Nabataeans - Knowledge (XXG)

1181: 795: 1269:- a 1st-century Nabatean Stonemason who worked in the city of Hegra. He is named by inscriptions on five of the grave facades typical of Hegra as the executing craftsman. On the basis of the inscriptions, four of the facades can be dated to the reigns of kings Aretas IV and Malichus II. 'Abd'obodat was evidently a successful craftsman. He succeeded his father Wahb'allahi and his uncle 'Abdharetat in at least one workshop in the second generation of Nabatean architects. 'Abd'obodat is considered to be the main representative of one of the two main schools of the Nabataean stonemasons, to which his father, his uncle belonged. Two more grave facades are assigned to the school on the basis of stylistic investigations; 'Abd'obodat is probably to be regarded as the stonemason who carried out the work. 1013: 1276:

together with the stonemason 'Aftah. He is therefore assigned to the workshop of the 'Aftah. Nabataean architects and sculptors were in reality contractors, who negotiated the costs of specific tomb types and their decorations. Tombs were therefore executed based on the desires and financial abilities of their future owners. The activities of Halaf'allahi offer an excellent example of this, as he had been commissioned with the execution of a simple tomb for a person who apparently belonged to the lower middle class. However, he was also in charge of completing a more sophisticated tomb for one of the local military officials.

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Gulf areas. The Greek writers who mention these people (including well-informed authorities like Josephus, who wrote in the 1st century A.D. and knew the area well) frequently call them Arabs. In view of this fact and the clear evidence of Arabic influence in the Nabateans' language, personal names and religion, we can be virtually certain that they were originally a nomadic Arab group who had gradually settled to form a state. This background is reflected in the Greek sources which say that the Nabateans did not build houses originally or drink wine and that they reared sheep and camels.

1272:'Aftah - a Nabatean stonemason who became prominent in the beginning of the third decade of the first century. 'Aftah is attested in inscriptions on eight of the grave facades in Hegra and one grave as the executing stonemason. The facades are dated to the late reign of King Aretas IV. On one of the facades he worked with Halaf'allahi, on another with Wahbu and Huru. A tenth facade without an inscription was attributed to the 'Aftah sculpture school due to technical and stylistic similarities. He is the main representative of one of the two stonemason schools in the city of Hegra. 483: 1434: 339: 841: 930: 1195: 866: 475: 574: 315: 59: 1259:- Greek-Nabataean architect and engineer from Damascus, Roman Syria, who flourished during the 2nd century AD. his massive architectural output gained him immense popularity during his time. He is one of the few architects whose name survives from antiquity, and is credited with introducing several Eastern innovations to the Roman Imperial style, such as making the dome a standard. 700: 1112: 596:. A confused mass of Nabataeans gave battle but were defeated. Once they had retreated to their defences, Herod laid siege to the camp and over time some of the defenders surrendered. The remaining Nabataean forces offered 500 talents for peace, but this was rejected. Lacking water, the Nabataeans were forced out of their camp and battled but were defeated. 467: 356: 1611:

The Nabatean people are in fact of rather obscure origin. The earliest settlements were in southern Jordan and Palestine, though it is likely that they came ultimately from the east, possibly from the marginal regions to the north of modern Saudi Arabia. Others would see their origins in the Hijāz or

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i temple was dedicated to Dushara then the other major temple must have been al-Uzzas. This is just a theory however, based on conjecture, and it can only be said that the temple is likely dedicated to the supreme goddess figure of the Nabateans, but the exact identity of this goddess is uncertain.

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and Romanization of the region but based on extant clothes and textiles found in graves and tombs on Nabatean territory, the clothing worn by the Nabateans during the first and second century were not unlike their neighbour Judaeans. Its hard to say with any certainty what the Nabateans wore in more

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Based on coins, inscriptions and non-Nabatean contemporary sources, Nabataean women seem to have had many legal rights. Inscriptions on tombs demonstrate the equality of property rights between man and woman and women's rights in matters of inheritance and also their ability to make decisions about

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Wahb'allahi - a first century stonemason who worked in the city of Hegra. Wahb'allahi was the brother of the stonemason 'Abdharetat and the father of 'Abd'obodat. He is named in an inscription as the responsible stonemason on the oldest datable grave in Hegra in the ninth year of the Nabataean king

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When it comes to the types of clothing and what can be surmised from these finds are that Nabatean men wore a tunic and a mantle both made of wool.The tunic in a Roman style (sleeveless) and with the mantle cut in a Greek style. This, as stated before, reflects a popular style rather than an ethnic

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In the reign of Caesar Augustus, towards the end of the first century B.C., the extensive territory of what was to become Roman Arabia comprised the Arab kingdom of the Nabataeans. At that pivotal time in the fortunes of Rome, these Arabs had achieved both a high culture and a powerful monopoly of

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On the other hand, they are repeatedly spoken of as Arabs by ancient writers, not only by those remote from them in time, but also by Josephus, to whom the distinction between Syrians and Arabs must have been quite familiar. In addition, the names on the inscriptions are Arabic throughout. It has

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Archeological evidence strongly suggest that the Nabataean women had a role in the social and political life by the first century AD, which is shown by the fact that Nabatean queens were depicted on coins, both independentely and together with their spouse the king. The assumption to be made from

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Halaf'allahi - Nabatean stonemason who worked in the city of Hegra in the first century. Halaf'allahi is named in inscriptions on two graves in Hegra as the responsible stonemason in the reign of the Nabataean king Aretas IV. The first grave, which can be dated to the year 26-27 AD, was created

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states that "Nabataeans normally spoke a form of Arabic, while, like the Persians etc., they used Aramaic for formal purposes and especially for inscriptions." Proper names on their inscriptions suggest that they were ethnically Arabs who had come under Aramaic influence, and the Nabataeans had

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set up a research station near Avdat (Evenari, Shenan and Tadmor 1971). He focused on the relevance of runoff rainwater management in explaining the mechanism of the ancient agricultural features, such as terraced wadis, channels for collecting runoff rainwater, and the enigmatic phenomenon of

626:, the Nabataeans lost their warlike and nomadic habits and became a sober, acquisitive, orderly people, wholly intent on trade and agriculture. The kingdom was a bulwark between Rome and the wild hordes of the desert except in the time of Trajan, who reduced Petra and converted the Nabataean 1042:

annexed the Nabataean Kingdom, Dushara still had an important role despite losing his former royal privilege. The greatest testimony to the status of the god after the fall of the Nabataean Kingdom was during the 1000th anniversary of the founding of Rome where Dushara was celebrated in

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The upper class of Nabataean society, what can be seen on coins, show an even stronger Greek and Roman influence. The kings are depicted clean-shaven with long curled hair while queens are depicted wearing headcoverings with curled hair and long tunics and highnecked garments.

