2157:
486:
591:
31:
4932:
2584:
For both large and small wavelengths, both matter and radiation have both particle and wave aspects. But the wave aspects of their motion become more difficult to observe as their wavelengths become shorter. For ordinary macroscopic particles the mass is so large that the momentum is always
876:
particles also have a wave nature. This has been verified not only for elementary particles but also for compound particles like atoms and even molecules. In fact, according to traditional formulations of non-relativistic quantum mechanics, waveâparticle duality applies to all objects, even
751:
When originally defined in the 1950s, the terms baryons, mesons and leptons referred to masses; however, after the quark model became accepted in the 1970s, it was recognised that baryons are composites of three quarks, mesons are composites of one quark and one antiquark, while leptons are
783:, although whether they are "truly" stable is unknown, as some very important Grand Unified Theories (GUTs) actually require it. The ÎŒ and Ï muons, as well as their antiparticles, decay by the weak force. Neutrinos (and antineutrinos) do not decay, but a related phenomenon of
735:
All composite particles are massive. Baryons (meaning "heavy") tend to have greater mass than mesons (meaning "intermediate"), which in turn tend to be heavier than leptons (meaning "lightweight"), but the heaviest lepton (the
142:
and, although they have quanta of energy, do not have rest mass or discrete diameters (other than pure energy wavelength) and are unlike the former particles that have rest mass and cannot overlap or combine which are called
2207:
681:
Due to the laws for spin of composite particles, the baryons (3 quarks) have spin either 1/2 or 3/2 and are therefore fermions; the mesons (2 quarks) have integer spin of either 0 or 1 and are therefore bosons.
3534:
Aad, G.; Abajyan, T.; Abbott, B.; Abdallah, J.; Abdel Khalek, S.; Abdelalim, A.A.; Abdinov, O.; Aben, R.; Abi, B.; Abolins, M.; AbouZeid, O.S.; Abramowicz, H.; Abreu, H.; Acharya, B.S.; Adamczyk, L. (2012).
2185:
880:
Interactions between particles have been scrutinized for many centuries, and a few simple laws underpin how particles behave in collisions and interactions. The most fundamental of these are the laws of
3379:
Abachi, S.; Abbott, B.; Abolins, M.; Acharya, B. S.; Adam, I.; Adams, D. L.; Adams, M.; Ahn, S.; Aihara, H.; Alitti, J.; Ălvarez, G.; Alves, G. A.; Amidi, E.; Amos, N.; Anderson, E. W. (1995-04-03).
583:
nucleus is composed of two protons and two neutrons. Most hadrons do not live long enough to bind into nucleus-like composites; those that do (other than the proton and neutron) form
977:
deals with how protons and neutrons arrange themselves in nuclei. The study of subatomic particles, atoms and molecules, and their structure and interactions, requires
369:
Subatomic particles are either "elementary", i.e. not made of multiple other particles, or "composite" and made of more than one elementary particle bound together.
2238:
540:, quarks are never found singly but always occur in hadrons containing multiple quarks. The hadrons are divided by number of quarks (including antiquarks) into the
4855:
2618:
Taiebyzadeh, Payam (2017). String Theory; A unified theory and inner dimension of elementary particles (BazDahm). Riverside, Iran: Shamloo
Publications Center.
2605:
2403:
Arndt, Markus; Nairz, Olaf; Vos-Andreae, Julian; Keller, Claudia; Van Der Zouw, Gerbrand; Zeilinger, Anton (2000). "Wave-particle duality of C60 molecules".
899:
2585:
sufficiently large to make the de
Broglie wavelength small enough to be beyond the range of experimental detection, and classical mechanics reigns supreme.
939:
of an element is the number of protons in its nucleus. Neutrons are neutral particles having a mass slightly greater than that of the proton. Different
4605:
2177:
524:. Nearly all composite particles contain multiple quarks (and/or antiquarks) bound together by gluons (with a few exceptions with no quarks, such as
4843:
497:
All of these have now been discovered through experiments, with the latest being the top quark (1995), tau neutrino (2000), and Higgs boson (2012).
228:
571:
Except for the proton and neutron, all other hadrons are unstable and decay into other particles in microseconds or less. A proton is made of two
147:. The W and Z bosons, however, are an exception to this rule and have relatively large rest masses at approximately 80GeV and 90GeV respectively.
2156:
4968:
3842:
3819:
3782:
3723:
2623:
2577:
2542:
2485:
2314:
2202:
189:, cannot be measured exactly. The waveâparticle duality has been shown to apply not only to photons but to more massive particles as well.
3885:
3592:
3741:
217:, the exact definition of a particle has diverse descriptions. These professional attempts at the definition of a particle include:
4741:
3755:
2936:
2277:
501:
3611:
4822:
1024:
1008:
579:, while the neutron is made of two down quarks and one up quark. These commonly bind together into an atomic nucleus, e.g. a
999:
is nearly synonymous to "particle physics" since creation of particles requires high energies: it occurs only as a result of
2346:
The finite-field model of the photon is both a particle and a wave, and hence we refer to it by
Eddington's name "wavicle".
2330:
Hunter, Geoffrey; Wadlinger, Robert L. P. (August 23, 1987). Honig, William M.; Kraft, David W.; Panarella, Emilio (eds.).
1120:
Minimum unit of electrical charge, for which Stoney suggested the name in 1891. First subatomic particle to be identified.
2737:
2698:
2242:
877:
macroscopic ones; although the wave properties of macroscopic objects cannot be detected due to their small wavelengths.
5032:
4838:
2018:
1857:
1020:
509:
695:
615:
5037:
3537:"Observation of a new particle in the search for the Standard Model Higgs boson with the ATLAS detector at the LHC"
2600:
2477:
381:
4914:
159:
4961:
4326:
2360:
3641:
Proceedings of the Royal
Society of London. Series A, Containing Papers of a Mathematical and Physical Character
3120:
Proceedings of the Royal
Society of London. Series A, Containing Papers of a Mathematical and Physical Character
3071:
Proceedings of the Royal
Society of London. Series A, Containing Papers of a Mathematical and Physical Character
3022:
Proceedings of the Royal
Society of London. Series A, Containing Papers of a Mathematical and Physical Character
853:. For baryons, mesons, and their antiparticles the constituent quarks' charges sum up to an integer multiple of
886:
4144:
3715:
4882:
4517:
3878:
1563:
1514:
621:
485:
203:
4817:
4154:
889:, which let us make calculations of particle interactions on scales of magnitude that range from stars to
882:
222:
674:
is required theoretically to have spin 2, but is not part of the
Standard Model. Some extensions such as
4904:
2358:
Heisenberg, W. (1927), "Ăber den anschaulichen Inhalt der quantentheoretischen
Kinematik und Mechanik",
178:
1165:
in 1907 to be helium nuclei. Rutherford won the Nobel Prize for
Chemistry in 1908 for this discovery.
