501:
1342:, to become an ophthalmologist, three years of postgraduate study is required after completing an MBBS degree. The postgraduate degree in ophthalmology is called medical doctor in ophthalmology. Currently, this degree is provided by Tilganga Institute of Ophthalmology, Tilganga, Kathmandu, BPKLCO, Institute of Medicine, TU, Kathmandu, BP Koirala Institute of Health Sciences, Dharan, Kathmandu University, Dhulikhel, and National Academy of Medical Science, Kathmandu. A few Nepalese citizens also study this subject in Bangladesh, China, India, Pakistan, and other countries. All graduates have to pass the Nepal Medical Council Licensing Exam to become a registered ophthalmologists in Nepal. The concurrent residency training is in the form of a PG student (resident) at a medical college, eye hospital, or institution according to the degree providing university's rules and regulations. Nepal Ophthalmic Society holds regular conferences and actively promotes continuing medical education.
38:
1454:
state-standard
Philippine Board of Ophthalmology (PBO) regulates ophthalmology residency programs and board certification. To become a general ophthalmologist in the Philippines, a candidate must have completed a doctor of medicine degree (MD) or its equivalent (e.g. MBBS), have completed an internship in Medicine, have passed the physician licensure exam, and have completed residency training at a hospital accredited by the Philippine Board of Ophthalmology (accrediting arm of PAO). Attainment of board certification in ophthalmology from the PBO is essential in acquiring privileges in most major health institutions. Graduates of residency programs can receive further training in ophthalmology subspecialties, such as neuro-ophthalmology, retina, etc. by completing a fellowship program that varies in length depending on each program's requirements.
1618:(1828–1870) (Germany) probably the most important ophthalmologist of the nineteenth century, along with Helmholtz and Donders, one of the 'founding fathers' of ophthalmology as a specialty, he was a brilliant clinician and charismatic teacher who had an international influence on the development of ophthalmology, and was a pioneer in mapping visual field defects and diagnosis and treatment of glaucoma, and he introduced a cataract extraction technique that remained the standard for more than 100 years, and many other important surgical techniques such as iridectomy. He rationalised the use of many ophthalmically important drugs, including mydriatics and miotics; he also was the founder of one of the earliest ophthalmic societies (German Ophthalmological Society, 1857) and one of the earliest ophthalmic journals (
1508:
1042:
1330:, after completing MBBS degree, postgraduate study in ophthalmology is required. The degrees are doctor of medicine, master of surgery, diploma in ophthalmic medicine and surgery, and diplomate of national board. The concurrent training and work experience are in the form of a junior residency at a medical college, eye hospital, or institution under the supervision of experienced faculty. Further work experience in the form of fellowship, registrar, or senior resident refines the skills of these eye surgeons. All members of the India Ophthalmologist Society and various state-level ophthalmologist societies hold regular conferences and actively promote continuing medical education.
512:
1421:, after MBBS, a four-year full-time residency program leads to an exit-level FCPS examination in ophthalmology, held under the auspices of the College of Physicians and Surgeons, Pakistan. The tough examination is assessed by both highly qualified Pakistani and eminent international ophthalmic consultants. As a prerequisite to the final examinations, an intermediate module, an optics and refraction module, and a dissertation written on a research project carried out under supervision is also assessed.
4223:
1643:
4253:
1607:
4263:
1253:, the FRACO or FRANZCO is the equivalent postgraduate specialist qualification. The structured training system takes place over five years of postgraduate training. Overseas-trained ophthalmologists are assessed using the pathway published on the RANZCO website. Those who have completed their formal training in the UK and have the CCST or CCT, usually are deemed to be comparable.
4243:
4233:
993:
732:
37:
749:, also known as ocular surgery, is surgery performed on the eye or its adnexa by an ophthalmologist. The eye is a fragile organ, and requires extreme care before, during, and after a surgical procedure. An eye surgeon is responsible for selecting the appropriate surgical procedure for the patient and for taking the necessary safety precautions.
1314:. Approximately 35 vacancies open per year for ophthalmology residency training in all of Canada. These numbers fluctuate per year, ranging from 30 to 37 spots. Of these, up to ten spots are at French-speaking universities in Quebec. At the end of the five years, the graduating ophthalmologist must pass the oral and written portions of the
1812:(1906–2001) (United Kingdom), in 1949, may have been the first to successfully implant an artificial intraocular lens after observing that plastic fragments in the eyes of wartime pilots were well tolerated; he fought for decades against strong reactionary opinions to have the concept accepted as feasible and useful.
1549:(1812–1887), the elder (Austrian), proved that myopia is largely due to an excessive axial length, published influential textbooks on eye disease, and ran annual eye clinics in needy areas long before the concept of volunteer eye camps became popular; his name is still attached to some disease signs, e.g., von
1824:(1912–2006) (Belgium) was the "father of modern retinal surgery" and developer of the Schepens indirect binocular ophthalmoscope whilst at Moorfields Eye Hospital; he was the founder of the Schepens Eye Research Institute, associated with Harvard Medical School and the Massachusetts Eye and Ear Infirmary, in
1515:
Ophthalmologists typically complete four years of undergraduate studies, four years of medical school and four years of eye-specific training (residency). Some pursue additional training, known as a fellowship - typically one to two years. Ophthalmologists are physicians who specialize in the eye and
902:
advanced such ideas with empiricism. He dissected the eyes of animals, and discovering three layers (not two), found that the fluid was of a constant consistency with the lens forming (or congealing) after death, and the surrounding layers were seen to be juxtaposed. He and his contemporaries further
368:
specific to that field. This may include a one-year integrated internship that involves more general medical training in other fields such as internal medicine or general surgery. Following residency, additional specialty training (or fellowship) may be sought in a particular aspect of eye pathology.
372:
Ophthalmologists prescribe medications to treat ailments, such as eye diseases, implement laser therapy, and perform surgery when needed. Ophthalmologists provide both primary and specialty eye care—medical and surgical. Most ophthalmologists participate in academic research on eye diseases at some
1000:
Medieval
Islamic Arabic and Persian scientists (unlike their classical predecessors) considered it normal to combine theory and practice, including the crafting of precise instruments, and therefore, found it natural to combine the study of the eye with the practical application of that knowledge.
943:
was then discovered and the sclera, retina, choroid, and cornea were seen to meet at the same point. The two chambers were seen to hold the same fluid, as well as the lens being attached to the choroid. Galen continued the notion of a central canal, but he dissected the optic nerve and saw that it
1364:
grants membership (MRCSI (Ophth)) and fellowship (FRCSI (Ophth)) qualifications in conjunction with the Irish
College of Ophthalmologists. Total postgraduate training involves an intern year, a minimum of three years of basic surgical training, and a further 4.5 years of higher surgical training.
589:
is a medical technological platform used to assess ocular structures. The information is then used by physicians to assess staging of pathological processes and confirm clinical diagnoses. Subsequent OCT scans are used to assess the efficacy of managing diabetic retinopathy, age-related macular
1453:
In the
Philippines, Ophthalmology is considered a medical specialty that uses medicine and surgery to treat diseases of the eye. There is only one professional organization in the country that is duly recognized by the PMA and the PCS: the Philippine Academy of Ophthalmology (PAO). PAO and the
1428:
The M.S. in ophthalmology is also one of the specialty programs. In addition to programs for physicians, various diplomas and degrees for allied eyecare personnel are also being offered to produce competent optometrists, orthoptists, ophthalmic nurses, ophthalmic technologists, and ophthalmic
1424:
Moreover, a two-and-a-half-year residency program leads to an MCPS while a two-year training of DOMS is also being offered. For candidates in the military, a stringent two-year graded course, with quarterly assessments, is held under Armed Forces Post
Graduate Medical Institute in Rawalpindi.