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An ally of the Roman Empire, the Nabataean kingdom flourished throughout the 1st century. Its power extended far into Arabia along the Red Sea to Yemen, and Petra was a cosmopolitan marketplace, though its commerce was diminished by the rise of the Eastern trade-route from

1220:', which could easily consist of only one or two rain events, the area around the tree was broken up. When the rain came, all the water that collected in the funnel would flow down toward the fruit tree and sink into the ground. The ground, which was largely 1215:

Although not as dry as at present, the area occupied by the Nabataeans was still a desert and required special techniques for agriculture. One was to contour an area of land into a shallow funnel and to plant a single fruit tree in the middle. Before the

967:. Therefore, from a Nabataean perspective, Dhushara was probably associated with the heavens. However, one theory which connects Dushara with the forest gives a different idea of the god. The eagle was one of the symbols of Dushara. It was widely used in 821:, marrying a female member of the Nabatean royal family reinforced a ruler's position or one whose claim to the throne was not as strong as his wife's. The Nabatean royal house like the Ptolemaic and Seleucids later adopted sibling marriage. 725:(book II) described them as a strong tribe of some 10,000 warriors, preeminent among the nomads of Arabia, eschewing agriculture, fixed houses, and the use of wine, but adding to pastoral pursuits a profitable trade with the seaports in 425:

letters, and Aramaic continued as the language of their coins and inscriptions when the tribe grew into a kingdom and profited by the decay of the Seleucids to extend its borders northward over the more fertile country east of the

982:, another Arabian god, was identified. "His throne" was frequently mentioned in inscriptions, certain interpretations of the text consider it as a reference for Dhushara's wife, goddess Harisha. She was probably a solar deity. 1095:. Their most common monuments to the gods, commonly known as "god blocks", involved cutting away the whole top of a hill or cliff face so as to leave only a block behind. However, over time the Nabataeans were influenced by 810:

this were that they ruled together and that the Nabatean queens and other female members were given or already had political importance and status. One can surmise other Nabatean women also benefited from this by extension.

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The Nabateans were a nomadic Arab people who migrated in the sixth century B.C.E. from the northern area of modern-day Jordan to the region south of the Dead Sea that was to become the heartland of their sedentary

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In surviving Nabataean documents, Aramaic legal terms are followed by their equivalents in Arabic. That could suggest that the Nabataeans used Arabic in their legal proceedings but recorded them in Aramaic.

960:, and was the official god of the Nabataean Kingdom who enjoyed special royal patronage. His official position is reflected in multiple inscriptions that render him as "The god of our lord" (The King). 745:

from the Dead Sea. Their arid country was their best safeguard, for the bottle-shaped cisterns for rain-water which they excavated in the rocky or clay-rich soil were carefully concealed from invaders.

1088:, a boy was sacrificed annually and was buried underneath an altar. Some scholars have extrapolated this practice to the rest of the Nabataeans, but this view is contested due to the lack of evidence. 543:, who was a friend of Aretas, was despatched by Scaurus to the King to buy peace. In so obtaining peace, King Aretas retained all his possessions, including Damascus, and became a Roman vassal. 657:

instead. By the 5th century AD, they had converted to Christianity. The new Arab invaders, who soon pressed forward into their seats, found the remnants of the Nabataeans transformed into

1232:"Tuleilat el-Anab". Evenari showed that the runoff rainwater collection systems concentrate water from an area that is five times larger than the area in which the water actually drains. 418:

cited Hieronymus in his report, and added the following: "Just as the Seleucids had tried to subdue them, so the Romans made several attempts to get their hands on that lucrative trade."

3319: 719:. They suggest that the Nabataeans' trade routes and the origins of their goods were regarded as trade secrets, and disguised in tales that should have strained outsiders' credulity. 2935: 948:

The extent of Nabataean trade resulted in cross-cultural influences that reached as far as the Red Sea coast of southern Arabia. The major gods worshiped at Petra were notably

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account of Nabatean men going outside "without tunics girdles about their loins, and with slippers on their feet – even the kings, though in their case the colour is purple."

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Nabatean women lost many of the rights they had, when the kingdom of Nabatea came under the influence – both political and cultural – of the Roman empire and Roman law.

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Many examples of graffiti and inscriptions—largely of names and greetings—document the area of Nabataean culture, which extended as far north as the north end of the

1377: 1153:' Syriac form script as a probable candidate. However, John F. Healey states that: "The Nabataean origin of the Arabic script is now almost universally accepted". 813:

Though admittedly Nabatean culture seems to have favored male succession rather than female or equal succession, it seems plausible that like their neighbouring

570:, sent Canathans to the aid of the Nabataeans, and this force crushed Herod's army, which then fled to Ormiza. One year later, Herod's army overran Nabataea. 2009: 3346: 1772:

The Nabataean Arabs, one of the most gifted peoples of the ancient world, are today known only for their hauntingly beautiful rock-carved capital — Petra.

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in their struggles against the Seleucid monarchs. They then became rivals of the Judaean dynasty, and a chief element in the disorders that invited

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in 106 AD. Nabataeans' individual culture, easily identified by their characteristic finely potted painted ceramics, was adopted into the larger

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The name Dushara is from the Arabic "Dhu ash-Shara": which simply means "the one of Shara", a mountain range south-east of Petra also known as

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Aretas, IV king of Nabatea, defeated Herod Antipas, son of Herod the Great, in a battle after he intended to divorce his daughter Phasaelis

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Schmid, Stephan G. (2001). "The Nabataeans: Travellers between Lifestyles". In MacDonald, Burton; Adams, Russell; Bienkowski, Piotr (eds.).