4954:
3811:
3709:
3648:
3558:
3498:
3402:
3327:
3315:
3274:
3223:
3176:
3127:
3078:
3029:
2965:
2892:
2808:
2710:
2565:
2534:
2509:
2414:
2369:
2217:
1216:
1053:. Before that hadrons were usually classified as "elementary" because their composition was unknown.
1004:
982:
784:
767:
is zero) are elementary. These include the photon and gluon, although the latter cannot be isolated.
207:
193:
590:
5010:
4919:
3902:
1419:
1108:
1050:
995:
894:
865:
792:
151:
99:
47:
4931:
3871:
3574:
3548:
3536:
3442:
3392:
3361:
3294:
3255:
2861:
2770:
2637:
2508:. International Conference on High-Energy Physics (plenary talk). CERN, Geneva, CH. p. 845.
2438:
2385:
2124:
849:, but quarks (and other combinations with non-integer electric charge) cannot be isolated due to
717:
691:
678:
predict additional elementary particles with spin 3/2, but none have been discovered as of 2021.
560:
containing an even number of quarks (almost always 2, one quark and one antiquark), of which the
75:
3636:
3115:
3066:
3017:
2998:"There was early debate on what to name the proton as seen in the follow commentary articles by
2953:
2881:"Ăber einen die Erzeugung und Verwandlung des Lichtes betreffenden heuristischen Gesichtspunkt"
2880:
2306:
5005:
4899:
4812:
4291:
4036:
3963:
3838:
3815:
3778:
3751:
3737:
3719:
3664:
3516:
3434:
3426:
3353:
3247:
3239:
3192:
3145:
3096:
3047:
2981:
2932:
2853:
2790:
2745:
2676:
2657:
2619:
2573:
2538:
2481:
2456:
2430:
2310:
2273:
2212:
2132:
2022:
1861:
1802:
1641:
1155:
978:
943:
of the same element contain the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons. The
850:
822:
804:
760:
629:
537:
424:
265:
234:
182:
2569:
2559:
2528:
4909:
4680:
4455:
4316:
4301:
3983:
3894:
3774:
3762:
3656:
3566:
3506:
3418:
3410:
3343:
3335:
3231:
3184:
3135:
3086:
3037:
2973:
2900:
2845:
2782:
2718:
2649:
2422:
2405:
2377:
2337:
2302:
1909:
1867:
1740:
1636:
1525:
1510:
1345:
990:
869:
463:
455:
214:
123:
957:
concerns itself with how electron sharing binds atoms into structures such as crystals and
779:
by either the strong force or weak force (except for the proton). Protons are not known to
647:
In the Standard Model, all the elementary fermions have spin 1/2, and are divided into the
4989:
4877:
4802:
4786:
4726:
4136:
3953:
3694:
3690:
1972:
1968:
1905:
1788:
1784:
1205:
974:
861:
745:
127:
3802:, 3rd ed. Cambridge Univ. Press. An undergraduate text for those not majoring in physics.
3734:
The Theory of Almost Everything: The Standard Model, the Unsung Triumph of Modern Physics
1415:
961:. The subatomic particles considered important in the understanding of chemistry are the
3652:
3562:
3502:
3406:
3331:
3227:
3180:
3131:
3082:
3033:
2969:
2896:
2714:
2513:
2418:
2373:
4936:
4850:
4807:
4543:
4331:
4104:
4026:
4021:
3943:
3767:
3380:
3165:"Cloud Chamber Observations of Cosmic Rays at 4300 Meters Elevation and Near Sea-Level"
2295:
2192:
2162:
1925:
1798:
1792:
1623:
1316:
1212:
1125:
796:
776:
764:
721:
637:
625:
490:
459:
436:
373:
115:
71:
30:
3486:
3289:
Fritzsch, Harald; Gell-Mann, Murray (1972). "Current algebra: Quarks and what else?".
1011:
systematizes the knowledge about subatomic particles obtained from these experiments.
5026:
4894:
4746:
4713:
4505:
4475:
4407:
4266:
4046:
3973:
3958:
3834:
3578:
2977:
2920:
2865:
2389:
2035:
1872:
1533:
1430:
1409:
1114:
936:
675:
584:
432:
397:
275:
3446:
3365:
3259:
4872:
4422:
4412:
4402:
4163:
4114:
4056:
3978:
3933:
3705:
3570:
2596:
2442:
1832:
1744:
1627:
1423:
1372:
1331:
1162:
780:
753:
737:
660:
652:
471:
440:
405:
3460:
3164:
931:
atom. The remainder of the hydrogen atom's mass comes from the positively charged
181:, states that some of their properties taken together, such as their simultaneous
2471:
2341:
130:
study these particles and how they interact. Most force-carrying particles like
4887:
4655:
4558:
4553:
4470:
4465:
4395:
4349:
4306:
4271:
4230:
4122:
4086:
3948:
3414:
2925:
2197:
2051:
2043:
1976:
1807:
1759:
1751:
1632:
944:
664:
525:
478:
447:
401:
3699:
Elementary Particles and the Laws of Physics: The 1986 Dirac Memorial Lectures
3511:
2775:
The London, Edinburgh, and Dublin Philosophical Magazine and Journal of Science
2642:
The London, Edinburgh, and Dublin Philosophical Magazine and Journal of Science
2331:
4629:
4523:
4513:
4495:
4385:
4286:
4221:
3938:
2833:
2786:
2653:
2152:
2094:
2065:
1668:
1521:
1339:
1261:
1199:
1000:
981:. Analyzing processes that change the numbers and types of particles requires
576:
393:
43:
3668:
3520:
3430:
3357:
3243:
3196:
3149:
3100:
3051:
2985:
2905:
2857:
2794:
2749:
2661:
696:
energy of a particle at rest equals its mass times the speed of light squared
4771:
4761:
4731:
4624:
4590:
4583:
4460:
4450:
4445:
4417:
4185:
3968:
1993:
954:
787:
is thought to exist even in vacuums. The electron and its antiparticle, the
725:
532:). Those containing few (†5) quarks (including antiquarks) are called
409:
107:
3660:
3438:
3251:
3211:
3188:
3140:
3091:
3042:
3003:
2999:
2506:
Proceedings of 1962 International Conference on High-Energy Physics at CERN
2434:
1433:
between nucleons. The first meson (by modern definition) to be discovered.