1278:, after medical school an ophthalmology residency is undertaken. The residency typically lasts five years, which culminates in fellowship of the Royal College of Surgeons of Canada (FRCSC). Subspecialty training is undertaken by approximately 30% of fellows (FRCSC) in a variety of fields from
1265:
to be an ophthalmologist the basic degree is an MBBS. Then they have to obtain a postgraduate degree or diploma in an ophthalmology specialty. In
Bangladesh, these are diploma in ophthalmology, diploma in community ophthalmology, fellow or member of the College of Physicians and Surgeons in
866:, "study, discourse"), i.e., "the study of eyes". The discipline applies to all animal eyes, whether human or not, since the practice and procedures are quite similar with respect to disease processes, although there are differences in the anatomy or disease prevalence.
1176:
In 1946, Igersheimer conducted the first experiments on light coagulation. In 1949, he performed the first successful treatment of a retinal detachment with a light beam (light coagulation) with a self-constructed device on the roof of the ophthalmic clinic at the
500:
914:, extending as a fourth epithelial layer over the eye. Rufus was the first to recognise a two-chambered eye, with one chamber from cornea to lens (filled with water), the other from lens to retina (filled with a substance resembling egg whites).
1838:(1915–2005) (Canada) was Canadian Standards Association and a sport safety advocate to prevent eye injuries and spinal cord injuries, developed safer sports equipment, named to the Order of Canada, inducted into Canada's Sport Hall of Fame.
656:) is a technique for measuring the corneo-retinal standing potential that exists between the front and the back of the human eye. The resulting signal is called the electrooculogram. Primary applications are in ophthalmological
2510:
Agarwal, R.K. (1965), Ancient Indian
Ophthalmology, The Ophthalmic Optician, 5(21),1093–1100 (the title of this journal was changed to Optometry Today in 1985), published by the Association of Optometrists, London,
1602:"chirurgien oculiste of the lycees, the civil hospices and all the charitable institutions of the departments of the Empire", and he also was known for his free interventions, mainly in favour of poor people
373:
point in their training and many include research as part of their career. Ophthalmology has always been at the forefront of medical research with a long history of advancement and innovation in eye care.
1073:. This allowed for detailed study of the eye and an advanced model. Some mistakes persisted, such as: why the pupil changed size (seen to be vessels of the iris filling with blood), the existence of the
1231:/DOMS/DNB, who typically complete an undergraduate degree, general medical school, followed by a residency in ophthalmology. Ophthalmologists typically perform optical, medical and surgical eye care.
1516:
related structures. They perform medical and surgical eye care and may also write prescriptions for corrective lenses. They often manage late stage eye disease, which typically involves surgery.
1240:
970:
in approximately the sixth century BC, which describes 76 ocular diseases (of these, 51 surgical) as well as several ophthalmological surgical instruments and techniques. His description of
94:
894:. They recognized the sclera and transparent cornea running flushly as the outer coating of the eye, with an inner layer with pupil, and a fluid at the centre. It was believed, by
1005:, and others beginning with the medieval Arabic period, taught that the crystalline lens is in the exact center of the eye. This idea was propagated until the end of the 1500s.
1956:
1941:
1741:
1475:
1430:
1740:(1875–1956) (Russia) contributed the tube flap grafting method, corneal transplantation, and preservation of grafts from cadaver eyes and tissue therapy; he founded the
1507:
3383:
931:(second century AD) remedied some mistaken descriptions, including about the curvature of the cornea and lens, the nature of the optic nerve, and the existence of a
1818:(1900-1989) (Pakistan), was the "father of medical services" in Pakistan and distinguished ophthalmologist widely recognized as an expert in the field of eye care.
1122:
of Great
Britain in 1772. His skill at removing cataracts legitimized the field. The first dedicated ophthalmic hospital opened in 1805 in London; it is now called
2217:
1041:
2308:
3280:
2419:
3752:
2126:
1543:(1840–1917) discovered Leber's congenital amaurosis, Leber's hereditary optic neuropathy, Leber's miliary aneurysm, and Leber's stellate neuroretinitis
4093:
2338:
240:
235:
1710:
in 1829, entirely as a philanthropic endeavor; later he was appointed as the first director of the ophthalmology department at the Grand
Hospital of
2187:
1191:
Zofia
Falkowska (1915–93) head of the Faculty and Clinic of Ophthalmology in Warsaw from 1963 to 1976, was the first to use lasers in her practice.
594:
2538:
3692:
1095:(1763–1821) was an Austrian ophthalmologist and leader of the First Viennese School of Medicine. He introduced a flap operation for treatment of
2986:
Namal Arin, Reisman Arnold (2007). "Joseph Igersheimer (1879–1965): A Visionary Ophthalmologist and his Contributions before and after Exile".
1502:
1471:
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as a treatment for glaucoma and improved cataract surgery, he is also considered the founding father of the German Ophthalmological Society.
1143:
42:
US Navy Commander Kenneth Kubis and U.S. Air Force Captain Tighe Richardson use an operating microscope while performing cataract eye surgery
2021:
1782:(1851–1930) was an Austrian ophthalmologist known for his discovery and description of numerous ocular diseases and abnormalities including
1188:(1888–1940), who introduced certain diagnostic, surgical, and nonsurgical eye-care procedures. He was executed by the German Nazis in 1940.
935:. Although this model was a roughly correct modern model of the eye, it contained errors. Still, it was not advanced upon again until after
3992:
3064:
Modern ophthalmology : the highlights : the account of a master wintnessing a 60 year epoch of evolution and progress (1950-2010)
1915:
1658:-winner in 1911 for his research on the eye as a light-refracting apparatus, he described the 'schematic eye', a mathematical model of the
1361:
1184:
Polish ophthalmology dates to the thirteenth century. The Polish Ophthalmological Society was founded in 1911. A representative leader was
757:
Ophthalmology includes subspecialities that deal either with certain diseases or diseases of certain parts of the eye. Some of them are:
1153:
Numerous ophthalmologists fled Germany after 1933 as the Nazis began to persecute those of Jewish descent. A representative leader was
4128:
3470:
2786:
Leffler CT, Hogewind BF (2023). "Jacques Daviel performed the first documented planned primary cataract extraction on Sep. 18, 1750".
2482:
3071:
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and the Pakistan Institute of Community Ophthalmology in Peshawar. Subspecialty fellowships also are being offered in the fields of
1351:
321:
4246:
1211:
in 1851. They both made theoretical calculations on image formation in optical systems and also had studied the optics of the eye.
2247:
2521:
1445:, Al Shifa Trust Eye Hospital Rawalpindi, and Al- Ibrahim Eye Hospital Karachi also have started a degree program in this field.
1850:(1916–1998) (Spain) was the "father of modern refractive surgery" and in the 1960s, he developed lamellar techniques, including
3378:
1936:
1809:
1595:
987:
3409:
2096:
4118:
3552:
2697:
1793:
1442:
1228:
230:
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1591:
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1714:, Sicily, in 1831 after the Sicilian government became convinced of the importance of state support for the specialization
1115:
1082:
1894:(b.1960) (Namibia) is a renowned ophthalmologist notable for her charitable work among people with eye-related illnesses.
1118:
in 1727. A major breakthrough came with the appointment of Baron de Wenzel (1724–90), a German who became the oculist to
4098:
2092:
1796:(1902–1960) (Japan) pioneer in incisional refractive surgery, including techniques for astigmatism and the invention of
1520:
1074:
932:
898:(fifth century BC) and others, that this fluid was the medium of vision and flowed from the eye to the brain by a tube.
584:
140:
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2456:
2209:
2610:
2414:
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Davidson Luke (1996). "'Identities Ascertained': British Ophthalmology in the First Half of the Nineteenth Century".
2297:
1559:(1696–1762) (France) performed the first documented planned primary cataract extraction on Sep. 18, 1750 in Cologne.
1203:(1840–1905), a co-owner of at the Zeiss Jena factories in Germany, where he developed numerous optical instruments.
3722:
2451:
1672:, invented the ophthalmoscope (1851) and published important work on physiological optics, including colour vision.
1170:
1070:
903:
put forth the existence of three tubes leading from the eye, not one. One tube from each eye met within the skull.