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After an earthquake in Judaea, the Nabateans rebelled and invaded Judea, but Herod at once crossed the Jordan river to Philadelphia (modern

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The Nabateans in the Early Hellenistic Period : The Testimony of Posidippus of Pella, Topoi. Orient-Occident Année 2006 14-1 pp. 48.

711:, and testify to widespread literacy; but except for a few letters no Nabataean literature has survived, nor was any noted in antiquity. 1012: 847:

That is based on finds of similar clothing and textiles being found in both places. Among the most common colors were yellow made from

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therefore been concluded that they were Arabs who, because Arabic had not yet developed into a written language, made use of Aramaic.

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Nabataean women wore long tunics along with scarves and mantles. These scarves were loosely woven and sported fringes at the bottom.

592:) and both sides set up camp. The Nabataeans under Elthemus refused to give battle, so Herod forced the issue when he attacked their 280:

Described as fiercely independent by contemporary Greco-Roman accounts, the Nabataeans were annexed into the Roman Empire by Emperor

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their own property. That set the Nabateans apart from the attitudes on a woman's role in society by their neighbours in the region.

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analysis has suggested that Nabataean culture may have had multiple influences. Classical references to the Nabataeans begin with

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Another study was conducted by Y. Kedar in 1957, which also focused on the mechanism of the agriculture systems, but he studied

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centered around a loosely controlled trading network that brought considerable wealth and influence across the ancient world.

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knew that Alexander would attack, so was able to ambush Alexander's forces near Gaulane destroying the Judean army (90 BC).

296:. They have been described as one of the most gifted peoples of the ancient world and one of the "most unjustly forgotten". 3373: 3337: 1533: 1244: 252: 2279: 558:, started a war against Nabataea. The war began with Herod plundering Nabataea with a large cavalry force, and occupying 990: 3383: 3045:

Abd'obodat. In: Rainer Vollkommer (Herausgeber): Künstlerlexikon der Antike. Über 3800 Künstler aus drei Jahrtausenden

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Rainer Vollkommer (Hrsg.): Künstlerlexikon der Antike . Over 3800 artists from three millennia. Nikol, Hamburg 2007

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tribe and were built to describe the temple they were inscribed in and to recognize the authority of the emperors

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to lift the siege of Petra, partly because of the difficult terrain and the fact that he had run out of supplies.

3378: 2126:, mostly economic documents in Greek, date to the 6th century: Glen L. Peterman, "Discovery of Papyri in Petra", 399: 273:

The Nabateans emerged as a distinct civilization and political entity between the 4th and 2nd centuries BC, with

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The Makhteshim Country: A Laboratory of Nature: Geological and Ecological Studies in the Desert Region of Israel

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emerged. There are different opinions concerning the development of the Arabic script. J. Starcky considers the

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and create an infrastructure for agricultural activity. This theory has also been explored by E. Mazor, of the

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Nabataean to Arabic: Calligraphy and script development among the pre-Islamic Arabs by John F. Healey p. 44.

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Women also participated in religious activities, and had a right to visit the temples and make sacrifices.

1524: 1239:, and claimed that the ancient agriculture systems were intended to increase the accumulation of loess in 1134:. Therefore, Aramaic was used for commercial and official purposes across the Nabataean political sphere. 1077: 516:. It was this king who, after putting down a local rebellion, invaded and occupied the Nabataean towns of 243: 204: 3070:

Aftah. In: Rainer Vollkommer (editor): Künstlerlexikon der Antike. Over 3800 artists from three millennia

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Dusharas consort at Petra is considered to have been al-Uzza and the goddess has been associated with

3331: 1935:. Vol. 1. Trans. G. A. Williamson 1959. Harmondsworth, Middlesex, England: Penguin. p. 40. 1877: 749: 536: 403: 3251:. Hagop Kevorkian Series on Near Eastern Art and Civilization. New York: New York University Press. 681:

in North Arabia. The city of Petra was brought to the attention of Westerners by the Swiss explorer

2750: 2083: 635: 285: 3311: 1433: 840: 3218: 2914: 1308: 1138: 1055:). He was venerated in his Arabian name with a Greek fashion in the reign of an Arabian emperor, 924: 567: 513: 386:

influence. The first mention of the Nabataeans dates from 312/311 BC, when they were attacked at

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already some trace of Aramaic culture when they first appear in history. Some of the authors of

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The Roman military was not very successful in their campaigns against the Nabataeans. In 62 BC,

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For the name used by Islamicate authors to designate the native inhabitants of Mesopotamia, see

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Arabs, Arabias and Arabic before Late Antiquity, Topoi. Orient-Occident Année 2009 16-1 p. 309.

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Nabataean inscriptions from Hegra suggest that Dushara was linked either with the sun, or with

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Petra was rapidly built in the 1st century BC, and developed a population estimated at 20,000.

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Language and Identity: Arabic and Aramaic, Scripta Classica Israelica vol. XXIII 2004, p. 185.

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Law and Religion between Petra and Edessa: Studies in Aramaic Epigraphy on the Roman Frontier

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An eagle on the tomb facade that represents the guardianship of Dushara against intruders at

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J. W. Eadie, J. P. Oleson (1986) "The Water-Supply Systems of Nabatean and Roman Ḥumayma",

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By the 3rd century AD, the Nabataeans had stopped writing in Aramaic and begun writing in

643: 551: 422: 223: 195: 891: 2718:. Religions in the Graeco-Roman World (136) (print ed.). BRILL. pp. 161–163 . 3245: 3132:

The Ancient Arabs: Nomads on the Borders of the Fertile Crescent, 9th-5th Centuries B.C

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Arabs in the Shadow of Israel: The Unfolding of God's Prophetic Plan for Ishmael's Line

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Macdonald, M. C. A. (1999). "Personal names in the Nabataean realm: a review article".