4993:
4867:
4695:
4650:
4634:
4595:
4568:
4281:
4276:
4256:
4226:
4216:
4211:
4061:
4051:
4041:
4031:
4006:
4001:
3928:
3422:
2501:
2269:
2110:
2076:
2028:
1664:
1596:
1350:
1079:
1034:
962:
958:
928:
788:
775:
Most subatomic particles are not stable. All leptons, as well as baryons
671:
580:
572:
553:
521:
505:
420:
389:
186:
158:) as well as exhibiting wave-like properties. This led to the concept of
144:
63:
39:
17:
2333:
Quantum Uncertainties: Recent and Future Experiments and Interpretations
4776:
4766:
4736:
4690:
4685:
4660:
4578:
4563:
4490:
4485:
4390:
4375:
4321:
4296:
4261:
4190:
4172:
3911:
3863:
3397:
3339:
3299:
2849:
2381:
2105:
Yet another class of hadrons. As of 2019 several are thought to exist.
1588:
1323:
1284:
1193:
970:
948:
940:
818:
741:
656:
641:
603:
549:
541:
529:
198:
131:
119:
87:
55:
3348:
2771:"VIII. Uranium radiation and the electrical conduction produced by it"
2722:
4978:
4756:
4751:
4380:
4367:
4358:
4180:
4094:
3993:
3235:
1472:
1247:
1224:
1170:
1102:
1046:
1038:
966:
932:
713:
648:
599:
545:
533:
451:
416:
155:
139:
135:
103:
91:
83:
79:
35:
2208:
List of fictional elements, materials, isotopes and atomic particles
544:
containing an odd number of quarks (almost always 3), of which the
4781:
4721:
4573:
4432:
4311:
4251:
4206:
4099:
4077:
3920:
3553:
2561:
Quantum Physics of Atoms, Molecules, Solids, Nuclei, and Particles
2426:
1897:
1676:
1403:
1042:
890:
826:
633:
595:
557:
467:
385:
111:
95:
29:
3316:"C P -Violation in the Renormalizable Theory of Weak Interaction"
3212:"Evidence for the Existence of New Unstable Elementary Particles"
2738:"April 30, 1897: J.J. Thomson Announces the Electron ... Sort Of"
817:
All observable subatomic particles have their electric charge an
4997:
4548:
4480:
4440:
4016:
4011:
2186:
Atom: An Odyssey from the Big Bang to Life on Earth...and Beyond
1982:
1915:
1480:
1438:
1380:
709:
565:
561:
428:
167:
67:
4950:
3867:
520:
The word hadron comes from Greek and was introduced in 1962 by
4946:
2701:(1959). "Electron physics: The physics of the free electron".
2060:
Thought to be confirmed in 2013. More evidence found in 2014.
752:
elementary and are defined as the elementary fermions with no
3800:
The Ideas of Particle Physics: An Introduction for Scientists
3748:
Deep Down Things: The Breathtaking Beauty of Particle Physics
3612:"Multiverse Controversy Heats Up over Gravitational Waves"
2473:
An introduction to the standard model of particle physics
829:
have "non-integer" electric charges, namely, multiple of
809:
exists (which is unlikely). Its charge is not shown yet.
102:, which is not composed of other particles (for example,
872:, and many others, current scientific theory holds that
740:) is heavier than the two lightest flavours of baryons (
2266:
Universe, Human Immortality and Future Human Evaluation
78:, which is composed of other particles (for example, a
3858:
3637:"Quantised singularities in the electromagnetic field"
3593:"CERN experiments report new Higgs boson measurements"
3163:
Anderson, Carl D.; Neddermeyer, Seth H. (1936-08-15).
3798:
Coughlan, G.D., J.E. Dodd, and B.M. Gripaios (2006).
2834:"Max Planck and the beginnings of the quantum theory"
1037:
of the 1960s, used to distinguish a large number of
911:
The negatively charged electron has a mass of about
4831:
4795:
4712:
4673:
4643:
4617:
4604:
4536:
4504:
4431:
4366:
4357:
4348:
4244:
4199:
4171:
4162:
4153:
4135:
4113:
4085:
4076:
3992:
3919:
3910:
3901:
2038:, but is necessary to complete the Standard Model.
655:and therefore feel the strong interaction, and the
3769:Facts and Mysteries in Elementary Particle Physics
3766:
3487:"Broken Symmetries and the Masses of Gauge Bosons"
2924:
2294:
1471:Called a "meson" at first; but today classed as a
659:which do not. The elementary bosons comprise the
3018:"Bakerian Lecture: Nuclear constitution of atoms"
663:(photon, W and Z, gluons) with spin 1, while the
620:Any subatomic particle, like any particle in the
744:). It is also certain that any particle with an
667:is the only elementary particle with spin zero.
235:irreducible representation of the Poincaré group
150:Experiments show that light could behave like a
196:are understood as creation and annihilation of
3859:University of California: Particle Data Group.
3314:Kobayashi, Makoto; Maskawa, Toshihide (1973).
192:Interactions of particles in the framework of
4962:
3879:
3461:"Letters from the Past - A PRL Retrospective"
2958:Proceedings of the Physical Society of London
8:
2606:Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica
1049:) from particles that are now thought to be
900:Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica
512:, but none have been discovered as of 2021.
4969:
4955:
4947:
4614:
4610:
4363:
4354:
4168:
4159:
4082:
3916:
3907:
3886:
3872:
3864:
2504:(1962). "The theory of weak interaction".
2470:Cottingham, W.N.; Greenwood, D.A. (2007).
897:, a series of statements and equations in
800:
3552:
3510:
3396:
3347:
3298:
3139:
3090:
3041:
2904:
2178:Atom: Journey Across the Subatomic Cosmos
1750:No particular confirmation event for the
1056:A list of important discoveries follows:
3210:ROCHESTER, G. D.; BUTLER, C. C. (1947).
1058:
589:
484:
242:
2230:
1988:Properties verified through the 1990s.
893:. These are the prerequisite basics of
504:predict the existence of an elementary
74:, a subatomic particle can be either a
2638:"LII. On the physical units of nature"
2558:Eisberg, R. & Resnick, R. (1985).
2838:Archive for History of Exact Sciences
1256:Ernest Rutherford (1919, named 1920)
951:(neutrons and protons collectively).
947:of an isotope is the total number of
556:) are by far the best known; and the
7:
3808:Introduction to Elementary Particles
3116:"The quantum theory of the electron"
2203:Hot spot effect in subatomic physics
716:and vice versa. If a particle has a
206:. This blends particle physics with
166:behave both like particles and like
2809:"The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1908"
2085:yet to be confirmed as a tetraquark
985:. The study of subatomic particles
3831:Modern Elementary Particle Physics
3750:. Johns Hopkins University Press.
2530:Quantum Mechanics: An Introduction
791:, are theoretically stable due to
72:Standard Model of particle physics
25:
2336:. Springer US. pp. 331â343.
