292:
176:" was established by Sperry et al in 1963 in which it is thought that molecular gradients in both presynaptic and postsynaptic partners within the optic tectum organize developing axons into a coarse retinotopic map. This was established after a series of seminal experiments in fish and amphibians showed that retinal ganglion axons were already retinotopically organized within the optic tract and if severed, would regenerate and project back to retinotopically appropriate locations. Later, it was identified that
203:
receptive field size or laminar organization. While these animals may not have received external visual cues during development, these experiments suggest that spontaneous activity in the retina may be sufficient for retinotopic organization. In the goldfish, no neural activity (no external visual cues, and no spontaneous activity) did not prevent the formation of the retinal map but the final organization showed signs of lower resolution refinement and more dynamic growth (less stable). Based on
248:. The position of the center of these receptive fields forms an orderly sampling mosaic that covers a portion of the visual field. Because of this orderly arrangement, which emerges from the spatial specificity of connections between neurons in different parts of the visual system, cells in each structure can be seen as contributing to a map of the visual field (also called a retinotopic map, or a visuotopic map). Retinotopic maps are a particular case of
31:
119:(V6). In general, these complex maps are referred to as second-order representations of the visual field, as opposed to first-order (continuous) representations such as V1. Additional retinotopic regions include ventral occipital (VO-1, VO-2), lateral occipital (LO-1, LO-2), dorsal occipital (V3A, V3B), and posterior parietal cortex (IPS0, IPS1, IPS2, IPS3, IPS4).
224:, the presence of developed synapses, and neural activity. As the nervous system develops and more cells are added, this structural plasticity allows for axons to gradually refine their place within the retinotopy. This plasticity is not specific to retinal ganglion axons, rather it's been shown that dendritic arbors of tectal neurons and filopodial processes of
107:), the map is divided along an imaginary horizontal line across the visual field, in such a way that the parts of the retina that respond to the upper half of the visual field are represented in cortical tissue that is separated from those parts that respond the lower half of the visual field. Even more complex maps exist in the third and fourth visual areas
339:
is stimulated with a circular image or angled lines about focus point. The radial map displays the distance from the center of vision. The angular map shows angular location using rays angled about the center of vision. Combining the radial and angular maps, you can see the separate regions of the
219:
Another important factor in the development of retinotopy is the potential for structural plasticity even after neurons are morphologically mature. One interesting hypothesis is that axons and dendrites are continuously extending and retracting their axons and dendrites. Several factors alter this
287:
are sometimes defined by their retinotopic boundaries, using a criterion that states that each area should contain a complete map of the visual field. However, in practice the application of this criterion is in many cases difficult. Those visual areas of the brainstem and cortex that perform the
193:
on postsynaptic partners. In wild type mice, it is thought that competition of target space is important for ensuring continuous retinal mapping, and that if perturbed, this competition may lead to the expansion or compression of the map depending on the available space. If the available space is
180:
family EphA and a related EphA binding molecule referred to as ephrin-A family are expressed in complementary gradients in both the retina and the tectum. More specifically in the mouse, Ephrin A5 is expressed along the rostral-caudal axis of the optic tectum whereas the EphB family is expressed
202:
While neural activity in the retina is not necessary for the development of retinotopy, it seems to be a critical component for the refinement and stabilization of connectivity. Dark reared animals (no external visual cues) develop a normal retinal map in the tectum with no marked changes in
139:
had a prolific body of work on the mind that included much research on neuropathology—although only partially accurate, he correlated the location of brain lesion to areas of occluded vision. He became an early proponent of the existence of a visual map—what he called the "cortical retina."
207:, the thought is that if neurons are sensitive to similar stimuli (similar area of the visual field, similar orientation or direction selectivity) they will likely fire together. This patterned firing will result in stronger connectivity within the retinotopic organization through
194:
altered, such as lesioning or ablating half of the retina, the healthy axons will expand their arbors in the tectum to fill the space. Similarly, if part of the tectum is ablated, the retinal axons will compress the topography to fit within the available tectal space.
