Woolly mammoth 1275: 1268: 1266: 1260:Panthera atrox 1256:American lions 1254: 1247: 1245: 1232: 1225: 1223: 1216: 1209: 1207: 1195: 1188: 1184: 1181: 1179: 1176: 1116:greenhouse gas 1107: 1104: 1077: 1074: 1064: 1061: 1003:Lynch's Crater 867:climate change 833:climate change 813:Main article: 810: 807: 805: 802: 765: 762: 679:flightlessness 675:elephant birds 600:Pristichampsus 541: 538: 479:filter feeding 454:as opposed to 397: 394: 287:perissodactyls 246:Indricotherium 211: 208: 198: 195: 179: 176: 136:hippopotamuses 113:Paul S. Martin 100: 97: 15: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 6626: 6615: 6612: 6610: 6607: 6605: 6602: 6600: 6597: 6596: 6594: 6585: 6582: 6581: 6577: 6561: 6557: 6553: 6546: 6543: 6538: 6534: 6530: 6526: 6522: 6518: 6514: 6510: 6509: 6501: 6498: 6493: 6489: 6485: 6481: 6477: 6470: 6467: 6462: 6458: 6454: 6450: 6446: 6442: 6441: 6433: 6430: 6425: 6421: 6417: 6413: 6409: 6405: 6404: 6396: 6394: 6392: 6388: 6376: 6372: 6368: 6362: 6359: 6354: 6350: 6345: 6340: 6336: 6332: 6328: 6324: 6323: 6318: 6311: 6309: 6307: 6303: 6298: 6294: 6289: 6284: 6279: 6274: 6270: 6266: 6262: 6258: 6254: 6247: 6244: 6239: 6235: 6231: 6227: 6223: 6219: 6218: 6213: 6206: 6204: 6200: 6188: 6184: 6183: 6182:New Scientist 6178: 6171: 6168: 6163: 6159: 6154: 6149: 6144: 6139: 6135: 6131: 6128:(8): e71352. 6127: 6123: 6122: 6117: 6113: 6106: 6103: 6098: 6094: 6090: 6086: 6082: 6078: 6074: 6067: 6064: 6059: 6055: 6050: 6045: 6041: 6037: 6033: 6029: 6025: 6021: 6017: 6010: 6007: 6002: 5998: 5993: 5988: 5984: 5980: 5976: 5972: 5968: 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5230: 5226: 5222: 5218: 5213: 5208: 5204: 5200: 5196: 5192: 5188: 5181: 5178: 5167:on 2011-05-11 5166: 5162: 5158: 5154: 5150: 5146: 5142: 5138: 5136: 5127: 5124: 5119: 5115: 5111: 5107: 5103: 5099: 5095: 5088: 5085: 5080: 5076: 5072: 5068: 5064: 5060: 5056: 5052: 5051: 5043: 5040: 5035: 5031: 5027: 5023: 5019: 5015: 5014: 5006: 5003: 4998: 4994: 4989: 4984: 4979: 4974: 4970: 4966: 4962: 4958: 4957: 4952: 4945: 4942: 4937: 4933: 4930:(1): 89–109. 4929: 4925: 4918: 4915: 4910: 4906: 4902: 4898: 4894: 4890: 4883: 4880: 4875: 4871: 4866: 4861: 4856: 4851: 4847: 4843: 4839: 4835: 4834: 4829: 4825: 4821: 4815: 4812: 4807: 4803: 4799: 4795: 4791: 4787: 4783: 4779: 4778: 4770: 4767: 4755: 4751: 4747: 4743: 4737: 4733: 4729: 4725: 4721: 4720: 4712: 4709: 4704: 4698: 4694: 4690: 4686: 4682: 4675: 4672: 4667: 4661: 4657: 4653: 4649: 4645: 4641: 4634: 4631: 4626: 4622: 4617: 4612: 4607: 4602: 4598: 4594: 4590: 4586: 4582: 4575: 4572: 4567: 4563: 4559: 4555: 4551: 4547: 4546: 4538: 4535: 4530: 4526: 4521: 4516: 4512: 4508: 4503: 4498: 4494: 4490: 4486: 4482: 4478: 4471: 4468: 4463: 4459: 4455: 4451: 4447: 4443: 4439: 4435: 4431: 4427: 4420: 4417: 4412: 4408: 4403: 4398: 4394: 4390: 4385: 4380: 4376: 4372: 4369:(36): E3369. 