795:unless a lighter particle having
98:, composed of two quarks), or an
4930:
4823:Timeline of particle discoveries
2155:
1025:Timeline of particle discoveries
903:, originally published in 1687.
502:extensions of the Standard Model
372:The elementary particles of the
3320:Progress of Theoretical Physics
2952:Rutherford, Sir Ernest (1920).
2127:as particles is controversial.
510:many other elementary particles
239:A particle is an observed thing
3571:10.1016/j.physletb.2012.08.020
3485:Higgs, Peter W. (1964-10-19).
3381:"Observation of the Top Quark"
644:(with odd half-integer spin).
536:. Due to a property known as
162:to reflect that quantum-scale
1:
2636:Stoney, G. Johnstone (1881).
1663:Solved the problem of energy
1310:
712:can be expressed in terms of
229:quantum excitation of a field
27:Particle smaller than an atom
4839:History of subatomic physics
3806:Griffiths, David J. (1987).
3067:"The existence of a neutron"
2342:10.1007/978-1-4684-5386-7_18
2264:Bolonkin, Alexander (2011).
1021:History of subatomic physics
170:; they are sometimes called
118:particles, which are called
3415:10.1103/PhysRevLett.74.2632
2344:– via Springer Link.
1147:composite (atomic nucleus)
493:classification of particles
5054:
3512:10.1103/PhysRevLett.13.508
2978:10.1088/1478-7814/33/1/337
2478:Cambridge University Press
2137:elementary (unclassified)
1018:
613:
4985:
4928:
4613:
3746:Schumm, Bruce A. (2004).
3716:W.W. Norton & Company
2832:Klein, Martin J. (1961).
2787:10.1080/14786449908621245
2654:10.1080/14786448108627031
2293:Fritzsch, Harald (2005).
2104:
1749:
1371:Revised explanation uses
1161:Proven by Rutherford and
724:, then it has a positive
4856:mathematical formulation
4451:Eta and eta prime mesons
3829:Kane, Gordon L. (1987).
3701:. Cambridge Univ. Press.
3635:Dirac, P. A. M. (1931).
3114:Dirac, P. A. M. (1928).
2954:"The Stability of Atoms"
2906:10.1002/andp.19053220607
2527:Greiner, Walter (2001).
2089:A new class of hadrons.
1468:Carl D. Anderson (1936)
887:conservation of momentum
204:fundamental interactions
4518:Double-charm tetraquark
3732:Oerter, Robert (2006).
3491:Physical Review Letters
3465:Physical Review Letters
3385:Physical Review Letters
3016:Rutherford, E. (1920).
2769:Rutherford, E. (1899).
2601:Newton's Laws of Motion
2118:Albert Einstein (1916)
1564:University of Melbourne
1211:Necessary to solve the
1033:particle" is largely a
825:. The Standard Model's
622:three-dimensional space
616:Spinâstatistics theorem
223:collapsed wave function
3661:10.1098/rspa.1931.0130
3293:. C720906V2: 135â165.
3189:10.1103/PhysRev.50.263
3141:10.1098/rspa.1928.0023
3092:10.1098/rspa.1932.0112
3043:10.1098/rspa.1920.0040
2675:Thomson, J.J. (1897).
2361:Zeitschrift fĂŒr Physik
1009:Particle phenomenology
883:conservation of energy
728:and is referred to as
606:
494:
450:(force carriers): the
244:Particles in the atom
51:
4915:Waveâparticle duality
4905:Relativistic particle
4042:Electron antineutrino
3812:John Wiley & Sons
3272:Some sources such as
3065:Chadwick, J. (1932).
2879:Einstein, A. (1905).
2566:John Wiley & Sons
2457:"What is a Particle?"
2241:. NTD. Archived from
2239:"Subatomic particles"
2115:elementary (quantum)
2048:elementary (quantum)
1965:elementary (quantum)
1902:elementary (quantum)
1253:William Prout (1815)
1005:particle accelerators
785:neutrino oscillations
593:
488:
179:uncertainty principle
177:Another concept, the
160:waveâparticle duality
34:A composite particle
33:
4145:FaddeevâPopov ghosts
3895:Particles in physics
3711:The Elegant Universe
2297:Elementary Particles
2123:Interpretation of a
1620:elementary (lepton)
1555:composite (baryons)
1460:elementary (lepton)
1217:black-body radiation
983:quantum field theory
860:Through the work of
568:are the best known.
194:quantum field theory
90:, composed of three
48:elementary particles
5033:Subatomic particles
5011:Elementary particle
4920:Particle chauvinism
4863:Subatomic particles
3653:1931RSPSA.133...60D
3616:Scientific American
3563:2012PhLB..716....1A
3503:1964PhRvL..13..508H
3407:1995PhRvL..74.2632A
3332:1973PThPh..49..652K
3275:"The Strange Quark"
3228:1947Natur.160..855R
3181:1936PhRv...50..263A
3132:1928RSPSA.117..610D
3083:1932RSPSA.136..692C
3034:1920RSPSA..97..374R
2970:1920PPSL...33..389R
2897:1905AnP...322..132E
2715:1960PhT....13R..64K
2514:1962hep..conf..845O
2459:. 12 November 2020.
2419:1999Natur.401..680A
2374:1927ZPhy...43..172H
2245:on 16 February 2014
2015:elementary (quark)
1854:elementary (quark)
1781:elementary (quark)
1502:composite (mesons)
1420:Giuseppe Occhialini
1309:Ernest Rutherford (
1306:composite (baryon)
1109:G. Johnstone Stoney
996:high-energy physics
895:Newtonian mechanics
866:Satyendra Nath Bose
799:of electric charge
793:charge conservation
245:
215:particle physicists
152:stream of particles
100:elementary particle
70:. According to the
5006:Composite particle
5002:Subatomic particle
3610:Moskowitz, Clara.
3340:10.1143/PTP.49.652
2885:Annalen der Physik
2850:10.1007/BF00327765
2382:10.1007/BF01397280
2140:Paul Dirac (1931)
2125:gravitational wave
761:massless particles
718:frame of reference
692:special relativity
632:, can be either a
607:
495:
249:Subatomic particle
243:
76:composite particle
60:subatomic particle
52:
5038:Quantum mechanics
5020:
5019:
4944:
4943:
4900:Massless particle
4708:
4707:
4704:
4703:
4669:
4668:
4532:
4531:
4344:
4343:
4340:
4339:
4292:Magnetic monopole
4240:
4239:
4131:
4130:
4072:
4071:
4052:Muon antineutrino
4037:Electron neutrino
3844:978-0-201-11749-3
3821:978-0-471-60386-3
3784:978-981-238-149-1
3763:Veltman, Martinus
3725:978-0-393-05858-1
3541:Physics Letters B
3391:(14): 2632â2637.