562:
4151:
2498:
1847:
1474:
grant MRCOphth/FRCOphth and MRCSEd/FRCSEd, (although membership is no longer a prerequisite for fellowship), the
1127:
402:
3272:
2409:
1165:, he built a modern clinic and trained students. In 1939, he went to the United States, becoming a professor at
3943:
3865:
3860:
3780:
3540:
1366:
975:
921:
2118:
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Fuchs, Ernst, and Alexander Duane.Text-book of Ophthalmology. Philadelphia, PA: J.B. Lippincott Company, 1908
1099:(Beer's operation), as well as having popularized the instrument used to perform the surgery (Beer's knife).
3923:
3897:
2008:
1776:
extraction; he founded the Barraquer Clinic in 1941 and the Barraquer Institute in 1947 in Barcelona, Spain.
1772:(1884–1965) (Spain), in 1917, invented the first motorized vacuum instrument (erisophake) for intracapsular
1662:
based on his measurements known as the 'optical constants' of the eye; his measurements are still used today
1546:
1438:
1123:
1078:
1062:
799:
601:
2334:
2276:
1126:. Clinical developments at Moorfields and the founding of the Institute of Ophthalmology (now part of the
1102:
In North America, indigenous healers treated some eye diseases by rubbing or scraping the eyes or eyelids.
4287:
3515:
3463:
3163:
3095:
Wincewicz Andrzej; et al. (2009). "Dr Adam Zamenhof (1888-1940) and his insight into ophthalmology".
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701:
661:
511:
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1884:(1930–2004) (United States) developed the ultrasound and mechanized irrigation and aspiration system for
4166:
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4025:
3998:
3950:
3904:
3599:
2534:
1976:
1921:
1703:(1846 – 1907), Danish-Brazilian ophthalmologist who founded the first eye infirmary in São Paulo, Brazil
1665:
1531:
The following is a list of physicians who have significantly contributed to the field of ophthalmology:
1394:
1315:
1291:
1204:
1178:
1157:(1879–1965), best known for his discoveries with arsphenamine for the treatment of syphilis. He fled to
641:
3217:
3142:
920:
the Greek philosopher of the second century AD gave a detailed description of cataract surgery by the
4186:
4146:
4013:
3827:
3822:
3802:
3737:
3589:
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Kansupada, K. B.; Sassani, J. W. (1997). "Sushruta: The father of Indian surgery and ophthalmology".
1815:
1779:
1479:
1111:
794:
633:
542:
485:
432:
417:
365:
192:
158:
78:
3196:
4266:
4208:
4191:
3850:
3567:
1885:
1871:
1868:(1910–1988) (Poland), in 1961, developed the first cryoprobe for intracapsular cataract extraction.
1783:
1587:
1357:
1311:
1134:
established the site as the largest eye hospital in the world and a nexus for ophthalmic research.
825:
778:
609:
547:
480:
The most valued pharmaceutical companies worldwide whose leading products are in Ophthalmology are
390:
114:
4252:
2762:
2388:
2363:
2067:
1997:
1573:
and he made possible the prescribing of combinations of spherical and cylindrical lenses to treat
4156:
4113:
4103:
3892:
3845:
3812:
3807:
3557:
3535:
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Annuario Storico del Regno della Due Sicilie, dal Principio del Governo, di Ferdinando II Borbone
3120:
3011:
2807:
2584:
2029:
1874:(1927–2000) (Russia) was the "father of ophthalmic microsurgery" and he improved and popularized
1562:
1402:
1224:
1154:
1131:
809:
718:
696:
648:
621:
437:
360:
is a physician who undergoes subspecialty training in medical and surgical eye care. Following a
225:
3438:
1565:(1818–1889) (Dutch) published pioneering analyses of ocular biomechanics, intraocular pressure,
1091:
performed the first documented planned primary cataract extraction on Sep. 18, 1750 in Cologne.
890:, physicians largely based their anatomical conceptions of the eye on speculation, rather than
4226:
4108:
4078:
4057:
4020:
4003:
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3872:
3767:
3687:
3631:
3594:
3579:
3520:
3487:
3456:
3355:
3250:
3112:
3077:
3067:
3044:
3034:
3003:
2968:
2933:
2884:
2799:
2736:
2693:
2670:
2614:
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2576:
2478:
1875:
1841:
1797:
1769:
1737:
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1486:. Such clinical work is within the NHS, with supplementary private work for some consultants.
1092:
1030:
839:
838:
Medical retina and vitreo-retinal surgery sometimes are combined and together they are called
685:
673:
668:
447:
136:
2520:
Roy, P.N., Mehra, K.S. and Deshpande, P.J. (1975), Cataract surgery performed before 800 BC,
1207:(1821–1894) was a polymath who made contributions to many fields of science and invented the
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2568:
1865:
1821:
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1700:
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in trachoma and his son, Ferdinand Ritter von Arlt, the younger, was also an ophthalmologist
1279:
1166:
1002:
971:
962:
907:
761:
538:
422:
273:
1409:
degrees and to undertake clinical fellowships in the UK, Australia, and the United States.
1173:
is widely credited with developing the predecessor of laser coagulation, photocoagulation.
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was solid. He mistakenly counted seven optical muscles, one too many. He also knew of the
783:
704:
525:
442:
412:
90:
74:
2690:
Encyclopaedia of the History of Science, Technology, and Medicine in Non-Western Cultures
2152:
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2903:
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1926:
1881:
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1550:
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The prominent physicists of the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries included
1088:
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noted the existence of photoreceptors, however, they were not properly described until
851:
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361:
132:
106:
1706:
Socrate Polara (1800–1860, Italy) founded the first dedicated ophthalmology clinic in
4281:
4171:
3960:
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3757:
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2904:"Baron De Wenzel, Oculist to King George III: His Impact on British Ophthalmologists"
2811:
2447:
1855:
1829:
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1299:
1185:
880:
788:
637:
532:
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56:
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3015:
1900:(b. 1963) (United States) worked as an ophthalmologist before becoming a US senator.
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1891:
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1008:
940:
689:
407:
396:
110:
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Console and Classify. The French Psychiatric Profession in the Nineteenth Century
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1961:
1951:
1803:
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1574:
1483:
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992:
911:
887:
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specialty training programs in veterinary ophthalmology exist in some countries.
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740:
118:
82:
17:
4123:
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3333:
2795:
1393:. A minimum of 8.5 years of training is required before eligibility to work in
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1971:
1859:
1835:
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in 1933. As one of eight emigrant directors in the Faculty of Medicine at the
1147:
1058:
891:
803:
572:
567:
551:
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381:
A brief list of some of the most common diseases treated by ophthalmologists:
102:
3081:
3048:
2999:
2870:
364:, a doctor specialising in ophthalmology must pursue additional postgraduate
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3938:
3933:
3797:
3775:
3650:
3614:
3108:
1966:
1897:
1687:
1659:
1635:
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technicians in this field. These programs are being offered, notably by the
1386:
1307:
1246:
1050:
945:
899:
895:
883:
from ancient Egypt dating to 1550 BC, a section is devoted to eye diseases.
712:
657:
629:
557:
481:
346:
52:
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834:, deals with surgical management of retinal and posterior segment diseases
3702:
3479:
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1806:(1870–1935) (Switzerland) was the "father of retinal detachment surgery".
1773:
1759:
1669:
1599:
1566:
1489:
Only 2.3 ophthalmologists exist per 100,000 population in the UK – fewer
1418:
1378:
1287:
1096:
1054:
1026:
967:
957:
936:
773:
739:
For a comprehensive list of surgeries performed by ophthalmologists, see
677:
625:
427:
385:
342:
334:
255:
204:
86:
70:
1844:(1918–2005) (United States) was the "father of pediatric ophthalmology".
731:
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3641:
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1946:
1878:, invented a surgical cure for cataract, and he developed scleroplasty.
1711:
1631:
1295:
820:
458:
338:
208:
98:
1903:
Andromahi Rapanou ((b. 1984) (Greece), specialist in Retinal Pathology
3408:. American Association for Pediatric Ophthalmology & Strabismus.