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that was heavily influenced by Arabic forms and words. When communicating with other

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Not much is known for certain about the fashions of ancient Nabateans and before the

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The Nabataeans spoke an Arabic dialect but, for their inscriptions, used a form of

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and their Gods became anthropomorphic and were represented with human features.

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on the basis that if the divine couple of Petra was Dushara and al-Uzza and the

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Atlas of Vanishing Places: The lost worlds as they were and as they are today

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Babatha's Orchard: The Yadin Papyri and an Ancient Jewish Family Tale Retold

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Nabataean farming, capturing 50 acres of run-off water for one acre of crops

1092: 1024: 1017: 712: 674: 670: 666: 662: 555: 466: 379: 293: 263: 3325: 1111: 770:). The yeast-leavened bread is made with a high quality wheat flour called 2053:. London New York: Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group. pp. 51–56. 1518: 1506: 3005:

Healey, John (1994). "The Nabataean Tomb Inscriptions of Mada'in Salih".

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Rome, Persia, and Arabia: shaping the Middle East from Pompey to Muhammad

1928: 1326: 1071: 1048: 912: 708: 638:. They are ascribed to an auxiliary military unit drawn the Roman-allied 593: 525: 512:, many Nabataeans were forcefully converted to Judaism by Hasmonean king 439: 407: 383: 17: 2389:

Jewish Funerary Customs, Practices And Rites In The Second Temple Period

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The Roman province of Arabia Petraea, created from the Nabataean kingdom

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Arabic in Context: Celebrating 400 years of Arabic at Leiden University

1406:, Byzantine agricultural town with contested Nabataean, Roman precursor 1397: 1201: 1150: 949: 906:, and others believe Nabataeans spoke Arabic as their native language. 848: 779: 742: 658: 563: 410:

officer, mentioned the Nabataeans in a battle report. About 50 BC, the

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ancient times since their art before this period was non-figurative.

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by striking coins in his name, Actia Dusaria (linking the god with

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Nabatean baetyl (possibly a replica of the actual artifact) at the

355: 3270:. Sheffield, England: Sheffield Academic Press. pp. 367–426. 3159:

Rome and the Arabian Frontier: From the Nabataeans to the Saracens

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Rome and the Arabian Frontier: From the Nabataeans to the Saracens

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Numerous Nabatean bas-relief busts of the Northern Syrian goddess

957: 938: 864: 852: 738: 730: 698: 589: 582: 578: 572: 502: 481: 473: 465: 461: 391: 375: 361: 324: 231: 227: 215: 137: 3179:(Leiden, Brill, 2001) (Religions in the Graeco-Roman World, 136). 1998: 226:. Their settlements—most prominently the assumed capital city of 27:

Arab people who inhabited northern Arabia and the Southern Levant

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Mahdi al-Zoubi: Nabataean Practices for Tombs Protection - p. 3.

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Archaeometry (MAA), Mediterranean Archaeology and (2013-01-01).

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peoples, they, like their neighbors, used Aramaic, the region's

1063: 775: 617: 517: 3322:—the only collection of ancient Nabataean art outside of Jordan 3024:

Zbigniew, Fiema (1987). "Remarks on the Sculptors from Ḥegra".

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John F. Healey, 'Were the Nabataeans Arabs?' Aram 1 (1989), 43.

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T&T Clark Encyclopedia of Second Temple Judaism Volume Two

1720: 1718: 1490: 1480: 1452: 183: 180: 1355:/Jawf), trade hub at southeastern end of Wadi Sirhan corridor 566:

in Syria, but were attacked and routed. Cleopatra's general,

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The Pagan God: Popular Religion in the Greco-Roman Near East

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The History of the Jewish People in the Age of Jesus Christ

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Excavated from The Temple of the Winged Lions was the "Eye

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Schürer, Emil; Millar, Fergus; Vermes, Geza (2015-03-26).

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as a source of protection for the tombs against thievery.

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Stuckenbruck, Loren T.; Gurtner, Daniel M. (2019-12-26).

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Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Africa and the Middle East

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Other gods worshipped in Nabatea during this period were

562:. After this defeat, the Nabataean forces regrouped near 165: 1035:. Atargatis was amalgated into the worship of Al-‘Uzzá. 3298:

Hecht Museum - Exhibitions | The Nabateans in the Negev

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The Aramaeans: Their Ancient History, Culture, Religion

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Hecht Museum - Catalogues | The Nabateans in the Negev

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Brinkman, Gelb, Civil, Oppenheim & Reiner (1980).

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An Outline of the Grammar of the Safaitic Inscriptions

2194: 2192: 1224:, would seal up when it got wet and retain the water. 2747:"Biblical Archaeology Review, May/June 2016, page 20" 2200:

Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research

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seems to have been associated with the king based on

186: 162: 159: 765: 262:) to the Arabian borderland that stretched from the 209: 177: 168: 3355:—Ursula Hackl, Hanna Jenni, and Christoph Schneider 3328:—Ancient Desert Agriculture Systems Revived (ADASR) 2866:

The Ancient Languages of Syria-Palestine and Arabia

174: 131: 105: 80: 71:in the desert regions around the Roman province of 30:"Nabataean" redirects here. For the languages, see 3244: 3209:. Orientalia Lovaniensia analecta. Vol. 100. 915:inscriptions identified themselves as Nabataeans. 2620:Nabatu. The Nabataeans through their inscriptions 956:. Dushara was the supreme deity of the Nabataean 3338:"Solving the Enigma of Petra and the Nabataeans" 2934:Johnson, Douglas L.; Lewis, Laurence A. (2007). 2144:Studies in the History and Archaeology of Jordan 67:(ruled AD 117–138), showing the location of the 2623:. Edicions Universitat Barcelona. p. 118. 2544: 2542: 2155:Marjo Lehtinen (December 2002) "Petra Papyri", 1884:. Canadian Museum of Civilization. 7 April 2006 1091:The Nabataeans used to represent their gods as 2823: 2821: 2777:. University of California Press. p. 52. 2612: 2610: 2249:Routledge Handbook on Women in the Middle East 1160:The name may be derived from the same root as 2617:Francisco del Río Sánchez (4 December 2015). 2578: 2576: 2574: 2572: 1084:, written in the 3rd century, states that in 478:Silver drachm of Malichos II with Shaqilat II 8: 3177:The Religion of the Nabataeans: A Conspectus 2919:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( 2716:The Religion of the Nabataeans: A Conspectus 2586:Petra and the Lost Kingdom of the Nabataeans 2443:The Religion of the Nabataeans: A Conspectus 1787:Petra and the Lost Kingdom of the Nabataeans 1753:Petra and the Lost Kingdom of the Nabataeans 1726:Petra and the Lost Kingdom of the Nabataeans 1512: 1500: 1227:In the mid-1950s, a research team headed by 524:and imposed a tribute of an unknown amount. 51: 2899:. Oriental Institute, Chicago. p. 22. 2246:Joseph, Suad; Zaatari, Zeina (2022-12-30). 2106:"The Dead Sea Scrolls - Browse Manuscripts" 2026:Literacy and identity in pre-Islamic Arabia 661:. Their lands were divided between the new 3183:Krasnov, Boris R.; Mazor, Emanuel (2001). 2937:Land Degradation: Creation and Destruction 2555:. Princeton University Press. p. 83. 1986:. Josephus. pp. 18.109-118 or 18.5.1. 1378:Incense Route – Desert Cities in the Negev 398:'s officer Athenaeus in the course of the 57: 50: 2869:. Cambridge University Press. p. 2. 2466:Rome and the Arabs, Dumbarton Oaks, p. 9. 2110:The Dead Sea Scrolls - Browse Manuscripts 737:(today's Yemen), as well as a trade with 1864: 1576:. Harvard University Press. p. 12. 1011: 984: 928: 839: 793: 493:The Nabataeans were allies of the first 2967:Finding Ancient Rome: Walks in the city 2142:P. M. Bikai (1997) "The Petra Papyri", 1562: 1465: 1076:Sacrifices of animals were common, and 2912: 2233:M. Alzoubi, E. Al Masri, F. Al Ajlouny 486:Silver drachm of Obodas II with Hagaru 3007:Journal of Semitic Studies Supplement 2678: 2676: 2308:Women in Pre-Islamic Arabia: Nabataea 2273: 2271: 2269: 1844:. White Lion Publishing. p. 52. 1599:. Taylor & Francis. p. 216. 378:tribe who had come under significant 7: 3332:Petra: Lost City of Stone Exhibition 1645:. Infobase Publishing. p. 483. 577:Colossal Nabataean columns stand in 421:They wrote a letter to Antigonus in 3353:Quellen zur Geschichte der Nabatäer 3013:(Oxford University Press): 154–162. 2842:. BRILL. 21 June 2017. p. 79. 2475:Rome in the East, Routledge, p. 65. 1907:. London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson. 1622:. Bloomsbury Academic. p. 57. 1513: 1501: 1118:, the largest tomb at Mada'in Saleh 199: 3308:—links on Petra and the Nabataeans 2863:Roger D. Woodard (10 April 2008). 2362:Near Eastern Archaeology: A Reader 1589:the traffic in perfume and spices. 1421:: excavated Nabataean trading port 859:style exclusive to the Nabateans. 774:that is finely milled and free of 98:(commercial and official purposes) 25: 3304:The Bulletin of Nabataean Studies 2650:. Apa Publications. p. 395. 2024:Macdonald, Michael C. A. (2009). 1997:Smith, William Robertson (1911). 1141:itself also developed out of the 855:. Blue textiles were also found. 3347:Nabataeans a nation civilization 3334:—Canadian Museum of Civilization 2804:. Kregel Academic. p. 172. 2644:Rough Guides (1 November 2016). 2549:Javier Teixidor (8 March 2015). 2229:"WOMAN IN THE NABATAEAN SOCIETY" 1838:Elborough, Travis (2019-09-17). 1432: 1193: 1179: 802:of Nabatea depicted on a drachma 434:, and in about 85 BC their king 354: 337: 313: 155: 63:A map of the Roman empire under 3026:Journal of Near Eastern Studies 2278:Esler, Philip F. (2017-02-15). 