288:
first steps of processing the retinal image tend to be organized according to very precise retinotopic maps. The role of retinotopy in other areas, where neurons have large receptive fields, is still being investigated.
151:, although his work on the subject—published in 1909 through a German monograph—was largely ignored and abandoned to obscurity. Independently of Inouye a few years later, the British neurologist
84:
of one's external environment. Moreover, the study of sensory topographies and retinotopy in particular has furthered our understanding of how neurons encode and organize sensory signals.
103:
are typically more complex, in the sense that adjacent points of the visual field are not always represented in adjacent regions of the same area. For example, in the second visual area (
159:. Both scientists observed correlations between the position of an entry wound and the presented visual field loss in the patient (see Fishman, 1997 for an in-depth historical review).
80:
species, though the specific size, number, and spatial arrangement of these maps can differ considerably. Sensory topographies can be found throughout the brain and are critical to the
181:
along the medio-lateral axis. This bimodal expression suggests a mechanism for the graded mapping of the temporal-nasal axis and the dorsoventral axis of the retina.
635:
Ronald S. Fishman (1997). Gordon Holmes, the cortical retina, and the wounds of war. The seventh
Charles B. Snyder Lecture Documenta Ophthalmologica 93: 9-28, 1997.
626:
Ronald S. Fishman (1997). Gordon Holmes, the cortical retina, and the wounds of war. The seventh
Charles B. Snyder Lecture Documenta Ophthalmologica 93: 9-28, 1997.
291:
143:
Early accurate mapping of the visual map arose from studying cranial injuries in war. Maps were described and analyzed by the
Japanese ophthalmologist
189:
While molecular cues are thought to guide axons into a coarse retinotopic map, the resolution of this map is thought to be influenced by available
135:
elucidated that lesions to the occipital and parietal lobes induced blindness. Around the turn of the century, Swedish neurologist and pathologist
87:
Retinal mapping of the visual field is maintained through various points of the visual pathway including but not limited to the retina, the dorsal
332:
828:"Two Eph receptor tyrosine kinase ligands control axon growth and may be involved in the creation of the retinotectal map in the zebrafish"
1271:
714:"In vitro guidance of retinal ganglion cell axons by RAGS, a 25 kDa tectal protein related to ligands for Eph receptor tyrosine kinases"
1318:
312:
437:
Brewer AA, Liu J, Wade AR, Wandell BA (August 2005). "Visual field maps and stimulus selectivity in human ventral occipital cortex".
1303:"MK801 increases retinotectal arbor size in developing zebrafish without affecting kinetics of branch elimination and addition"
932:"EphB forward signaling controls directional branch extension and arborization required for dorsal-ventral retinotopic mapping"
712:
Drescher, Uwe; Kremoser, Claus; Handwerker, Claudia; Löschinger, Jürgen; Noda, Masaharu; Bonhoeffer, Friedrich (1995-08-11).
249:
1256:"NMDA receptor activity stabilizes presynaptic retinotectal axons and postsynaptic optic tectal cell dendrites in vivo"
1353:"Map formation in the developing Xenopus retinotectal system: an examination of ganglion cell terminal arborizations"
273:
88:
353:
136:
826:
Brennan, C.; Monschau, B.; Lindberg, R.; Guthrie, B.; Drescher, U.; Bonhoeffer, F.; Holder, N. (February 1997).
66:. For clarity, 'retinotopy' can be replaced with 'retinal mapping', and 'retinotopic' with 'retinally mapped'.
221:
177:
173:
875:"Target-independent ephrina/EphA-mediated axon-axon repulsion as a novel element in retinocollicular mapping"
1666:
1054:"Progress of topographic regulation of the visual projection in the halved optic tectum of adult goldfish"
930:
Hindges, Robert; McLaughlin, Todd; Genoud, Nicolas; Henkemeyer, Mark; O'Leary, Dennis D. M. (2002-08-01).
529:
Tootell RB, Mendola JD, Hadjikhani NK, Ledden PJ, Liu AK, Reppas JB, Sereno MI, Dale AM (September 1997).