2002:
1825:
1763:
1707:
1570:
1434:
1382:
1370:
1283:
1275:
1158:
917:
910:(first century AD) recognised a more modern concept of the eye, with
861:
855:
817:, deals with treatment of retinal problems through non-surgical means
814:
767:
708:
681:
617:
259:
3167:
2639:"A medieval fallacy: the crystalline lens in the center of the eye"
1506:
1466:, three colleges grant postgraduate degrees in ophthalmology. The
1374:
1339:
1327:
1033:
translated this at approximately 1150 into the new term "retina".
928:
524:
Following are examples of examination methods performed during an
3225:
2268:
3452:
1630:(b.1859) (Poland) was a Polish ophthalmologist who created the
978:. He has been described as one of the first cataract surgeons.
616:
measures the electrical responses of various cell types in the
3443:
2637:
Leffler CT, Hadi TM, Udupa A, Schwartz SG, Schwartz D (2016).
1888:, first allowing cataract extraction through a small incision.
1744:, Odessa, one of the leading eye-care institutes in the world.
1406:
1398:
605:
to visualize the vascular networks of the retina and choroid.
2440:
1029:
wrote in his Canon "rescheth", which means "retiformis", and
2719:
Graefe's Archive for Clinical and Experimental Ophthalmology
1241:
Royal Australian and New Zealand College of Ophthalmologists
1077:, and the nature of the retina. Unaware of their functions,
285:
3448:
2855:"Ophthalmology in North America: Early Stories (1491-1801)"
1482:
and one of these degrees is required for specialization in
312:
306:
3433:
2497:
Bidyadhar, N.K. (1939), Sushruta's Ophthalmic Operations,
1590:, healing, among many, personalities such as the minister
676:
which may be caused by various medical conditions such as
309:
300:
279:
3188:
2632:
2630:
1678:(1843–1925) (Germany) in 1879 became the first to use an
288:
1011:, an Arabic native of Damascus, wrote a large textbook,
3246:
2384:
2359:
2178:
Churchill, Jennifer; Gudgel, Dan T. (1 November 2013).
1266:
ophthalmology, and Master of Science in ophthalmology.
3138:
322:
282:
276:
3439:
Multilingual illustrated Dictionary of Ophthalmology
2561:
Documenta Ophthalmologica. Advances in Ophthalmology
1957:
List of systemic diseases with ocular manifestations
1942:
Association for Research in Vision and Ophthalmology
1742:
Filatov Institute of Eye Diseases and Tissue Therapy
723:
of the eyes may be performed by an ophthalmologist.
707:
technique for mapping the anterior curvature of the
303:
291:
4139:
4077:
3838:
3766:
3721:
3630:
3501:
3486:
1758:; he also made major contributions to the study of
1519:Ophthalmologists must complete the requirements of
1431:
College of Ophthalmology and Allied Vision Sciences
297:
294:
247:
219:
214:
198:
186:
176:
171:
154:
146:
125:
113:(malignancies, or cancers, and benign eye tumors),
63:
47:
1225:MD/DO in the U.S. or MBBS in the UK and elsewhere
3066:. Panama: Jaypee-Highlights Medical Publishers.
1114:, appointed to the position by the governors of
2688:David C. Lindberg (1997). Helaine Selin (ed.).
2146:
2144:
1523:to maintain licensure and for recertification.
1478:of Glasgow grants FRCS. Postgraduate work as a
1397:posts. Some trainees take extra time to obtain
1065:, preparations for fixing the eye for study by
1013:The Polished Book on Experimental Ophthalmology
345:that deals with the diagnosis and treatment of
854:roots of the word ophthalmology are ὀφθαλμός (
3464:
3321:. Tipografica Trani (Napoli). pp. 66–67.
3139:"College of Physicians and Surgeons Pakistan"
2715:"From where does "rete" in retina originate?"
1365:Clinical training takes place within public,
1049:In the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries,
8:
1632:constructed international auxiliary language
166:
30:
2713:de Jong, Paulus T. V. M. (10 August 2014).
2692:. Kluwer Academic Publishers. p. 410.
1750:(1879–1963) (Japan), in 1918, invented the
1493:than in any nations in the European Union.
1110:The first ophthalmic surgeon in the UK was
3753:Reproductive endocrinology and infertility
3498:
3471:
3457:
3449:
2298:"Top Global Pharmaceutical Company Report"
2054:
2052:
2050:
2048:
36:
4094:Bachelor of Medicine, Bachelor of Surgery
3349:
2927:
2878:
2730:
2664:
2654:
1720:(1834–1908) (Netherlands) introduced the
241:Bachelor of Medicine, Bachelor of Surgery
236:Bachelor of Medicine, Bachelor of Surgery
1641:
1605:
1106:Ophthalmic surgery in The United Kingdom
1040:
991:
730:
595:Optical coherence tomography angiography
510:
499:
27:Field of medicine treating eye disorders
3247:"European Union of medical specialists"
2781:
2779:
1989:
1854:and keratophakia, as well as the first
1069:, and later the freezing of the eye by
1503:Medical education in the United States
1472:Royal College of Surgeons of Edinburgh
1021:Simple and Compounded Ophthalmic Drugs
875:Ancient near east and the Greek period
770:, ocular surface, and external disease
165:
29:
3386:from the original on October 22, 2022
3189:"Philippine Academy of Ophthalmology"
735:An ophthalmologist performing surgery
672:to detect dysfunction in central and
7:
4232:
3993:Physical medicine and rehabilitation
2535:"Susruta: The Great Surgeon of Yore"
1916:Book of the Ten Treatises of the Eye
1362:Royal College of Surgeons of Ireland
4242:
3334:"Professor Ernst Fuchs (1851-1930)"
2755:"Important Dates in Vision Science"
2151:Smith, Yolanda (5 September 2016).
1582:(1757–1833) (Italy), specialist in
455:(misalignment or deviation of eyes)
4129:Medical Scientist Training Program
2190:from the original on 19 March 2018
2159:from the original on 19 March 2018
2129:from the original on 19 March 2018
1754:, a common method for determining
1620:Graefe's Archives of Ophthalmology
1511:New York Ophthalmic Hospital, 1893
1318:exam in either English or French.
974:was compatible with the method of
25:
2335:"Subspecialties of Ophthalmology"
2184:American Academy of Ophthalmology
2123:American Academy of Ophthalmology
1932:American Academy of Ophthalmology
1788:Fuchs heterochromic iridocyclitis
1468:Royal College of Ophthalmologists
1441:and vitreoretinal ophthalmology.
1352:Irish College of Ophthalmologists
4261:
4251:
4241:
4231:
4222:
4221:
3279:. American College of Surgeons.
3164:"King Edward Medical University"
2853:Leffler CT, et al. (2017).
2522:British Journal of Ophthalmology
692:or other neurological deficits.
272:
4262:
3412:from the original on 2021-04-21
3332:Müller, Andreas (1 June 2003).
3283:from the original on 2021-07-09
3253:from the original on 2014-01-06
3199:from the original on 2018-01-29
3145:from the original on 2017-07-12
2835:from the original on 2023-03-29
2790:. Dec. 6, 2023 (7): 1392–1393.
2541:from the original on 2015-12-04
2422:from the original on 2017-02-11
2391:from the original on 2017-07-24
2366:from the original on 2011-12-02
2341:from the original on 2018-03-19
2314:from the original on 2022-03-15
2279:from the original on 2022-10-06
2250:from the original on 2019-07-13
2220:from the original on 2022-07-22
2099:from the original on 2020-07-25
1937:European Board of Ophthalmology
1302:, medical and surgical retina,
1179:University of Hamburg-Eppendorf
1045:Early Ophthalmology instruments
988:Ophthalmology in medieval Islam
4119:Doctor of Osteopathic Medicine
3553:Oral and maxillofacial surgery
3033:. New Delhi: Jaypee Brothers.
2859:Ophthalmology and Eye Diseases
2337:. News Medical Life Sciences.
2119:"Ophthalmology Subspecialists"
2117:Boyd, Kierstan (6 June 2016).
1443:King Edward Medical University
1017:On the Theory of Ophthalmology
231:Doctor of Osteopathic Medicine
115:neuro-ophthalmologic disorders
1:
3166:. Kemu.edu.pk. Archived from
2333:Smith, Yolanda (2017-01-17).