4368: 4364: 4360: 4353: 4350: 4345: 4341: 4337: 4333: 4329: 4325: 4321: 4317: 4313: 4309: 4305: 4301: 4294: 4291: 4286: 4282: 4278: 4274: 4270: 4266: 4262: 4258: 4254: 4250: 4243: 4241: 4237: 4226:on 2011-09-27 4222: 4218: 4214: 4213: 4205: 4198: 4195: 4190: 4186: 4181: 4176: 4171: 4166: 4162: 4158: 4154: 4150: 4149: 4144: 4140: 4133: 4130: 4125: 4121: 4117: 4113: 4109: 4105: 4101: 4097: 4093: 4089: 4088: 4083: 4077: 4074: 4069: 4065: 4061: 4057: 4053: 4046: 4043: 4028: 4024: 4020: 4016: 4012: 4008: 4004: 4000: 3996: 3992: 3988: 3987: 3979: 3975: 3968: 3965: 3954:on 2010-06-10 3950: 3946: 3942: 3938: 3934: 3930: 3926: 3919: 3916:(July 2005). 3915: 3908: 3906: 3902: 3890: 3886: 3882: 3878: 3872: 3868: 3864: 3863: 3858: 3854: 3848: 3846: 3842: 3831:on 2014-12-25 3830: 3826: 3822: 3821:megafauna.com 3818: 3811: 3808: 3793: 3789: 3785: 3778: 3771: 3768: 3763: 3759: 3754: 3749: 3745: 3741: 3737: 3730: 3727: 3722: 3718: 3713: 3708: 3704: 3700: 3695: 3690: 3686: 3682: 3678: 3674: 3670: 3663: 3660: 3655: 3651: 3646: 3641: 3637: 3633: 3629: 3625: 3621: 3617: 3613: 3606: 3603: 3599: 3593: 3589: 3585: 3581: 3574: 3571: 3566: 3562: 3557: 3552: 3548: 3544: 3540: 3533: 3530: 3515: 3511: 3507: 3503: 3499: 3495: 3491: 3490: 3482: 3475: 3472: 3467: 3461: 3457: 3456: 3452:Ibid (2004). 3448: 3445: 3440: 3436: 3432: 3428: 3424: 3420: 3416: 3412: 3408: 3401: 3398: 3386: 3382: 3378: 3372: 3368: 3364: 3359: 3358: 3349: 3346: 3341: 3335: 3331: 3330: 3326:Ibid (2004). 3322: 3319: 3307: 3301: 3297: 3296: 3288: 3286: 3284: 3280: 3275: 3271: 3266: 3261: 3257: 3253: 3249: 3242: 3239: 3234: 3230: 3225: 3220: 3217:(1): 90–107. 3216: 3212: 3208: 3201: 3198: 3193: 3189: 3185: 3181: 3177: 3173: 3166: 3163: 3148: 3144: 3140: 3136: 3132: 3127: 3122: 3118: 3114: 3110: 3106: 3102: 3098: 3091: 3084: 3082: 3080: 3076: 3071: 3067: 3062: 3057: 3053: 3049: 3044: 3039: 3035: 3031: 3027: 3023: 3019: 3012: 3009: 3004: 3000: 2996: 2992: 2988: 2984: 2980: 2976: 2969: 2966: 2961: 2957: 2953: 2949: 2945: 2941: 2937: 2933: 2926: 2923: 2918: 2914: 2909: 2904: 2900: 2896: 2891: 2886: 2882: 2878: 2874: 2870: 2866: 2859: 2856: 2851: 2847: 2843: 2839: 2834: 2829: 2825: 2821: 2817: 2813: 2809: 2805: 2801: 2793: 2791: 2787: 2782: 2778: 2773: 2768: 2764: 2760: 2759: 2754: 2747: 2744: 2732: 2728: 2724: 2719: 2714: 2710: 2706: 2702: 2698: 2694: 2687: 2684: 2672: 2668: 2664: 2660: 2653: 2650: 2645: 2641: 2637: 2633: 2629: 2625: 2621: 2617: 2613: 2609: 2608: 2600: 2598: 2596: 2592: 2587: 2583: 2578: 2573: 2568: 2563: 2559: 2555: 2554: 2549: 2542: 2539: 2534: 2530: 2526: 2522: 2518: 2514: 2513: 2505: 2503: 2499: 2488:on 2019-06-08 