358:
257:
63:
398:"Visual maps in the adult primate cerebral cortex: some implications for brain development and evolution"
1569:
658:
320:
152:
771:"Visual map development: bidirectional signaling, bifunctional guidance molecules, and competition"
316:
265:
92:
1034:
969:
751:
462:
148:
1556:
DeYoe EA, Carman GJ, Bandettini P, Glickman S, Wieser J, Cox R, Miller D, Neitz J (March 1996).
127:
In the late 19th-century, independent animal studies including some on dogs by the physiologist
252:
organization. Many brain structures that are responsive to visual input, including much of the
48:
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1621:"Retinotopic organization in human visual cortex and the spatial precision of functional MRI"
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Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences
1111:"Visual deprivation and the maturation of the retinotectal projection in Xenopus laevis"
662:
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99:(V1), and higher visual areas (V2-V4). Retinotopic maps in cortical areas other than
96:
973:
414:
397:
1474:
1069:
1038:
989:"Independent biaxial reorganization of the retinotectal projection: a reassessment"
755:
497:
466:
373:
245:
128:
69:
30:
890:
786:
156:
1562:
Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
651:
Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
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folds whereas the horizontal meridian tends to be represented in their concave
1255:
315:
of their visual field tends to be represented on the cerebral cortex's convex
261:
1637:
1620:
1376:
1326:
1279:
1232:
1209:"Tetrodotoxin inhibits the formation of refined retinotopography in goldfish"
1175:
1126:
1077:
1022:
957:
898:
851:
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739:
680:
647:"Chemoaffinity in the Orderly Growth of Nerve Fiber Patterns and Connections"
1302:
73:
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Location and visuotopic organization of marmoset primary visual cortex (V1)
17:
1646:
1601:
1394:
1319:
10.1002/(SICI)1097-4695(20000215)42:3<303::AID-NEU2>3.0.CO;2-A
1272:
10.1002/(SICI)1097-4695(19990215)38:3<357::AID-NEU5>3.0.CO;2-#
1240:
1134:
988:
859:
843:
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671:
595:
564:
1523:
1095:
1030:
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368:
335:(fMRI). The subject inside the fMRI machine focuses on a point. Then the
269:
1558:"Mapping striate and extrastriate visual areas in human cerebral cortex"
1109:
Keating, M. J.; Grant, S.; Dawes, E. A.; Nanchahal, K. (February 1986).
1004:
580:"Topographic maps of visual spatial attention in human parietal cortex"
304:
280:), are organized into retinotopic maps, also called visual field maps.
1459:"Does retinotopy influence cortical folding in primate visual cortex?"
531:"Functional analysis of V3A and related areas in human visual cortex"
336:
237:
77:
59:
55:
1301:
Schmidt, J. T.; Buzzard, M.; Borress, R.; Dhillon, S. (2000-02-15).
1150:"Hardwiring of fine synaptic layers in the zebrafish visual pathway"
155:
made similar advances studying the injuries suffered by soldiers in
450:
308:
290:
29:
244:
that include slightly different, but overlapping portions of the
482:"Two retinotopic visual areas in human lateral occipital cortex"
1148:
Nevin, Linda M; Taylor, Michael R; Baier, Herwig (2008-12-16).
211:
synapse stabilization mechanisms in the post synaptic cells.
769:
Feldheim, David A.; O'Leary, Dennis D. M. (November 2010).
54: 'place') is the mapping of visual input from the
402:
Brazilian
Journal of Medical and Biological Research
1408:Wandell BA, Brewer AA, Dougherty RF (April 2005).
27:Mapping of visual input from the retina to neurons
1254:Rajan, I.; Witte, S.; Cline, H. T. (1999-02-15).
1115:Journal of Embryology and Experimental Morphology
873:Suetterlin, Philipp; Drescher, Uwe (2014-11-19).
147:when studying soldiers' injuries incurred in the
299:Retinotopy mapping shapes the folding of the
236:In many locations within the brain, adjacent
8:
987:Schmidt, J. T.; Easter, S. S. (1978-02-15).
578:Silver MA, Ress D, Heeger DJ (August 2005).