2180:"What is an Ophthalmologist?"
2022:"Definition of ophthalmology"
1083:Gottfried Reinhold Treviranus
996:Anatomy of the Eye, 1200 A.D.
711:, the outer structure of the
4099:Bachelor of Medical Sciences
3866:Neurosurgical anesthesiology
3379:Canada's Sports Hall of Fame
3307:, Chicago Press, 2002, p. 63
3224:. 2012-12-01. Archived from
3097:Journal of Medical Biography
2988:Journal of Medical Biography
2475:Encyclopedia of epidemiology
2093:American Medical Association
1668:(1821–1894), a great German
1586:, became popular during the
1521:continuing medical education
862:
856:
590:degeneration, and glaucoma.
585:Optical coherence tomography
349:disorders. A former term is
141:optical coherence tomography
117:(including disorders of the
95:eyelid and orbital disorders
2825:Fuchs, Ernst (2001-01-01).
2611:University of Chicago Press
2415:Online Etymology Dictionary
2240:"What Causes Eye Problems?"
1654:(1862–1930) (Sweden) was a
1592:Jean-Étienne-Marie Portalis
1195:Contributions by physicists
1142:In Berlin, ophthalmologist
492:(Canada) for Front of eye.
4309:
3351:10.1001/archopht.121.6.888
2953:Social History of Medicine
2796:10.1038/s41433-023-02874-5
2607:Science in the Middle Ages
2537:. Infinityfoundation.com.
2441:
2210:"History of Ophthalmology"
2060:"History of Ophthalmology"
1752:Ishihara Color Vision Test
1738:Vladimir Petrovich Filatov
1690:and in 1886 developed the
1500:
1349:
1238:
1171:Gerhard Meyer-Schwickerath
1169:. German ophthalmologist,
1116:St. Bartholomew's Hospital
1015:, divided into two parts,
985:
806:(misalignment of the eyes)
738:
563:Dilated fundus examination
486:Macular degeneration (AMD)
4217:
3338:Archives of Ophthalmology
3317:Parisi, Antonino (1838).
2920:10.1017/s0025727300053138
2732:10.1007/s00417-014-2769-1
2499:Archives of Ophthalmology
1235:Australia and New Zealand
1215:Professional requirements
1128:University College London
35:
4053:Transplantation medicine
3944:Clinical neurophysiology
3861:Obstetric anesthesiology
3781:Interventional radiology
3541:Digestive system surgery
3000:10.1258/j.jmb.2007.06-63
2871:10.1177/1179172117721902
2473:Boslaugh, Sarah (2007).
1527:Notable ophthalmologists
1367:Health Service Executive
800:Paediatric ophthalmology
632:), inner retinal cells (
3924:Intensive care medicine
3898:Mass gathering medicine
3743:Maternal–fetal medicine
3109:10.1258/jmb.2008.008037
3062:Boyd, Benjamin (2010).
2457:A Greek–English Lexicon
2009:Oxford University Press
1547:Carl Ferdinand von Arlt
1439:pediatric ophthalmology
1124:Moorfields Eye Hospital
602:Fluorescein angiography
528:that enables diagnosis
515:Fluorescein angiography
393:(tear duct obstruction)
3516:Cardiothoracic surgery
2643:Clinical Ophthalmology
1848:José Ignacio Barraquer
1647:
1611:
1598:; he was nominated by
1512:
1163:University of Istanbul
1132:Sir Stewart Duke-Elder
1046:
997:
860:, "eye") and -λoγία (-
832:Vitreo-retinal surgery
736:
516:
508:
4167:Personalized medicine
4026:Reproductive medicine
3951:Occupational medicine
3905:Evolutionary medicine
2477:. SAGE. p. 547.
2448:Liddell, Henry George
2005:UK English Dictionary
1977:Eye care professional
1922:Chinese ophthalmology
1666:Hermann von Helmholtz
1645:
1609:
1510:
1369:-funded hospitals in
1292:vision rehabilitation
1219:Ophthalmologists are
1205:Hermann von Helmholtz
1044:
995:
734:
558:Slit lamp examination
514:
503:
470:Ruptured globe injury
105:and disorders of the
4293:Surgical specialties
4187:Traditional medicine
4147:Alternative medicine
4014:Addiction psychiatry
3828:Transfusion medicine
3823:Medical microbiology
3738:Gynecologic oncology
3590:Reproductive surgery
3029:Goes, Frank (2013).
2656:10.2147/OPTH.S100708
2155:. News-Medical.net.
1816:Wajid Ali Khan Burki
1569:, and physiological
1480:specialist registrar
927:The Greek physician
906:The Greek physician
795:Ophthalmic pathology
669:Visual field testing
548:Extraocular motility
543:intraocular pressure
484:(United States) for
433:Macular degeneration
418:Diabetic retinopathy
159:Glossary of medicine
79:diabetic retinopathy
4209:History of medicine
4192:Veterinary medicine
3999:Preventive medicine
3851:Adolescent medicine
3693:Infectious diseases
3301:Jan Ellen Goldstein
3271:Tarbet, Kristen J.
2965:10.1093/shm/9.3.313
2902:Wyman A.L. (1991).
2026:Oxford Dictionaries
2003:Oxford Dictionaries
1886:phacoemulsification
1872:Svyatoslav Fyodorov
1732:20th–21st centuries
1682:to remove metallic
1616:Albrecht von Graefe
1610:Albrecht von Graefe
1588:First French Empire
1535:18th–19th centuries
1312:neuro-ophthalmology
1144:Albrecht von Graefe
956:The Indian surgeon
779:Neuro-ophthalmology
610:Electroretinography
403:Thyroid eye disease
168:
81:and other types of
32:
4157:Molecular oncology
4114:Doctor of Medicine
4104:Master of Medicine
4021:Radiation oncology
3893:Emergency medicine
3846:Addiction medicine
3813:Clinical chemistry
3808:Clinical pathology
3600:Transplant surgery
3558:Orthopedic surgery
3536:Colorectal surgery
2573:10.1007/BF02569056
1648:
1612:
1596:Ponce Denis Lebrun
1563:Franciscus Donders
1513:
1470:(RCOphth) and the
1155:Joseph Igersheimer
1047:
998:
842:subspecialisation
810:Refractive surgery
737:
727:Ophthalmic surgery
697:Corneal topography
649:Electrooculography
517:
509:
438:Retinal detachment
366:residency training
226:Doctor of Medicine
221:Education required
4275:
4274:
4109:Master of Surgery
4073:
4072:
4058:Tropical medicine
4004:Prison healthcare
3919:Hospital medicine
3883:Disaster medicine
3873:Aviation medicine
3688:Hospital medicine
3595:Surgical oncology
3580:Pediatric surgery
3574:
3521:Endocrine surgery
2725:(10): 1525–1527.
2603:David C. Lindberg
2307:. November 2021.
1876:radial keratotomy
1842:Marshall M. Parks
1810:Sir Harold Ridley
1798:radial keratotomy
1770:Ignacio Barraquer
1676:Julius Hirschberg
1652:Allvar Gullstrand
1646:Allvar Gullstrand
1093:Georg Joseph Beer
1075:posterior chamber
1031:Gerard of Cremona
933:posterior chamber
840:posterior segment
791:and orbit surgery
686:pituitary disease
674:peripheral vision
660:and in recording
579:Specialized tests
448:Refractive errors
391:Excessive tearing
341:specialty within
265:
264:
164:
163:
137:visual field test
16:(Redirected from
4300:
4265:
4264:
4255:
4245:
4244:
4235:
4234:
4225:
4224:
3929:Medical genetics
3914:General practice
3791:Nuclear medicine
3666:Gastroenterology
3622:Vascular surgery
3572:
3499:
3473:
3466:
3459:
3450:
3421:
3420:
3418:
3417:
3402:
3396:
3395:
3393:
3391:
3374:"Dr. Tom Pashby"
3370:
3364:
3363:
3353:
3329:
3323:
3322:
3314:
3308:
3298:
3292:
3291:
3289:
3288:
3268:
3262:
3261:
3259:
3258:
3243:
3237:
3236:
3234:
3233:
3214:
3208:
3207:
3205:
3204:
3185:
3179:
3178:
3176:
3175:
3160:
3154:
3153:
3151:
3150:
3135:
3129:
3128:
3092:
3086:
3085:
3059:
3053:
3052:
3026:
3020:
3019:
2983:
2977:
2976:
2948:
2942:
2941:
2931:
2899:
2893:
2892:
2882:
2850:
2844:
2843:
2841:
2840:
2822:
2816:
2815:
2783:
2774:
2773:
2771:
2770:
2761:. Archived from
2759:www.arts.rpi.edu
2751:
2745:
2744:
2734:
2710:
2704:
2703:
2685:
2679:
2678:
2668:
2658:
2634:
2625:
2624:
2599:
2593:
2592:
2567:(1–2): 159–167.