2214:Annals of the Caliphs' Kitchens 1670:Bowersock, Glen Warren (1994). 1570:Bowersock, Glen Warren (1994). 851:and a bright red produced from 2686:The Religious Life of Nabataea 1973:Josephus 1:377–391, pp. 78–79. 1964:Josephus 1:363–377, pp. 75–77. 218:people who inhabited northern 1: 2525:. Leiden: Brill. p. 19. 2332:Graf, David F. (2019-04-23). 1811:Grant, Michael (2011-12-30). 1387:), city with Nabataean temple 1267:'Abd'obodat son of Wahballahi 1245:Weizmann Institute of Science 1093:featureless pillars or blocks 2683:Alpass, Peter (2013-06-13). 2440:Healey, J. F. (2015-08-27). 2076:"The Nabateans in the Negev" 1790:. Harvard University Press. 1676:. Harvard University Press. 1539: 1491: 1481: 991:Jordan Archaeological Museum 665:Arab tribal kingdoms of the 258: 3342:Biblical Archaeology Review 2712:"Ritual Actions: Offerings" 2284:. Oxford University Press. 1760:. pp. centerfold, 14. 1593:Healey, John (2023-05-31). 1519: 1507: 766: 630:into the Roman province of 210: 3415: 3247:Nabatean Archaeology Today 2305:Fāsī, Hatūn Ajwād (2007). 2171:Journal of Semitic Studies 2133:1 (March 1994), pp. 55–57. 2128:The Biblical Archaeologist 1756:. London, United Kingdom: 1528: 1311:, settlement and sanctuary 1284: 1251:Architects and stonemasons 922: 869:Aretas IV and Shaqilath II 692: 459: 453: 247: 40: 29: 3389:Arabs in the Roman Empire 3268:The Archaeology of Jordan 2647:The Rough Guide to Jordan 2521:Al-Jallad, Ahmed (2015). 2419:. Bloomsbury Publishing. 2359:Richard, Suzanne (2003). 2212:Nasrallah, Nawal (2007). 2159:Vol.65 No. 4 pp. 277–278. 1882:Petra: Lost City of Stone 1476: 786:Women in Nabatean culture 400:Third War of the Diadochi 136: 110: 85: 56: 3394:Ancient Israel and Judah 3109:"Nabataea: Medain Saleh" 2942:Rowman & Littlefield 2710:Healey, John F. (2001). 2386:Ḥak̲lîlî, Rāḥēl (2005). 2252:. Taylor & Francis. 2157:Near Eastern Archaeology 1878:"A City Carved in Stone" 1740:. Retrieved 8 July 2016. 1016:A Nabatean sculpture of 760:, contains a recipe for 683:Johann Ludwig Burckhardt 535:accepted a bribe of 300 3243:Negev, Avraham (1986). 3157:Graf, David F. (1997). 3130:Ephʿal, Israel (1984). 3068:Keller, Daniel (2007). 3043:Keller, Daniel (2007). 2980:Keller, Daniel (2007). 2965:Landart, Paula (2015). 2893:The Assyrian Dictionary 2771:John F. Healey (1990). 2010:Encyclopædia Britannica 1984:Antiquities of the Jews 1814:Jews In The Roman World 1448:List of Nabataean kings 1257:Apollodorus of Damascus 1200:Remains of a Nabataean 998:Temple of Winged Lions 904:Michael C. A. Macdonald 533:Marcus Aemilius Scaurus 374:The Nabataeans were an 3326:Archaeological Studies 3161:. Aldershot: Ashgate. 2984:. Nikol. p. 947. 2183:10.1093/jss/xliv.2.251 1903:Johnson, Paul (1987). 1732:. pp. 14, 17, 30, 31. 1639:Stokes, Jamie (2009). 1548: 1346:Northwest Saudi Arabia 1119: 1020: 993: 945: 870: 844: 803: 764:Nabatean water bread ( 704: 703:Nabataean trade routes 585: 554:, with the support of 546:In 32 BC, during King 487: 479: 471: 3320:Cincinnati Art Museum 3237:Encyclopedia of Islam 2049:Fisher, Greg (2020). 1955:Josephus 1:61, p. 48. 1905:A History of the Jews 1784:Taylor, Jane (2002). 1750:Taylor, Jane (2001). 1724:Taylor, Jane (2001). 1167:, to shine brightly. 1114: 1015: 988: 932: 868: 843: 797: 767:khubz al-ma al-nabati 756:, the earliest known 702: 576: 485: 477: 469: 460:Further information: 132:Related ethnic groups 3374:Ancient Arab peoples 3221:. pp. 448–450. 3072:. Nikol. p. 6. 2593:. pp. 124–151. 2583:Jane Taylor (2001). 1455:, ancient Arab tribe 1393:, town, road station 1372:Negev Desert, Israel 1263:Aretas IV (1 BC-AD). 750:Ibn Sayyar al-Warraq 404:Hieronymus of Cardia 288:. They converted to 3314:Jewish Encyclopedia 3095:Nabatean Necropolis 2086:on 20 November 2018 1281:Archeological sites 1027:were identified by 890:Historians such as 636:Ruwafa inscriptions 501:'s intervention in 394:without success by 286:Greco-Roman culture 53: 3384:Arab ethnic groups 3219:Peeters Publishers 3187:. Sofia: Pensoft. 