1410:"Visual field map clusters in human cortex"
775:Cold Spring Harbor Perspectives in Biology
331:Retinotopy mapping in humans is done with
72:maps (retinotopic maps) are found in many
1636:
1591:
1581:
1531:
1482:
1457:Rajimehr R, Tootell RB (September 2009).
1433:
1384:
1183:
1165:
1085:
1012:
947:
906:
802:
729:
688:
670:
603:
554:
505:
413:
62:, particularly those neurons within the
1508:"Mapping the visual brain: how and why"
385:
131:and some on monkeys by the neurologist
480:Larsson J, Heeger DJ (December 2006).
391:
389:
344:and the smaller maps in each region.
333:functional magnetic resonance imaging
7:
1369:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.05-12-03228.1985
1351:; Murphey, R. K. (December 1985).
547:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.17-18-07060.1997
25:
303:. In both the V1 and V2 areas of
34:Retinotopic maps with explanation
415:10.1590/s0100-879x2002001200008
1475:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.1835-09.2009
1207:Meyer, R. L. (February 1983).
1070:10.1113/jphysiol.1976.sp011388
645:Sperry, R. W. (October 1963).
498:10.1523/jneurosci.1657-06.2006
1:
949:10.1016/s0896-6273(02)00799-7
220:dynamic growth including the
1225:10.1016/0165-3806(83)90068-8
891:10.1016/j.neuron.2014.09.023
731:10.1016/0092-8674(95)90425-5
1619:, Wandell BA (March 1997).
1463:The Journal of Neuroscience
1357:The Journal of Neuroscience
993:Experimental Brain Research
787:10.1101/cshperspect.a001768
535:The Journal of Neuroscience
486:The Journal of Neuroscience
1683:
584:Journal of Neurophysiology
274:lateral geniculate nucleus
89:lateral geniculate nucleus
1058:The Journal of Physiology
1052:Yoon, M. G. (June 1976).
396:Rosa MG (December 2002).
354:Biological neural network
228:are also highly dynamic.
178:receptor tyrosine kinases
222:chemoaffinity hypothesis
174:chemoaffinity hypothesis
1506:Bridge H (March 2011).
1307:Journal of Neurobiology
1260:Journal of Neurobiology
1638:10.1093/cercor/7.2.181
1583:10.1073/pnas.93.6.2382
1426:10.1098/rstb.2005.1628
1167:10.1186/1749-8104-3-36
359:Cortical magnification
296:
35:
844:10.1242/dev.124.3.655
672:10.1073/pnas.50.4.703
596:10.1152/jn.01316.2004
294:
97:primary visual cortex
33:
1524:10.1038/eye.2010.166
1574:1996PNAS...93.2382D
663:1963PNAS...50..703S
439:Nature Neuroscience
266:superior colliculus
1154:Neural Development
1005:10.1007/BF00237596
297:
226:radial glial cells
205:Hebbian mechanisms
149:Russo-Japanese War
36:
1420:(1456): 693–707.
1363:(12): 3228–3245.
364:Frontal eye field
16:(Redirected from
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1469:(36): 11149–52.
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1349:Sakaguchi, D. S.
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492:(51): 13128–42.
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242:receptive fields
137:Salomon Henschen
117:dorsomedial area
21:
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1625:Cerebral Cortex
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781:(11): a001768.
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711:
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621:
577:
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541:(18): 7060–78.
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408:(12): 1485–98.
395:
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301:cerebral cortex
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198:Neural activity
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1313:(3): 303–314.
1293:
1246:
1219:(3): 293–298.
1213:Brain Research
1199:
1140:
1101:
1064:(3): 621–643.
1044:
999:(2): 155–162.
979:
942:(3): 475–487.
922:
885:(4): 740–752.
865:
838:(3): 655–664.
818:
761:
724:(3): 359–370.
704:
657:(4): 703–710.
637:
628:
619:
590:(2): 1358–71.
570:
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451:10.1038/nn1507
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1667:Visual system
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1631:(2): 181–92.
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1568:(6): 2382–6.
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1266:(3): 357–68.
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445:(8): 1102–9.