2556:
2550:
2549:
2547:
2546:
2531:
2525:
2518:
2512:
2508:
2502:
2495:
2489:
2488:
2470:
2464:
2444:
2443:
2437:
2431:
2430:
2428:
2427:
2406:
2400:
2399:
2397:
2396:
2381:
2375:
2374:
2372:
2371:
2356:
2350:
2349:
2347:
2346:
2330:
2324:
2323:
2321:
2319:
2313:
2302:
2294:
2288:
2287:
2285:
2284:
2265:
2259:
2258:
2256:
2255:
2235:
2229:
2228:
2226:
2225:
2206:
2200:
2199:
2197:
2195:
2175:
2169:
2168:
2166:
2164:
2148:
2139:
2138:
2136:
2134:
2114:
2108:
2107:
2105:
2104:
2085:
2079:
2078:
2076:
2075:
2066:. Archived from
2056:
2043:
2041:
2039:
2037:
2032:on July 17, 2012
2028:. Archived from
2019:
2017:
2016:
1994:
1866:Tadeusz Krwawicz
1822:Charles Schepens
1784:Fuchs' dystrophy
1748:Shinobu Ishihara
1701:Peter Adolph Gad
1584:cataract surgery
1308:Ocular pathology
1280:anterior segment
1167:Tufts University
1003:Hunayn ibn Ishaq
972:cataract surgery
963:Sushruta Samhita
908:Rufus of Ephesus
865:
859:
762:Anterior segment
640:cells), and the
620:, including the
552:ocular alignment
539:Ocular tonometry
475:Orbital fracture
423:Dry eye syndrome
329:
325:
319:
318:
315:
314:
311:
308:
305:
302:
299:
296:
293:
290:
287:
284:
281:
278:
200:Activity sectors
169:
129:
111:ocular neoplasms
67:
40:
33:
21:
18:Ophthalmological
4308:
4307:
4303:
4302:
4301:
4299:
4298:
4297:
4278:
4277:
4276:
4271:
4213:
4202:Chief physician
4135:
4080:
4069:
4063:Travel medicine
4048:Sports medicine
4031:Sexual medicine
3971:Palliative care
3966:Pain management
3910:Family medicine
3888:Diving medicine
3834:
3762:
3724:
3717:
3633:
3626:
3585:Plastic surgery
3531:General surgery
3511:Cardiac surgery
3492:
3490:
3482:
3477:
3430:
3425:
3424:
3415:
3413:
3404:
3403:
3399:
3389:
3387:
3372:
3371:
3367:
3331:
3330:
3326:
3316:
3315:
3311:
3299:
3295:
3286:
3284:
3273:"Ophthalmology"
3270:
3269:
3265:
3256:
3254:
3245:
3244:
3240:
3231:
3229:
3216:
3215:
3211:
3202:
3200:
3187:
3186:
3182:
3173:
3171:
3162:
3161:
3157:
3148:
3146:
3141:. Cpsp.edu.pk.
3137:
3136:
3132:
3094:
3093:
3089:
3074:
3061:
3060:
3056:
3041:
3028:
3027:
3023:
2985:
2984:
2980:
2950:
2949:
2945:
2908:Medical History
2901:
2900:
2896:
2852:
2851:
2847:
2838:
2836:
2824:
2823:
2819:
2785:
2784:
2777:
2768:
2766:
2753:
2752:
2748:
2712:
2711:
2707:
2700:
2687:
2686:
2682:
2649:(10): 649–662.
2636:
2635:
2628:
2621:
2601:
2600:
2596:
2558:
2557:
2553:
2544:
2542:
2533:
2532:
2528:
2519:
2515:
2509:
2505:
2501:, 22, page 553.
2496:
2492:
2485:
2472:
2471:
2467:
2462:Perseus Project
2438:
2434:
2425:
2423:
2410:"ophthalmology"
2408:
2407:
2403:
2394:
2392:
2383:
2382:
2378:
2369:
2367:
2358:
2357:
2353:
2344:
2342:
2332:
2331:
2327:
2317:
2315:
2311:
2305:The Pharma 1000
2300:
2296:
2295:
2291:
2282:
2280:
2267:
2266:
2262:
2253:
2251:
2237:
2236:
2232:
2223:
2221:
2214:eyewiki.aao.org
2208:
2207:
2203:
2193:
2191:
2177:
2176:
2172:
2162:
2160:
2153:"Ophthalmology"
2150:
2149:
2142:
2132:
2130:
2116:
2115:
2111:
2102:
2100:
2089:"Ophthalmology"
2087:
2086:
2082:
2073:
2071:
2058:
2057:
2046:
2035:
2033:
2020:
2014:
2012:
1998:"ophthalmology"
1996:
1995:
1991:
1986:
1981:
1910:
1756:Color blindness
1734:
1692:Hirschberg test
1580:Joseph Forlenze
1537:
1529:
1505:
1499:
1460:
1451:
1415:
1354:
1348:
1336:
1324:
1304:ocular oncology
1272:
1259:
1243:
1237:
1217:
1197:
1140:
1120:King George III
1108:
1039:
990:
984:
954:
877:
872:
848:
784:Ocular oncology
755:
744:
729:
720:Ultrasonography
705:medical imaging
581:
526:eye examination
522:
520:Eye examination
498:
443:Endophthalmitis
379:
358:ophthalmologist
327:
323:
275:
271:
252:
250:
239:
234:
229:
222:
201:
189:
188:Occupation type
181:
167:Ophthalmologist
150:Ophthalmologist
127:
91:corneal disease
75:retinal disease
65:
43:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
4306:
4304:
4296:
4295:
4290:
4280:
4279:
4273:
4272:
4270:
4269:
4259:
4249:
4239:
4229:
4218:
4215:
4214:
4212:
4211:
4206:
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4204:
4194:
4189:
4184:
4179:
4174:
4169:
4164:
4159:
4154:
4149:
4143:
4141:
4140:Related topics
4137:
4136:
4134:
4133:
4132:
4131:
4121:
4116:
4111:
4106:
4101:
4096:
4091:
4089:Medical school
4085:
4083:
4075:
4074:
4071:
4070:
4068:
4067:
4066:
4065:
4055:
4050:
4045:
4043:Sleep medicine
4040:
4039:
4038:
4028:
4023:
4018:
4017:
4016:
4006:
4001:
3996:
3990:
3985:
3984:
3983:
3973:
3968:
3963:
3958:
3953:
3948:
3947:
3946:
3936:
3931:
3926:
3921:
3916:
3907:
3902:
3901:
3900:
3890:
3885:
3880:
3875:
3870:
3869:
3868:
3863:
3856:Anesthesiology
3853:
3848:
3842:
3840:
3836:
3835:
3833:
3832:
3831:
3830:
3825:
3820:
3815:
3810:
3805:
3795:
3794:
3793:
3788:
3786:Neuroradiology
3783:
3772:
3770:
3764:
3763:
3761:
3760:
3755:
3750:
3745:
3740:
3735:
3729:
3727:
3723:Obstetrics and
3719:
3718:
3716:
3715:
3710:
3705:
3700:
3695:
3690:
3685:
3680:
3675:
3674:
3673:
3663:
3658:
3653:
3648:
3638:
3636:
3628:
3627:
3625:
3624:
3619:
3618:
3617:
3607:
3605:Trauma surgery
3602:
3597:
3592:
3587:
3582:
3577:
3576:
3575:
3568:Otolaryngology
3565:
3560:
3555:
3550:
3545:
3544:
3543:
3538:
3528:
3523:
3518:
3513:
3507:
3505:
3496:
3494:subspecialties
3484:
3483:
3478:
3476:
3475:
3468:
3461:
3453:
3447:
3446:
3441:
3436:
3429:
3428:External links
3426:
3423:
3422:
3406:"Hall of Fame"
3397:
3365:
3324:
3309:
3293:
3263:
3238:
3218:"PBO Officers"
3209:
3180:
3155:
3130:
3087:
3072:
3054:
3039:
3031:Eye in history
3021:
2994:(4): 227–234.