2774:The Early Alphabet 2000:"Nabataeans" 1413:South Sinai, Egypt 1323:, mountaintop site 1309:Khirbet edh-Dharih 1139:Nabataean alphabet 1120: 1038:However, when the 1021: 994: 946: 925:Nabataean religion 871: 845: 804: 778:and is baked in a 705: 586: 514:Alexander Jannaeus 488: 480: 472: 305:Hellenistic period 214:) were an ancient 43:Nabataeans of Iraq 3312:NABATÆANS in the 3277:978-1-84127-136-1 3258:978-0-8147-5760-4 3194:978-954-642-135-7 3175:Healey, John F., 3168:978-0-86078-658-0 3149:978-0-685-74243-3 3140:Hebrew University 3079:978-3-937872-53-7 3054:978-3-937872-53-7 2991:978-3-937872-53-7 2951:978-0-7425-1948-0 2906:978-0-918986-17-7 2876:978-1-139-46934-0 2849:978-90-04-34304-7 2811:978-0-8254-9363-8 2784:978-0-520-07309-8 2725:978-90-04-10754-0 2696:978-90-04-21623-5 2657:978-0-241-29849-7 2630:978-84-475-3748-8 2600:978-1-86064-508-2 2562:978-1-4008-7139-1 2532:978-90-04-28929-1 2453:978-90-04-30148-1 2426:978-0-567-66095-4 2399:978-90-04-12373-1 2372:978-1-57506-083-5 2345:978-0-429-78455-2 2318:978-1-4073-0095-5 2291:978-0-19-107990-0 2259:978-1-351-67643-4 2060:978-0-415-72880-5 2035:978-0-7546-5965-5 1942:978-0-14-044420-9 1929:Josephus, Flavius 1914:978-0-297-79091-4 1851:978-1-78131-895-9 1824:978-1-78022-281-3 1797:978-0-674-00849-6 1767:978-1-86064-508-2 1629:978-0-567-50161-5 1606:978-1-000-94209-5 1537: 1473:Nabataean Aramaic 1315:Khirbet et-Tannur 1208:, southern Israel 1009:" or "Eye-Idol". 900:Robert G. Hoyland 815:Ptolemaic dynasty 507:popular historian 456:Nabataean Kingdom 450:Nabataean Kingdom 256: 208: 143: 142: 96:Nabataean Aramaic 36:Nabataean Aramaic 16:(Redirected from 3406: 3379:Tribes of Arabia 3281: 3262: 3250: 3232: 3203:Lipiński, Edward 3198: 3172: 3153: 3138:: Magnes Press, 3117: 3116: 3105: 3099: 3098: 3093:Negev, Abraham. 3090: 3084: 3083: 3065: 3059: 3058: 3040: 3034: 3033: 3021: 3015: 3014: 3002: 2996: 2995: 2977: 2971: 2970: 2962: 2956: 2955: 2931: 2925: 2924: 2918: 2910: 2898: 2887: 2881: 2880: 2860: 2854: 2853: 2834: 2828: 2825: 2816: 2815: 2795: 2789: 2788: 2768: 2762: 2761: 2759: 2758: 2749:. Archived from 2743: 2737: 2736: 2734: 2732: 2707: 2701: 2700: 2680: 2671: 2668: 2662: 2661: 2641: 2635: 2634: 2614: 2605: 2604: 2580: 2567: 2566: 2546: 2537: 2536: 2518: 2512: 2509: 2503: 2500: 2494: 2491: 2485: 2482: 2476: 2473: 2467: 2464: 2458: 2457: 2437: 2431: 2430: 2410: 2404: 2403: 2383: 2377: 2376: 2356: 2350: 2349: 2329: 2323: 2322: 2311:. Archaeopress. 2302: 2296: 2295: 2275: 2264: 2263: 2243: 2237: 2236: 2224: 2218: 2217: 2209: 2203: 2196: 2187: 2186: 2166: 2160: 2153: 2147: 2140: 2134: 2120: 2114: 2113: 2102: 2096: 2095: 2093: 2091: 2082:. Archived from 2071: 2065: 2064: 2046: 2040: 2039: 2021: 2015: 2014: 2002: 1994: 1988: 1987: 1980: 1974: 1971: 1965: 1962: 1956: 1953: 1947: 1946: 1925: 1919: 1918: 1900: 1894: 1893: 1891: 1889: 1874: 1868: 1862: 1856: 1855: 1835: 1829: 1828: 1808: 1802: 1801: 1781: 1775: 1774: 1747: 1741: 1722: 1713: 1712: 1710: 1708: 1694: 1688: 1687: 1667: 1661: 1660: 1637: 1614: 1591: 1567: 1551: 1542: 1532: 1530: 1522: 1516: 1515: 1510: 1504: 1503: 1494: 1488: 1486: 1485: 1478: 1470: 1442: 1437: 1436: 1197: 1183: 1143:Aramaic alphabet 1033:Khirbet et-Tannû 769: 733:and spices from 723:Diodorus Siculus 717:Diodorus Siculus 679:Kingdom of Kinda 430:. They occupied 416:Diodorus Siculus 358: 341: 317: 261: 251: 249: 238:)—gave the name 213: 203: 201: 193: 192: 189: 188: 185: 182: 179: 176: 173: 170: 167: 164: 161: 90:Nabataean Arabic 61: 54: 32:Nabataean Arabic 21: 3414: 3413: 3409: 3408: 3407: 3405: 3404: 3403: 3359: 3358: 3289: 3284: 3278: 3265: 3259: 3242: 3229: 3201: 3195: 3182: 3169: 3156: 3150: 3129: 3125: 3120: 3107: 3106: 3102: 3092: 3091: 3087: 3080: 3067: 3066: 3062: 3055: 3042: 3041: 3037: 3023: 3022: 3018: 3004: 3003: 2999: 2992: 2979: 2978: 2974: 2964: 2963: 2959: 2952: 2933: 2932: 2928: 2911: 2907: 2896: 2889: 2888: 2884: 2877: 2862: 2861: 2857: 2850: 2836: 2835: 2831: 2826: 2819: 2812: 2797: 2796: 2792: 2785: 2770: 2769: 2765: 2756: 2754: 2745: 2744: 2740: 2730: 2728: 2726: 2709: 2708: 2704: 2697: 2682: 2681: 2674: 2669: 2665: 2658: 2643: 2642: 2638: 2631: 2616: 2615: 2608: 2601: 2582: 2581: 2570: 2563: 2548: 2547: 2540: 2533: 2520: 2519: 2515: 2510: 2506: 2501: 2497: 2492: 2488: 2483: 2479: 2474: 2470: 2465: 2461: 2454: 2439: 2438: 2434: 2427: 2412: 2411: 2407: 2400: 2385: 2384: 2380: 2373: 2365:. Eisenbrauns. 