3222:(4077): 855â857.
2723:10.1063/1.3057011
2624:978-600-116-684-6
2579:978-0-471-87373-0
2544:978-3-540-67458-0
2487:978-0-521-85249-4
2413:(6754): 680â682.
2316:978-981-256-141-1
2218:Poincaré symmetry
2213:List of particles
2151:
2150:
2133:magnetic monopole
2086:
2023:Toshihide Maskawa
1926:weak gauge bosons
1862:Toshihide Maskawa
1626:(1930), named by
1156:Ernest Rutherford
979:quantum mechanics
851:color confinement
823:elementary charge
763:(particles whose
720:in which it lies
670:The hypothetical
630:quantum mechanics
538:color confinement
425:electron neutrino
357:
356:
233:A particle is an
202:of corresponding
174:to reflect this.
16:(Redirected from
5045:
4971:
4964:
4957:
4948:
4934:
4910:Virtual particle
4681:Mesonic molecule
4615:
4611:
4456:Bottom eta meson
4364:
4355:
4327:WâČ and ZâČ bosons
4317:Sterile neutrino
4302:Majorana fermion
4169:
4160:
4083:
4062:Tau antineutrino
3917:
3908:
3888:
3881:
3874:
3865:
3848:
3825:
3788:
3775:World Scientific
3772:
3729:
3673:
3672:
3632:
3626:
3625:
3623:
3622:
3607:
3601:
3600:
3589:
3583:
3582:
3556:
3531:
3525:
3524:
3514:
3482:
3476:
3475:
3473:
3472:
3457:
3451:
3450:
3400:
3376:
3370:
3369:
3351:
3311:
3305:
3304:
3302:
3286:
3280:
3278:
3270:
3264:
3263:
3236:10.1038/160855a0
3207:
3201:
3200:
3160:
3154:
3153:
3143:
3126:(778): 610â624.
3111:
3105:
3104:
3094:
3077:(830): 692â708.
3062:
3056:
3055:
3045:
3028:(686): 374â400.
3013:
3007:
2996:
2990:
2989:
2949:
2943:
2942:
2930:
2927:The God Particle
2917:
2911:
2910:
2908:
2876:
2870:
2869:
2829:
2823:
2822:
2820:
2819:
2805:
2799:
2798:
2781:(284): 109â163.
2766:
2760:
2759:
2757:
2756:
2733:
2727:
2726:
2695:
2689:
2688:
2672:
2666:
2665:
2633:
2627:
2616:
2610:
2594:
2588:
2587:
2564:(2nd ed.).
2555:
2549:
2548:
2524:
2518:
2517:
2498:
2492:
2491:
2467:
2461:
2460:
2453:
2447:
2446:
2400:
2394:
2393:
2368:(3â4): 172â198,
2355:
2349:
2348:
2327:
2321:
2320:
2303:World Scientific
2300:
2290:
2284:
2283:
2261:
2255:
2254:
2252:
2250:
2235:
2165:
2160:
2159:
2084:
2019:Makoto Kobayashi
2012:
2011:
2010:
2003:
2002:
1962:
1961:
1960:
1953:
1952:
1944:
1943:
1942:
1935:
1934:
1910:Murray Gell-Mann
1889:
1887:
1886:
1879:
1878:
1868:Leon M. Lederman
1858:Makoto Kobayashi
1851:
1850:
1849:
1842:
1841:
1824:
1822:
1821:
1814:
1813:
1778:
1777:
1776:
1769:
1768:
1741:Murray Gell-Mann
1733:
1732:
1731:
1724:
1723:
1715:
1714:
1713:
1706:
1705:
1697:
1696:
1695:
1688:
1687:
1659:
1657:
1656:
1648:
1647:
1637:Frederick Reines
1617:
1616:
1615:
1614:
1607:
1606:
1583:
1582:
1581:
1574:
1573:
1552:
1551:
1550:
1543:
1542:
1526:strange particle
1499:
1498:
1497:
1490:
1489:
1457:
1456:
1455:
1448:
1447:
1399:
1398:
1397:
1390:
1389:
1367:
1365:
1364:
1357:
1356:
1346:Carl D. Anderson
1312:
1303:
1302:
1301:
1294:
1293:
1278:
1276:
1275:
1268:
1267:
1243:
1242:
1241:
1234:
1233:
1189:
1188:
1187:
1180:
1179:
1144:
1143:
1142:
1135:
1134:
1098:
1097:
1096:
1089:
1088:
1059:
1051:truly elementary
1045:(which comprise
991:particle physics
926:
924:
923:
920:
917:
907:Dividing an atom
870:Louis de Broglie
844:
842:
841:
838:
835:
821:multiple of the
813:Other properties
802:
707:
594:Overlap between
466:, and the eight
456:electromagnetism
353:
352:
348:
258:Location in atom
246:
227:A particle is a
221:A particle is a
124:Particle physics
66:smaller than an
21:
5053:
5052:
5048:
5047:
5046:
5044:
5043:
5042:
5023:
5022:
5021:
5016:
4981:
4975:
4945:
4940:
4924:
4878:Nuclear physics
4827:
4791:
4727:Davydov soliton
4700:
4665:
4639:
4600:
4528:
4500:
4427:
4336:
4236:
4195:
4149:
4127:
4109:
4068:
3988:
3897:
3892:
3855:
3845:
3828:
3822:
3805:
3795:
3785:
3761:
3726:
3704:
3687:
3685:General readers
3682:
3680:Further reading
3677:
3676:
3634:
3633:
3629:
3620:
3618:
3609:
3608:
3604:
3599:. 23 June 2014.
3591:
3590:
3586:
3533:
3532:
3528:
3497:(16): 508â509.
3484:
3483:
3479:
3470:
3468:
3459:
3458:
3454:
3378:
3377:
3373:
3313:
3312:
3308:
3288:
3287:
3283:
3273:
3271:
3267:
3209:
3208:
3204:
3169:Physical Review
3162:
3161:
3157:
3113:
3112:
3108:
3064:
3063:
3059:
3015:
3014:
3010:
2997:
2993:
2951:
2950:
2946:
2939:
2919:
2918:
2914:
2878:
2877:
2873:
2831:
2830:
2826:
2817:
2815:
2807:
2806:
2802:
2768:
2767:
2763:
2754:
2752:
2736:Alfred, Randy.
2735:
2734:
2730:
2699:Klemperer, Otto
2697:
2696:
2692:
2681:The Electrician
2674:
2673:
2669:
2648:(69): 381â390.