2978:
2959:(3): 313–333.
2943:
2894:
2845:
2817:
2775:
2746:
2705:
2698:
2680:
2626:
2619:
2613:. p. 21.
2594:
2551:
2526:
2524:, 59, page 171
2513:
2503:
2490:
2484:978-1412928168
2483:
2465:
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2260:
2230:
2201:
2170:
2140:
2109:
2080:
2044:
1988:
1987:
1985:
1982:
1980:
1979:
1974:
1969:
1964:
1959:
1954:
1949:
1944:
1939:
1934:
1929:
1927:Copiale cipher
1924:
1919:
1911:
1909:
1906:
1905:
1904:
1901:
1895:
1889:
1882:Charles Kelman
1879:
1869:
1863:
1852:keratomileusis
1845:
1839:
1833:
1819:
1813:
1807:
1801:
1791:
1777:
1767:
1745:
1733:
1730:
1729:
1728:
1718:Herman Snellen
1715:
1704:
1698:
1694:for measuring
1684:foreign bodies
1673:
1663:
1640:
1639:
1628:L. L. Zamenhof
1624:
1623:
1604:
1603:
1577:
1560:
1557:Jacques Daviel
1554:
1544:
1536:
1533:
1528:
1525:
1498:
1495:
1464:United Kingdom
1459:
1458:United Kingdom
1456:
1450:
1447:
1414:
1411:
1347:
1344:
1335:
1332:
1323:
1320:
1271:
1268:
1258:
1255:
1236:
1233:
1216:
1213:
1209:ophthalmoscope
1196:
1193:
1139:
1138:Central Europe
1136:
1107:
1104:
1089:Jacques Daviel
1038:
1035:
986:Main article:
983:
982:Medieval Islam
980:
953:
950:
876:
873:
871:
868:
847:
844:
836:
835:
829:
823:
818:
815:Medical retina
812:
807:
797:
792:
786:
781:
776:
771:
765:
754:
753:Subspecialties
751:
728:
725:
642:ganglion cells
622:photoreceptors
580:
577:
576:
575:
570:
565:
560:
555:
545:
536:
521:
518:
506:ophthalmoscopy
497:
494:
488:treatment and
478:
477:
472:
467:
461:
456:
450:
445:
440:
435:
430:
425:
420:
415:
410:
405:
400:
394:
388:
378:
375:
362:medical degree
263:
262:
253:
248:
245:
244:
223:
220:
217:
216:
212:
211:
202:
199:
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195:
190:
187:
184:
183:
178:
174:
173:
162:
161:
156:
152:
151:
148:
144:
143:
133:Ophthalmoscopy
130:
123:
122:
107:ocular muscles
68:
61:
60:
49:
45:
44:
41:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4305:
4294:
4291:
4289:
4288:Ophthalmology
4286:
4285:
4283:
4268:
4260:
4258:
4254:
4250:
4248:
4240:
4238:
4230:
4228:
4220:
4219:
4216:
4210:
4207:
4203:
4200:
4199:
4198:
4195:
4193:
4190:
4188:
4185:
4183:
4180:
4178:
4175:
4173:
4172:Public health
4170:
4168:
4165:
4163:
4160:
4158:
4155:
4153:
4152:Allied health
4150:
4148:
4145:
4144:
4142:
4138:
4130:
4127:
4126:
4125:
4122:
4120:
4117:
4115:
4112:
4110:
4107:
4105:
4102:
4100:
4097:
4095:
4092:
4090:
4087:
4086:
4084:
4082:
4076:
4064:
4061:
4060:
4059:
4056:
4054:
4051:
4049:
4046:
4044:
4041:
4037:
4034:
4033:
4032:
4029:
4027:
4024:
4022:
4019:
4015:
4012:
4011:
4010:
4007:
4005:
4002:
4000:
3997:
3994:
3991:
3989:
3986:
3982:
3979:
3978:
3977:
3974:
3972:
3969:
3967:
3964:
3962:
3961:Oral medicine
3959:
3957:
3956:Ophthalmology
3954:
3952:
3949:
3945:
3942:
3941:
3940:
3937:
3935:
3932:
3930:
3927:
3925:
3922:
3920:
3917:
3915:
3911:
3908:
3906:
3903:
3899:
3896:
3895:
3894:
3891:
3889:
3886:
3884:
3881:
3879:
3876:
3874:
3871:
3867:
3864:
3862:
3859:
3858:
3857:
3854:
3852:
3849:
3847:
3844:
3843:
3841:
3837:
3829:
3826:
3824:
3821:
3819:
3818:Cytopathology
3816:
3814:
3811:
3809:
3806:
3804:
3801:
3800:
3799:
3796:
3792:
3789:
3787:
3784:
3782:
3779:
3778:
3777:
3774:
3773:
3771:
3769:
3765:
3759:
3758:Urogynecology
3756:
3754:
3751:
3749:
3746:
3744:
3741:
3739:
3736:
3734:
3731:
3730:
3728:
3726:
3720:
3714:
3711:
3709:
3706:
3704:
3701:
3699:
3696:
3694:
3691:
3689:
3686:
3684:
3681:
3679:
3676:
3672:
3669:
3668:
3667:
3664:
3662:
3661:Endocrinology
3659:
3657:
3654:
3652:
3649:
3647:
3643:
3640:
3639:
3637:
3635:
3629:
3623:
3620:
3616:
3613:
3612:
3611:
3608:
3606:
3603:
3601:
3598:
3596:
3593:
3591:
3588:
3586:
3583:
3581:
3578:
3571:
3570:
3569:
3566:
3564:
3561:
3559:
3556:
3554:
3551:
3549:
3546:
3542:
3539:
3537:
3534:
3533:
3532:
3529:
3527:
3524:
3522:
3519:
3517:
3514:
3512:
3509:
3508:
3506:
3504:
3500:
3497:
3495:
3489:
3485:
3481:
3474:
3469:
3467:
3462:
3460:
3455:
3454:
3451:
3445:
3442:
3440:
3437:
3435:
3432:
3431:
3427:
3411:
3407:
3401:
3398:
3385:
3381:
3380:
3375:
3369:
3366:
3361:
3357:
3352:
3347:
3344:(6): 888–91.