2484: 2480: 2476: 2472: 2468: 2464: 2460: 2456: 2452: 2448: 2444: 2443: 2435: 2428: 2425: 2420: 2416: 2412: 2408: 2404: 2400: 2395: 2390: 2386: 2382: 2378: 2374: 2373: 2364: 2362: 2360: 2358: 2356: 2354: 2352: 2348: 2343: 2339: 2334: 2329: 2324: 2319: 2315: 2311: 2307: 2303: 2302: 2297: 2289: 2287: 2285: 2283: 2281: 2279: 2277: 2273: 2268: 2264: 2260: 2256: 2252: 2248: 2244: 2240: 2233: 2230: 2225: 2221: 2217: 2213: 2209: 2205: 2200: 2195: 2191: 2187: 2183: 2179: 2172: 2169: 2164: 2160: 2155: 2150: 2146: 2142: 2138: 2134: 2130: 2126: 2122: 2115: 2112: 2107: 2103: 2099: 2095: 2090: 2085: 2081: 2077: 2073: 2069: 2065: 2058: 2055: 2050: 2046: 2041: 2036: 2032: 2028: 2023: 2018: 2014: 2010: 2006: 2002: 1998: 1991: 1988: 1983: 1979: 1974: 1969: 1965: 1961: 1957: 1953: 1949: 1941: 1939: 1935: 1929: 1919: 1916: 1912: 1911: 1904: 1901: 1894: 1889: 1886: 1884: 1881: 1879: 1876: 1874: 1871: 1869: 1866: 1864: 1861: 1859: 1856: 1854: 1851: 1849: 1846: 1844: 1841: 1839: 1836: 1834: 1831: 1829: 1826: 1824: 1821: 1819: 1816: 1814: 1811: 1809: 1806: 1804: 1801: 1800: 1795: 1790: 1783: 1778: 1775: 1768: 1763: 1759: 1752: 1747: 1744: 1737: 1732: 1729: 1728:giant sunfish 1722: 1717: 1714: 1707: 1702: 1699: 1692: 1687: 1684: 1683:Komodo dragon 1677: 1672: 1669: 1662: 1657: 1654: 1647: 1642: 1639: 1632: 1627: 1624: 1617: 1612: 1609: 1602: 1597: 1594: 1588: 1583: 1579: 1575: 1571: 1567: 1560: 1555: 1552: 1545: 1540: 1537: 1531: 1526: 1523: 1522:Bengal tigers 1517: 1512: 1509: 1502: 1497: 1494: 1487: 1482: 1477: 1472: 1471: 1464: 1459: 1456: 1455: 1448: 1443: 1440: 1439: 1432: 1427: 1423: 1419: 1412: 1407: 1403: 1402: 1397: 1390: 1385: 1382: 1381: 1374: 1369: 1364: 1359: 1358: 1353: 1352: 1348: 1341: 1336: 1333: 1329: 1328: 1320: 1315: 1312: 1311:Haast's eagle 1306: 1301: 1298: 1297: 1296:Archaeoindris 1293: 1286: 1281: 1278: 1272: 1267: 1264: 1263: 1257: 1251: 1246: 1242: 1241: 1236: 1229: 1224: 1221: 1220: 1213: 1208: 1204: 1203: 1198: 1192: 1187: 1182: 1177: 1175: 1173: 1169: 1168:Younger Dryas 1165: 1161: 1156: 1152: 1148: 1143: 1140: 1136: 1132: 1128: 1124: 1121: 1117: 1113: 1105: 1103: 1101: 1097: 1093: 1088: 1084: 1075: 1073: 1070: 1062: 1060: 1058: 1053: 1049: 1044: 1042: 1038: 1033: 1031: 1027: 1023: 1022: 1016: 1012: 1008: 1004: 1000: 999: 993: 991: 990:interstadials 987: 982: 980: 976: 975:extinct fauna 972: 968: 964: 960: 956: 952: 948: 947:New Caledonia 944: 940: 936: 935:South America 932: 931:North America 928: 923: 919: 915: 911: 907: 903: 898: 896: 892: 889:and southern 888: 884: 880: 876: 872: 868: 864: 863:human hunting 859: 857: 853: 849: 845: 841: 834: 829: 821: 816: 808: 803: 801: 799: 798: 793: 792: 786: 784: 783: 778: 774: 770: 763: 761: 759: 755: 751: 747: 746: 741: 740: 735: 734: 