2635:
2634:
2630:
2617:
2613:
2595:
2591:
2580:
2557:
2556:
2552:
2545:
2526:
2525:
2521:
2500:
2499:
2495:
2488:
2469:
2468:
2464:
2455:
2454:
2450:
2402:
2401:
2397:
2357:
2356:
2352:
2329:
2328:
2324:
2317:
2292:
2291:
2287:
2280:
2263:
2262:
2258:
2248:
2246:
2237:
2236:
2232:
2227:
2222:
2172:
2161:
2154:
2080:
2009:
2007:
2006:
2005:
2001:
1999:
1998:
1997:
1996:
1959:
1957:
1956:
1955:
1951:
1949:
1948:
1947:
1946:
1941:
1939:
1938:
1937:
1933:
1931:
1930:
1929:
1928:
1906:Harald Fritzsch
1885:
1883:
1882:
1881:
1877:
1875:
1874:
1873:
1871:
1848:
1846:
1845:
1844:
1840:
1838:
1837:
1836:
1835:
1820:
1818:
1817:
1816:
1812:
1810:
1809:
1808:
1806:
1789:John Iliopoulos
1785:Sheldon Glashow
1775:
1773:
1772:
1771:
1767:
1765:
1764:
1763:
1762:
1730:
1728:
1727:
1726:
1722:
1720:
1719:
1718:
1717:
1712:
1710:
1709:
1708:
1704:
1702:
1701:
1700:
1699:
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1690:
1686:
1684:
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1681:
1679:
1655:
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1646:
1644:
1643:
1642:
1640:
1613:
1611:
1610:
1609:
1605:
1603:
1602:
1601:
1600:
1599:
1580:
1578:
1577:
1576:
1572:
1570:
1569:
1568:
1567:
1549:
1547:
1546:
1545:
1541:
1539:
1538:
1537:
1536:
1511:G. D. Rochester
1496:
1494:
1493:
1492:
1488:
1486:
1485:
1484:
1483:
1454:
1452:
1451:
1450:
1446:
1444:
1443:
1442:
1441:
1396:
1394:
1393:
1392:
1388:
1386:
1385:
1384:
1383:
1363:
1361:
1360:
1359:
1355:
1353:
1352:
1351:
1349:
1300:
1298:
1297:
1296:
1292:
1290:
1289:
1288:
1287:
1274:
1272:
1271:
1270:
1266:
1264:
1263:
1262:
1260:
1259:The nucleus of
1240:
1238:
1237:
1236:
1232:
1230:
1229:
1228:
1227:
1206:Albert Einstein
1186:
1184:
1183:
1182:
1178:
1176:
1175:
1174:
1173:
1141:
1139:
1138:
1137:
1133:
1131:
1130:
1129:
1128:
1095:
1093:
1092:
1091:
1087:
1085:
1084:
1083:
1082:
1027:
1019:Main articles:
1017:
975:Nuclear physics
921:
918:
915:
914:
912:
909:
862:Albert Einstein
839:
836:
833:
832:
830:
815:
773:
746:electric charge
699:
688:
624:that obeys the
618:
612:
518:
367:
362:
350:
346:
345:
273:
262:
128:nuclear physics
38:is made of two
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
5051:
5049:
5041:
5040:
5035:
5025:
5024:
5018:
5017:
5015:
5014:
5008:
4986:
4983:
4982:
4976:
4974:
4973:
4966:
4959:
4951:
4942:
4941:
4937:Physics portal
4929:
4926:
4925:
4923:
4922:
4917:
4912:
4907:
4902:
4897:
4892:
4891:
4890:
4880:
4875:
4870:
4865:
4860:
4859:
4858:
4851:Standard Model
4848:
4847:
4846:
4835:
4833:
4829:
4828:
4826:
4825:
4820:
4818:Quasiparticles
4815:
4810:
4805:
4799:
4797:
4793:
4792:
4790:
4789:
4784:
4779:
4774:
4769:
4764:
4759:
4754:
4749:
4744:
4739:
4734:
4729:
4724:
4718:
4716:
4714:Quasiparticles
4710:
4709:
4706:
4705:
4702:
4701:
4699:
4698:
4693:
4688:
4683:
4677:
4675:
4671:
4670:
4667:
4666:
4664:
4663:
4658:
4653:
4647:
4645:
4641:
4640:
4638:
4637:
4632:
4627:
4621:
4619:
4608:
4602:
4601:
4599:
4598:
4593:
4588:
4587:
4586:
4581:
4576:
4571:
4566:
4561:
4551:
4546:
4540:
4538:
4534:
4533:
4530:
4529:
4527:
4526:
4521:
4510:
4508:
4506:Exotic hadrons
4502:
4501:
4499:
4498:
4493:
4488:
4483:
4478:
4473:
4468:
4463:
4458:
4453:
4448:
4443:
4437:
4435:
4429:
4428:
4426:
4425:
4420:
4415:
4410:
4405:
4400:
4399:
4398:
4393:
4388:
4383:
4372:
4370:
4361:
4352:
4346:
4345:
4342:
4341:
4338:
4337:
4335:
4334:
4332:X and Y bosons
4329:
4324:
4319:
4314:
4309:
4304:
4299:
4294:
4289:
4284:
4279:
4274:
4269:
4264:
4259:
4254:
4248:
4246:
4242:
4241:
4238:
4237:
4235:
4234:
4224:
4219:
4214:
4209:
4203:
4201:
4197:
4196:
4194:
4193:
4188:
4183:
4177:
4175:
4166:
4157:
4151:
4150:
4148:
4147:
4141:
4139:
4133:
4132:
4129:
4128:
4126:
4125:
4119:
4117:
4111:
4110:
4108:
4107:
4105:W and Z bosons
4102:
4097:
4091:
4089:
4080:
4074:
4073:
4070:
4069:
4067:
4066:
4065:
4064:
4059:
4054:
4049:
4044:
4039:
4029:
4024:
4019:
4014:
4009:
4004:
3998:
3996:
3990:
3989:
3987:
3986:
3981:
3976:
3971:
3966:
3961:
3959:Strange (quark
3956:
3951:
3946:
3941:
3936:
3931:
3925:
3923:
3914:
3905:
3899:
3898:
3893:
3891:
3890:
3883:
3876:
3868:
3862:
3861:
3854:
3853:External links
3851:
3850:
3849:
3843:
3826:
3820:
3803:
3794:
3791:
3790:
3789:
3783:
3759:
3744:
3742:978-0452287860
3730:
3724:
3702:
3686:
3683:
3681:
3678:
3675:
3674:
3647:(821): 60â72.
3627:
3602:
3584:
3526:
3477:
3452:
3398:hep-ex/9503003
3371:
3326:(2): 652â657.
3306:
3300:hep-ph/0208010
3281:
3279:indicate 1947.
3265:
3202:
3175:(4): 263â271.