3343:
3339:
3335:
3328:
3325:
3320:
3313:
3310:
3306:
3302:
3297:
3294:
3282:
3278:
3274:
3267:
3264:
3252:
3248:
3242:
3239:
3228:on 2013-03-02
3227:
3223:
3219:
3213:
3210:
3198:
3194:
3190:
3184:
3181:
3170:on 2015-07-08
3169:
3165:
3159:
3156:
3144:
3140:
3134:
3131:
3126:
3122:
3118:
3114:
3110:
3106:
3102:
3098:
3091:
3088:
3083:
3079:
3075:
3073:9789962678168
3069:
3065:
3058:
3055:
3050:
3046:
3042:
3040:9789350902745
3036:
3032:
3025:
3022:
3017:
3013:
3009:
3005:
3001:
2997:
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2849:
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2821:
2818:
2813:
2809:
2805:
2801:
2797:
2793:
2789:
2782:
2780:
2776:
2765:on 2019-12-16
2764:
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2667:
2662:
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2631:
2627:
2622:
2620:0-226-48233-2
2616:
2612:
2608:
2604:
2598:
2595:
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2570:
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2500:
2494:
2491:
2486:
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2476:
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2463:
2459:
2458:
2453:
2452:Scott, Robert
2449:
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2421:
2417:
2416:
2411:
2405:
2402:
2390:
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2326:
2310:
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2249:
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2211:
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2189:
2185:
2181:
2174:
2171:
2158:
2154:
2147:
2145:
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2128:
2124:
2120:
2113:
2110:
2098:
2094:
2090:
2084:
2081:
2070:on 2017-08-08
2069:
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2049:
2045:
2031:
2027:
2023:
2010:
2006:
2004:
1999:
1993:
1990:
1983:
1978:
1975:
1973:
1970:
1968:
1965:
1963:
1960:
1958:
1955:
1953:
1950:
1948:
1945:
1943:
1940:
1938:
1935:
1933:
1930:
1928:
1925:
1923:
1920:
1918:
1917:
1913:
1912:
1907:
1902:
1899:
1896:
1893:
1890:
1887:
1883:
1880:
1877:
1873:
1870:
1867:
1864:
1861:
1857:
1856:microkeratome
1853:
1849:
1846:
1843:
1840:
1837:
1834:
1831:
1830:Massachusetts
1827:
1823:
1820:
1817:
1814:
1811:
1808:
1805:
1802:
1799:
1795:
1792:
1789:
1785:
1781:
1778:
1775:
1771:
1768:
1765:
1761:
1757:
1753:
1749:
1746:
1743:
1739:
1736:
1735:
1731:
1727:
1726:visual acuity
1723:
1722:Snellen chart
1719:
1716:
1713:
1709:
1705:
1702:
1699:
1697:
1693:
1689:
1685:
1681:
1680:electromagnet
1677:
1674:
1671:
1667:
1664:
1661:
1657:
1653:
1650:
1649:
1644:
1637:
1633:
1629:
1626:
1625:
1621:
1617:
1614:
1613:
1608:
1601:
1597:
1594:and the poet
1593:
1589:
1585:
1581:
1578:
1576:
1572:
1568:
1564:
1561:
1558:
1555:
1552:
1548:
1545:
1542:
1541:Theodor Leber
1539:
1538:
1534:
1532:
1526:
1524:
1522:
1517:
1509:
1504:
1497:United States
1496:
1494:
1492:
1487:
1485:
1481:
1477:
1476:Royal College
1473:
1469:
1465:
1457:
1455:
1448:
1446:
1444:
1440:
1436:
1432:
1426:
1422:
1420:
1412:
1410:
1408:
1404:
1400:
1396:
1392:
1388:
1384:
1380:
1376:
1372:
1368:
1363:
1359:
1353:
1345:
1343:
1341:
1333:
1331:
1329:
1321:
1319:
1317:
1316:Royal College
1313:
1309:
1305:
1301:
1300:oculoplastics
1297:
1293:
1289:
1285:
1281:
1277:
1269:
1267:
1264:
1256:
1254:
1252:
1248:
1242:
1234:
1232:
1230:
1226:
1222:
1214:
1212:
1210:
1206:
1202:
1194:
1192:
1189:
1187:
1186:Adam Zamenhof
1182:
1180:
1174:
1172:
1168:
1164:
1160:
1156:
1151:
1149:
1145:
1137:
1135:
1133:
1129:
1125:
1121:
1117:
1113:
1105:
1103:
1100:
1098:
1094:
1090:
1086:
1084:
1080:
1076:
1072:
1068:
1064:
1060:
1056:
1053:were used by
1052:
1043:
1037:Modern period
1036:
1034:
1032:
1028:
1024:
1022:
1018:
1014:
1010:
1006:
1004:
994:
989:
981:
979:
977:
973:
969:
965:
964:
959:
952:Ancient India
951:
949:
947:
942:
938:
934:
930:
925:
923:
919:
915:
913:
909:
904:
901:
897:
893:
889:
884:
882:
881:Ebers Papyrus
874:
869:
867:
864:
858:
853:
845:
843:
841:
833:
830:
827:
824:
822:
819:
816:
813:
811:
808:
805:
801:
798:
796:
793:
790:
789:Oculoplastics
787:
785:
782:
780:
777:
775:
772:
769:
766:
763:
760:
759:
758:
752:
750:
748:
742:
733:
726:
724:
722:
721:
716:
714:
710:
706:
703:
699:
698:
693:
691:
690:brain tumours
687:
683:
679:
675:
671:
670:
665:
663:
662:eye movements
659:
655:
651:
650:
645:
643:
639:
635:
631:
627:
623:
619:
615:
612:
611:
606:
604:
603:
598:
596:
591:
588:
586:
578:
574:
571:
569:
566:
564:
561:
559:
556:
553:
549:
546:
544:
541:to determine
540:
537:
534:
533:Visual acuity
531:
530:
529:
527:
519:
513:
507:
502:
495:
493:
491:
490:Bausch Health
487:
483:
476:
473:
471:
468:
466:
462:
460:
457:
454:
451:
449:
446:
444:
441:
439:
436:
434:
431:
429:
426:
424:
421:
419:
416:
414:
411:
409:
406:
404:
401:
399:(bulged eyes)
398:
395:
392:
389:
387:
384:
383:
382:
376:
374:
370:
367:
363:
359:
354:
352:
348:
344:
340:
336:
332:
331:
317:
269:
268:Ophthalmology
261:
257:
254:
246:
242:
237:
232:
227:
224:
218:
213:
210:
206:
203:
197:
194:
191:
185:
179:
175:
170:
160:
157:
153:
149:
145:
142:
138:
134:
131:
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2064:mrcophth.com
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1892:Helena Ndume
1858:and corneal
1794:Tsutomu Sato
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3878:Dermatology
3733:Gynaecology
3725:gynaecology
3708:Pulmonology
3526:Eye surgery
3488:Specialties
3390:October 26,
2318:29 December
2273:eyewiki.org
2216:. EyeWiki.
1962:Eye surgery
1952:Eye disease
1804:Jules Gonin
1800:for myopia.
1780:Ernst Fuchs
1656:Nobel Prize
1575:astigmatism
1551:Arlt's line
1449:Philippines
1251:New Zealand
1146:introduced
1079:Leeuwenhoek
1063:Leeuwenhoek
1059:microscopes
1051:hand lenses
912:conjunctiva
888:Hippocrates
747:Eye surgery
741:eye surgery
215:Description
119:optic nerve
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77:(including
4282:Categories
4009:Psychiatry
3995:(PM&R)
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3976:Pediatrics
3803:Anatomical
3768:Diagnostic
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3698:Nephrology
3683:Hematology
3678:Geriatrics
3671:Hepatology
3656:Cardiology
3646:Immunology
3444:Aaojournal
3416:2021-03-30
3287:2021-07-07
3257:2013-03-11
3232:2013-03-11
3222:PAO.org.ph
3203:2012-05-27
3193:PAO.org.ph
3174:2012-05-27
3149:2012-05-27
2839:2013-03-11
2769:2018-03-27
2699:0792340663
2545:2008-11-04
2426:2013-05-24
2395:2012-05-27
2385:"Ecvo.org"
2370:2012-05-27
2360:"Acvo.com"
2345:2018-03-18
2283:2022-07-22
2254:2018-03-18
2224:2022-07-22
2103:2020-03-28
2074:2013-08-31
2015:2015-09-14
1984:References
1972:Orthoptics
1860:microlathe
1836:Tom Pashby
1696:strabismus
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1395:consultant
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1263:Bangladesh
1257:Bangladesh
1239:See also:
1221:physicians
1201:Ernst Abbe
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960:wrote the
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892:empiricism
857:ophthalmos
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568:Gonioscopy
554:assessment
535:assessment
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3049:813930522
2812:266051586
2269:"EyeWiki"
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1724:to study
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1660:human eye
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900:Aristotle
896:Alcamaeon
886:Prior to
846:Etymology
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3480:Medicine
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3277:facs.org
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2188:Archived
2163:18 March
2157:Archived
2133:18 March
2127:Archived
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1760:Trachoma
1670:polymath
1600:Napoleon
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377:Diseases
343:medicine
339:surgical
335:clinical
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