728: 726: 723:) during the 722: 718: 717:sparassodonts 714: 713:phorusrhacids 710: 709:Early Miocene 706: 705: 700: 699: 695: 694:bathornithids 691: 686: 684: 680: 676: 672: 668: 664: 660: 657: 653: 648: 646: 642: 638: 637:North America 634: 630: 626: 622: 618: 617: 612: 608: 607: 602: 601: 596: 592: 591:apex predator 584: 583: 579: 576: 575: 571: 568: 567: 566:Emeus crassus 563: 560: 559: 555: 551: 546: 539: 537: 535: 531: 527: 523: 519: 515: 511: 507: 502: 500: 496: 492: 488: 485:technique of 484: 483:lunge feeding 480: 476: 475:beaked whales 472: 467: 465: 461: 457: 453: 449: 448:biomechanical 445: 441: 437: 433: 432: 427: 423: 419: 415: 411: 402: 395: 393: 390: 386: 380: 378: 374: 373: 368: 364: 363: 359: 355: 354: 349: 348: 343: 342: 337: 336: 332: 328: 324: 323: 322:Andrewsarchus 319: 315: 310: 308: 304: 300: 296: 292: 288: 284: 280: 276: 271: 267: 263: 259: 258:indricotheres 254: 252: 248: 247: 242: 238: 234: 230: 223: 222: 216: 209: 207: 205: 196: 194: 192: 188: 186: 177: 175: 173: 169: 165: 161: 157: 153: 150:and southern 149: 145: 141: 137: 133: 129: 125: 120: 118: 117:megaherbivore 114: 110: 107:'s 1876 work 106: 98: 96: 94: 90: 86: 82: 77: 75: 70: 68: 67: 63: 59: 55: 51: 47: 39: 38:Masai ostrich 35: 30: 26: 22: 16:Large animals 6564:. Retrieved 6556:The Guardian 6555: 6545: 6512: 6506: 6500: 6475: 6469: 6444: 6438: 6432: 6407: 6401: 6379:. Retrieved 6370: 6361: 6326: 6320: 6260: 6256: 6246: 6221: 6215: 6191:. Retrieved 6180: 6170: 6125: 6119: 6105: 6080: 6076: 6066: 6023: 6019: 6009: 5966: 5962: 5924: 5920: 5910: 5863: 5853: 5826: 5822: 5812: 5802:February 13, 5800:. Retrieved 5792:The Guardian 5791: 5781: 5770:. Retrieved 5738: 5724: 5693: 5687: 5676:. Retrieved 5632: 5628: 5615: 5574: 5570: 5564: 5521: 5517: 5507: 5482: 5478: 5474: 5468: 5433: 5429: 5374: 5368: 5316: 5310: 5304: 5293:. Retrieved 5284: 5274: 5249: 5243: 5237: 5194: 5190: 5180: 5169:. Retrieved 5165:the original 5144: 5140: 5134: 5126: 5101: 5097: 5093: 5087: 5054: 5048: 5042: 5017: 5011: 5005: 4960: 4954: 4944: 4927: 4923: 4917: 4892: 4888: 4882: 4837: 4831: 4814: 4781: 4775: 4769: 4758:. 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Retrieved 2662: 2652: 2611: 2605: 2557: 2553:PLOS Biology 2551: 2541: 2516: 2510: 2490:. Retrieved 2483:the original 2449:(1): 14–27. 2446: 2440: 2427: 2376: 2370: 2305: 2299: 2242: 2238: 2232: 2181: 2177: 2171: 2128: 2124: 2114: 2071: 2067: 2057: 2004: 2000: 1990: 1955: 1951: 1918: 1908: 1903: 1493:greater rhea 1468: 1452: 1438:Deinotherium 1436: 1421: 1399: 1396:indricothere 1378: 1355: 1354:(front) and 1349: 1327:Macrauchenia 1325: 1294: 1261: 1259: 1238: 1217: 1199: 1155:Great Plains 1144: 1109: 1083:Amazon Basin 1079: 1066: 1045: 1034: 1026:Sporormiella 1025: 