3155:
3106:
3057:
3008:
2991:
2964:(1): 389â394.
2944:
2937:
2921:Lederman, Leon
2912:
2891:(6): 132â148.
2871:
2844:(5): 459â479.
2824:
2813:NobelPrize.org
2800:
2761:
2728:
2690:
2677:"Cathode Rays"
2667:
2628:
2611:
2589:
2578:
2550:
2543:
2537:. p. 29.
2519:
2493:
2486:
2462:
2448:
2395:
2350:
2322:
2315:
2285:
2278:
2272:. p. 25.
2256:
2229:
2228:
2226:
2223:
2221:
2220:
2215:
2210:
2205:
2200:
2195:
2193:CPT invariance
2190:
2182:
2173:
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614:Main article:
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491:Standard Model
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460:W and Z bosons
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374:Standard Model
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365:By composition
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360:Classification
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3706:Greene, Brian
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2703:Physics Today
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2480:. p. 1.
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1429:Explains the
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1410:Hideki Yukawa
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938:
937:atomic number
934:
930:
927:of that of a
906:
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727:
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676:supersymmetry
673:
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631:
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623:
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610:By statistics
609:
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588:
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585:exotic nuclei
582:
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433:muon neutrino
430:
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415:Six types of
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37:
32:
19:
5001:
5000: >
4996: >
4992: >
4935:
4862:
4606:Hypothetical
4554:Exotic atoms
4423:Omega baryon
4413:Sigma baryon
4403:Delta baryon
4155:Hypothetical
4137:Ghost fields
4123:Higgs boson
4057:Tau neutrino
3949:Charm (quark
3830:
3807:
3799:
3768:
3747:
3733:
3710:
3698:
3695:Weinberg, S.
3644:
3640:
3630:
3619:. Retrieved
3615:
3605:
3596:
3587:
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3540:
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3494:
3490:
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3469:. Retrieved
3467:. 2014-02-12
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3021:
3011:
2994:
2961:
2957:
2947:
2926:
2915:
2888:
2884:
2874:
2841:
2837:
2827:
2816:. Retrieved
2812:
2803:
2778:
2774:
2764:
2753:. Retrieved
2741:
2731:
2709:(6): 64â66.
2706:
2702:
2693:
2684:
2680:
2670:
2645:
2641:
2631:
2614:
2604:
2597:Isaac Newton
2592:
2583:
2560:
2553:
2529:
2522:
2505:
2496:
2472:
2465:
2451:
2410:
2404:
2398:
2365:
2359:
2353:
2345:
2332:
2325:
2296:
2288:
2265:
2259:
2247:. Retrieved
2243:the original
2233:
2184:
2176:
2144:undiscovered
2143:
2057:CERN (2012)
1833:bottom quark
1745:George Zweig
1628:Enrico Fermi
1591:discovered.
1558:
1524:. The first
1515:C. C. Butler
1505:
1463:
1424:Cecil Powell
1416:CĂ©sar Lattes
1373:CPT symmetry
1192:elementary (
1163:Thomas Royds
1150:
1101:elementary (
1065:Composition
1055:
1030:
1028:
994:
986:
953:
910:
898:
879:
873:
859:
854:
846:
816:
805:
774:
758:
754:color charge
750:
748:is massive.
738:tau particle
734:
729:
704:
700:
689:
680:
669:
661:gauge bosons
653:color charge
651:which carry
646:
619:
570:
519:
499:
496:
472:strong force
458:, the three
448:gauge bosons
441:tau neutrino
371:
368:
330:
308:
286:
264:
212:
208:field theory
197:
191:
176:
171:
149:
59:
53:
46:, which are
4888:Quark model
4656:Theta meson
4559:Positronium
4471:Omega meson
4466:J/psi meson
4396:Antineutron
4307:Dark photon
4272:Graviphoton
4231:Stop squark
3939:Down (quark
3547:(1): 1â29.
2568:. pp.
2305:. pp.
2198:Dark matter
2052:Peter Higgs
2044:Higgs boson
1760:charm quark
1752:quark model
1737:elementary
1633:Clyde Cowan
1522:cosmic rays
1402:composite (
1322:The second
1246:composite (
1215:problem of
1071:Discovered
1001:cosmic rays
993:. The term
945:mass number
708:. That is,
665:Higgs boson
526:positronium
479:Higgs boson
213:Even among
138:are called
5027:Categories
4630:Heptaquark
4591:Superatoms
4524:Pentaquark
4514:Tetraquark
4496:Quarkonium
4386:Antiproton
4287:Leptoquark
4222:Neutralino
3984:antiquark)
3974:antiquark)
3969:Top (quark
3964:antiquark)
3954:antiquark)
3944:antiquark)
3934:antiquark)
3903:Elementary
3621:2022-08-22
3471:2022-08-22
3349:2433/66179
3004:Lodge 1920
3000:Soddy 1920
2818:2022-08-22
2755:2022-08-22
2225:References
2099:composite
2095:pentaquark
2070:composite
2066:tetraquark
1799:B. Richter
1669:beta decay
1587:The first
1340:Paul Dirac
1200:Max Planck
1068:Theorized
1029:The term "
989:is called
969:, and the
577:down quark
464:weak force
335:Elementary
44:down quark
4868:Particles
4813:Particles
4772:Polariton
4762:Plasmaron
4732:Dropleton
4625:Hexaquark
4596:Molecules
4584:Protonium
4461:Phi meson
4446:Rho meson
4418:Xi baryon
4350:Composite
4186:Gravitino
3929:Up (quark
3793:Textbooks
3736:. Plume.
3669:0950-1207
3579:119169617
3554:1207.7214
3521:0031-9007
3431:0031-9007
3358:0033-068X
3244:0028-0836
3197:0031-899X
3150:0950-1207
3101:0950-1207
3052:0950-1207
2986:1478-7814
2866:121189755
2858:0003-9519
2795:1941-5982
2750:1059-1028
2662:1941-5982
2502:Okun, Lev
2390:122763326
2036:hadronize
2034:Does not
1994:top quark
1074:Comments
1062:Particle
1031:subatomic
959:molecules
955:Chemistry
797:magnitude
726:rest mass
573:up quarks
552:(the two
313:Composite
291:Composite
164:particles
108:electrons
82:, like a
40:up quarks
18:Subatomic
4994:Molecule
4844:timeline
4696:R-hadron
4651:Glueball
4635:Skyrmion
4569:Tauonium
4282:Inflaton
4277:Graviton
4257:Curvaton
4227:Sfermion
4217:Higgsino
4212:Chargino
4173:Gauginos
4032:Neutrino
4017:Antimuon
4007:Positron
4002:Electron
3912:Fermions
3765:(2003).
3708:(1999).
3697:(1987).