2358: 2357: 2353: 2346: 2331: 2330: 2326: 2319: 2304: 2303: 2299: 2292: 2277: 2276: 2267: 2260: 2245: 2244: 2240: 2226: 2225: 2221: 2211: 2210: 2206: 2197: 2190: 2168: 2167: 2163: 2154: 2150: 2141: 2137: 2122:The carbonized 2121: 2117: 2104: 2103: 2099: 2089: 2087: 2073: 2072: 2068: 2061: 2048: 2047: 2043: 2036: 2023: 2022: 2018: 1996: 1995: 1991: 1982: 1981: 1977: 1972: 1968: 1963: 1959: 1954: 1950: 1943: 1927: 1926: 1922: 1915: 1902: 1901: 1897: 1887: 1885: 1876: 1875: 1871: 1863: 1859: 1852: 1837: 1836: 1832: 1825: 1810: 1809: 1805: 1798: 1783: 1782: 1778: 1768: 1749: 1748: 1744: 1723: 1716: 1706: 1704: 1696: 1695: 1691: 1684: 1669: 1668: 1664: 1653: 1638: 1630: 1615: 1607: 1592: 1584: 1569: 1568: 1564: 1560: 1555: 1554: 1489:, vocalized as 1483: 1482: 1471: 1467: 1462: 1438: 1431: 1428: 1400:), road station 1353:Dumat al-Jandal 1289: 1283: 1253: 1237:soil management 1229:Michael Evenari 1213: 1212: 1211: 1210: 1209: 1198: 1189: 1188: 1187: 1184: 1173: 1147:Arabic alphabet 1109: 927: 921: 888: 830: 788: 758:Arabic cookbook 754:Kitab al-Tabikh 697: 691: 673:Arabs, and the 644:Marcus Aurelius 605: 552:Herod the Great 505:. According to 464: 458: 452: 438:became lord of 402:; at that time 372: 371: 370: 369: 368: 359: 350: 349: 348: 342: 333: 332: 331: 318: 307: 302: 294:Later Roman Era 224:southern Levant 158: 154: 127: 101: 76: 69:Arabes Nabataei 49: 46: 39: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 3412: 3410: 3402: 3401: 3396: 3391: 3386: 3381: 3376: 3371: 3361: 3360: 3357: 3356: 3350: 3344: 3335: 3329: 3323: 3317: 3309: 3300: 3295: 3288: 3287:External links 3285: 3283: 3282: 3276: 3263: 3257: 3240: 3233: 3227: 3199: 3193: 3180: 3173: 3167: 3154: 3148: 3126: 3124: 3121: 3119: 3118: 3100: 3097:. p. 219. 3085: 3078: 3060: 3053: 3035: 3016: 2997: 2990: 2972: 2957: 2950: 2926: 2905: 2882: 2875: 2855: 2848: 2829: 2817: 2810: 2798:Tony Maalouf. 2790: 2783: 2763: 2738: 2724: 2702: 2695: 2672: 2663: 2656: 2636: 2629: 2606: 2599: 2568: 2561: 2538: 2531: 2513: 2504: 2495: 2486: 2477: 2468: 2459: 2452: 2432: 2425: 2405: 2398: 2378: 2371: 2351: 2344: 2324: 2317: 2297: 2290: 2265: 2258: 2238: 2219: 2204: 2188: 2177:(2): 251–289. 2161: 2148: 2135: 2115: 2097: 2066: 2059: 2041: 2034: 2016: 2005:Chisholm, Hugh 1989: 1975: 1966: 1957: 1948: 1941: 1933:The Jewish War 1920: 1913: 1895: 1869: 1857: 1850: 1830: 1823: 1803: 1796: 1776: 1766: 1742: 1714: 1689: 1682: 1662: 1651: 1628: 1605: 1582: 1561: 1559: 1556: 1553: 1552: 1464: 1463: 1461: 1458: 1457: 1456: 1450: 1444: 1443: 1427: 1424: 1423: 1422: 1415: 1414: 1410: 1409: 1408: 1407: 1401: 1394: 1391:Elusa (Haluza) 1388: 1374: 1373: 1369: 1368: 1363: 1356: 1348: 1347: 1343: 1342: 1336: 1335: 1331: 1330: 1324: 1318: 1312: 1306: 1294: 1293: 1282: 1279: 1278: 1277: 1273: 1270: 1264: 1260: 1252: 1249: 1206:Makhtesh Ramon 1199: 1192: 1191: 1190: 1185: 1178: 1177: 1176: 1175: 1174: 1172: 1169: 1128:Middle Eastern 1108: 1105: 1082:De Abstenentia 923:Main article: 920: 917: 887: 884: 829: 826: 787: 784: 693:Main article: 690: 687: 632:Arabia Petraea 604: 601: 454:Main article: 451: 448: 390:or perhaps at 360: 353: 352: 351: 343: 336: 335: 334: 319: 312: 311: 310: 309: 308: 306: 303: 301: 298: 141: 140: 134: 133: 129: 128: 126: 125: 120: 111: 108: 107: 103: 102: 100: 99: 93: 86: 83: 82: 78: 77: 73:Arabia Petraea 62: 47: 26: 24: 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 3411: 3400: 3397: 3395: 3392: 3390: 3387: 3385: 3382: 3380: 3377: 3375: 3372: 3370: 3367: 3366: 3364: 3354: 3351: 3348: 3345: 3343: 3339: 3336: 3333: 3330: 3327: 3324: 3321: 3318: 3316: 3315: 3310: 3307: 3305: 3301: 3299: 3296: 3294: 3291: 3290: 3286: 3279: 3273: 3269: 3264: 3260: 3254: 3249: 3248: 3241: 3239:, Volume VII. 3238: 3234: 3230: 3228:9789042908598 3224: 3220: 3216: 3212: 3208: 3204: 3200: 3196: 3190: 3186: 3181: 3178: 3174: 3170: 3164: 3160: 3155: 3151: 3145: 3141: 3137: 3133: 3128: 3127: 3122: 3114: 3110: 3104: 3101: 3096: 3089: 3086: 3081: 3075: 3071: 3064: 3061: 3056: 3050: 3046: 3039: 3036: 3031: 3027: 3020: 3017: 3012: 3008: 3001: 2998: 2993: 2987: 2983: 2976: 2973: 2968: 2961: 2958: 2953: 2947: 2943: 2939: 2938: 2930: 2927: 2922: 2916: 2908: 2902: 2895: 2894: 2886: 2883: 2878: 2872: 2868: 2867: 2859: 2856: 2851: 2845: 2841: 2840: 2833: 2830: 2824: 2822: 2818: 2813: 2807: 2803: 2802: 2794: 2791: 2786: 2780: 2776: 2775: 2767: 2764: 2753:on 2018-04-05 2752: 2748: 2742: 2739: 2727: 2721: 2717: 2713: 2706: 2703: 2698: 2692: 2688: 2687: 2679: 2677: 2673: 2667: 2664: 2659: 2653: 2649: 2648: 2640: 2637: 2632: 2626: 2622: 2621: 2613: 2611: 2607: 2602: 2596: 2592: 2588: 2587: 2579: 2577: 2575: 2573: 2569: 2564: 2558: 2554: 2553: 2545: 2543: 2539: 2534: 2528: 2524: 2517: 2514: 2508: 2505: 2499: 2496: 2490: 2487: 2481: 2478: 2472: 2469: 2463: 2460: 2455: 2449: 2445: 2444: 2436: 2433: 2428: 2422: 2418: 2417: 2409: 2406: 2401: 2395: 2391: 2390: 2382: 2379: 2374: 2368: 2364: 2363: 2355: 2352: 2347: 2341: 2338:. 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