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342:visual cortex
338:
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311:the vertical
310:
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293:
289:
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285:visual cortex
283:Areas of the
281:
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272:(such as the
271:
267:
264:(such as the
263:
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254:visual cortex
251:
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153:Gordon Holmes
150:
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133:David Ferrier
130:
122:
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115:, and in the
114:
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102:
98:
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83:
82:understanding
79:
75:
71:
67:
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64:visual stream
61:
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19:
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1518:(3): 291–6.
1515:
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583:
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405:
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374:Visual space
330:
298:
282:
246:visual field
235:
218:
201:
191:target space
188:
185:Target space
171:
142:
129:Hermann Munk
126:
93:optic tectum
86:
70:Visual field
68:
51:
46:
38:
37:
1121:: 101–115.
832:Development
256:and visual
250:topographic
232:Description
163:Development
157:World War I
18:Retinotopic
1615:Engel SA,
380:References
262:brain stem
41:(from
39:Retinotopy
1617:Glover GH
1377:0270-6474
1327:0022-3034
1280:0022-3034
1233:0006-8993
1176:1749-8104
1127:0022-0752
1078:0022-3751
1023:0014-4819
958:0896-6273
899:1097-4199
852:0950-1991
795:1943-0264
740:0092-8674
681:0027-8424
78:mammalian
74:amphibian
1661:Category
1542:21102491
1493:19741121
1444:15937008
1335:10645970
1288:10022578
1194:19087349
974:18724075
966:12165470
917:25451192
813:20880989
699:14077501
614:15817643
516:17182764
459:16025108
424:12436190
369:Tonotopy
348:See also
313:meridian
305:macaques
278:pulvinar
276:and the
270:thalamus
1647:9087826
1602:8637882
1570:Bibcode
1533:3178304
1484:2785715
1435:1569486
1395:3001241
1386:6565231
1241:6831250
1185:2647910
1135:3711779
1087:1309382
1039:8865051
908:4250266
860:9043080
804:2964178
756:2537692
748:7634326
659:Bibcode
605:2367310
565:9278542
556:6573277
507:1904390
467:8413534
327:Methods
323:folds.
260:of the
238:neurons
123:History
60:neurons
52:(tópos)
1645:
1600:
1590:
1540:
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1491:
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1442:
1432:
1393:
1383:
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1333:
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1278:
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1192:
1182:
1174:
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1096:950607
1094:
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1031:631237
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1021:
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956:
936:Neuron
915:
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879:Neuron
858:
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811:
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697:
690:221249
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465:
457:
422:
337:retina
309:humans
268:) and
258:nuclei
95:, the
91:, the
56:retina
1593:39805
1035:S2CID
970:S2CID
752:S2CID
463:S2CID
321:sulci
240:have
209:NMDAR
172:The "
49:τόπος
45:
43:Greek
1643:PMID
1598:PMID
1546:>
1538:PMID
1489:PMID
1440:PMID
1391:PMID
1373:ISSN
1331:PMID
1323:ISSN
1284:PMID
1276:ISSN
1237:PMID
1229:ISSN
1190:PMID
1172:ISSN
1131:PMID
1123:ISSN
1092:PMID
1074:ISSN
1027:PMID
1019:ISSN
962:PMID
954:ISSN
913:PMID
895:ISSN
856:PMID
848:ISSN
809:PMID
791:ISSN
744:PMID
736:ISSN
718:Cell
695:PMID
677:ISSN
610:PMID
561:PMID
512:PMID
455:PMID
420:PMID
317:gyri
307:and
111:and
76:and
1633:doi
1588:PMC
1578:doi
1528:PMC
1520:doi
1512:Eye
1479:PMC
1471:doi
1430:PMC
1422:doi
1418:360
1381:PMC
1365:doi
1315:doi
1268:doi
1221:doi
1217:282
1180:PMC
1162:doi
1082:PMC
1066:doi
1062:257
1009:hdl
1001:doi
944:doi
903:PMC
887:doi
840:doi
836:124
799:PMC
783:doi
726:doi
685:PMC
667:doi
600:PMC
592:doi
551:PMC
543:doi
502:PMC
494:doi
447:doi
410:doi
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