1019: 998:Sporormiella 996: 994: 983: 902:Afro-Eurasia 899: 860: 838: 795: 789: 787: 780: 767: 758:diprotodonts 753: 749: 743: 737: 731: 729: 702: 696: 687: 663:sister group 649: 621:gastornithid 614: 604: 598: 595:crocodilians 587: 580: 577: 572: 569: 564: 561: 556: 553: 503: 468: 439: 431:Basilosaurus 429: 418:Late Permian 407: 381: 370: 360: 358:hyaenodontid 353:Arctotherium 351: 345: 339: 333: 320: 316:groups (the 311: 295:artiodactyls 282: 264:, have been 255: 250: 244: 226: 219: 200: 187:-strategists 184: 181: 142:, and large 140:rhinoceroses 121: 108: 102: 78: 71: 64: 60:"large" and 57: 49: 43: 25: 6614:Animal size 6478:: 259–265. 4820:Steadman DW 4436:: 161–182. 4139:Flannery TF 4137:Turney CS, 3974:Flannery TF 3914:Flannery TF 3912:Burney DA, 3549:(1): 1–19. 3178:: 394–408. 2833:10023/19285 1818:Cope's rule 1789:giant squid 1608:sperm whale 1536:Polar bears 1347:glyptodonts 1100:zooplankton 1015:sclerophyll 955:New Zealand 883:Pleistocene 797:Stupendemys 754:D. stirtoni 625:paleognaths 506:carnivorans 491:ram feeding 369:carnivore, 367:metatherian 335:Sarkastodon 318:artiodactyl 299:carnivorans 221:Patagotitan 81:Pleistocene 79:During the 6604:Extinction 6593:Categories 6381:2012-05-08 6193:2013-08-12 5772:2014-11-11 5678:2018-11-09 5295:2012-03-25 5171:2011-08-30 4936:10289/5404 4760:2016-05-07 4230:2011-08-26 4036:2011-08-26 3958:2014-11-11 3895:2014-11-11 3835:2020-02-13 3801:2010-10-04 3790:(3): 1–3. 3523:2011-02-26 3365:. p. 3156:2019-09-24 3126:2328/35953 2800:Pyenson ND 2758:BioScience 2737:2019-07-13 2677:2015-02-22 2492:2019-07-13 1973:2263/79439 1930:References 1743:Nile perch 1351:Doedicurus 1332:Litopterna 1123:herbivores 1087:phosphorus 1007:Queensland 959:Mascarenes 951:Madagascar 777:homininans 733:Brontornis 552:species: 499:upwellings 464:endotherms 444:blue whale 426:pakicetids 362:Simbakubwa 327:mesonychid 262:proboscids 6599:Megafauna 6566:14 August 6097:2397-334X 6040:0962-8452 5983:0027-8424 5941:1543-592X 5730:Martin PS 5665:206522597 5607:206523763 5524:: 10496. 4824:Martin PS 4806:161791746 4511:0027-8424 4458:0277-3791 4393:0027-8424 4340:133737405 4332:1099-1417 4281:1040-6182 4259:: 76–88. 4082:Diamond J 3853:Martin PS 3762:2755-0958 3703:2405-8440 3636:1744-9561 3565:1514-5158 3489:Ecography 3431:0094-8373 3311:7 January 3143:206555952 3052:0027-8424 3003:0824-0469 2952:0014-3820 2932:Evolution 2899:0027-8424 2850:209339266 2781:0006-3568 2644:205983729 2479:206989975 2442:Oecologia 2389:CiteSeerX 2194:CiteSeerX 2145:0962-8452 2098:1879-0445 2031:0027-8424 1982:0962-8452 1910:Aepyornis 1868:Megaflora 1418:megalodon 1357:Glyptodon 1235:Megalania 1205:pictured) 1172:ice cores 1139:sauropods 1118:. 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