3447:42826202
3439:10057979
3366:14006603
3260:33881752
3252:18917296
2923:(1993).
2599:(1687).
2535:Springer
2435:18494170
2270:Elsevier
2170:See also
2111:graviton
2083:, 2013,
2029:Fermilab
1973:Weinberg
1890:, 1977)
1825:, 1974)
1815:J/ψ
1665:spectrum
1660:, 1956)
1597:neutrino
1584:, 1950)
1368:, 1932)
1319:(1932)
1080:electron
1035:retronym
1003:, or in
963:electron
949:nucleons
941:isotopes
929:hydrogen
789:positron
771:By decay
742:nucleons
672:graviton
604:Fermions
581:helium-4
575:and one
554:nucleons
522:Lev Okun
506:graviton
500:Various
421:electron
327:Electron
187:momentum
183:position
172:wavicles
154:(called
145:fermions
64:particle
42:and one
4832:Related
4803:Baryons
4777:Polaron
4767:Plasmon
4742:Fracton
4737:Exciton
4691:Diquark
4686:Pomeron
4661:T meson
4618:Baryons
4579:Pionium
4564:Muonium
4491:D meson
4486:B meson
4391:Neutron
4376:Nucleon
4368:Baryons
4359:Hadrons
4322:Tachyon
4297:Majoron
4262:Dilaton
4191:Photino
4027:Antitau
3994:Leptons
3649:Bibcode
3597:cern.ch
3559:Bibcode
3499:Bibcode
3403:Bibcode
3328:Bibcode
3224:Bibcode
3177:Bibcode
3128:Bibcode
3079:Bibcode
3030:Bibcode
2966:Bibcode
2893:Bibcode
2711:Bibcode
2510:Bibcode
2443:4424892
2415:Bibcode
2370:Bibcode
2054:(1964)
2031:(1995)
2025:(1973)
1985:(1983)
1979:(1968)
1969:Glashow
1918:(1979)
1912:(1972)
1864:(1973)
1795:(1970)
1747:(1964)
1589:hyperon
1517:(1947)
1426:(1947)
1412:(1935)
1342:(1928)
1336:
1324:nucleon
1285:neutron
1208:(1905)
1202:(1900)
1194:quantum
1158:(1899)
1117:(1897)
1111:(1874)
1047:hadrons
1039:baryons
1015:History
971:neutron
925:
913:
843:
831:
819:integer
730:massive
722:at rest
686:By mass
657:leptons
642:fermion
640:) or a
600:Hadrons
550:neutron
542:baryons
534:hadrons
530:muonium
516:Hadrons
470:of the
462:of the
446:Twelve
417:leptons
398:strange
382:flavors
349:⁄
316:Nucleus
305:Neutron
294:Nucleus
156:photons
132:photons
120:leptons
94:; or a
88:neutron
56:physics
4990:Object
4979:matter
4808:Mesons
4757:Phonon
4752:Magnon
4674:Others
4644:Mesons
4537:Others
4433:Mesons
4381:Proton
4245:Others
4200:Others
4181:Gluino
4115:Scalar
4095:Photon
4078:Bosons
3921:Quarks
3841:
3818:
3781:
3754:
3740:
3722:
3693:&
3667:
3577:
3519:
3445:
3437:
3429:
3364:
3356:
3258:
3250:
3242:
3216:Nature
3195:
3148:
3099:
3050:
2984:
2935:
2864:
2856:
2793:
2748:
2687:: 104.
2660:
2622:
2576:
2541:
2484:
2441:
2433:
2406:Nature
2388:
2313:
2276:
2249:5 June
2189:(book)
2181:(book)
2081:(3900)
1898:gluons
1677:quarks
1649:ν
1608:ν
1575:Λ
1544:Λ
1473:lepton
1449:μ
1404:mesons
1391:π
1313:1920)
1248:baryon
1225:proton
1181:γ
1171:photon
1136:α
1103:lepton
1043:mesons
987:per se
967:proton
965:, the
935:. The
933:proton
891:quarks
845:
827:quarks
803:
714:energy
694:, the
649:quarks
602:, and
596:Bosons
558:mesons
546:proton
468:gluons
452:photon
408:, and
406:bottom
386:quarks
338:Shells
283:Proton
261:Charge
252:Symbol
199:quanta
140:bosons
136:gluons
114:, and
104:quarks
92:quarks
84:proton
80:baryon
36:proton
4977:Into
4796:Lists
4787:Trion
4782:Roton
4722:Anyon
4549:Atoms
4312:Preon
4252:Axion
4207:Axino
4100:Gluon
4087:Gauge
3575:S2CID
3549:arXiv
3443:S2CID
3393:arXiv
3362:S2CID
3295:arXiv
3291:EConf
3256:S2CID
2862:S2CID
2742:Wired
2570:59â60
2439:S2CID
2386:S2CID
2309:â20.
1977:Salam
1559:never
1506:never
1481:kaons
1464:never
1381:pions
1151:never
781:decay
777:decay
634:boson
566:kaons
562:pions
402:charm
384:" of
380:Six "
376:are:
168:waves
112:muons
106:; or
96:meson
86:or a
62:is a
4998:Atom
4747:Hole
4574:Onia
4481:Kaon
4441:Pion
4012:Muon
3839:ISBN
3816:ISBN
3779:ISBN
3752:ISBN
3738:ISBN
3720:ISBN
3665:ISSN
3517:ISSN
3435:PMID
3427:ISSN
3354:ISSN
3248:PMID
3240:ISSN
3193:ISSN
3146:ISSN
3097:ISSN
3048:ISSN
3002:and
2982:ISSN
2933:ISBN
2854:ISSN
2791:ISSN
2746:ISSN
2658:ISSN
2620:ISBN
2574:ISBN
2539:ISBN
2482:ISBN
2431:PMID
2311:ISBN
2274:ISBN
2251:2012
1983:CERN
1916:DESY
1439:muon
1041:and
1023:and
973:.
922:1836
885:and
759:All
710:mass
638:spin
626:laws
564:and
548:and
528:and
489:The
477:The
429:muon
394:down
351:2000
272:Mass
255:Type
185:and
126:and
68:atom
58:, a
4022:Tau
3657:doi
3645:133
3567:doi
3545:716
3507:doi
3419:hdl
3411:doi
3344:hdl
3336:doi
3232:doi
3220:160
3185:doi
3136:doi
3124:117
3087:doi
3075:136
3038:doi
2974:doi
2901:doi
2889:322
2846:doi
2783:doi
2719:doi
2650:doi
2423:doi
2411:401
2378:doi
2338:doi
1667:of
874:all
690:In
628:of
454:of
437:tau
410:top
322:â1
300:â1
134:or
122:).
116:tau
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