Timbuktu - Knowledge (XXG)

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Mali Empire in the 13th and 14th centuries. Distinguished Malian Mansa Mūsā brought great fame to the city of Timbuktu when he established a university of Islamic learning there. The university taught much more than Islamic studies, though, including topics of history, rhetoric, law, science, and, most notably, medicine. Mansa Mūsā also introduced Timbuktu, and the Mali Empire in general, to the rest of the Medieval world through his Hajj, as his time in Mecca would soon inspire Arab travelers to visit North Africa. Europeans, however, would not reach the city until much later, due to the difficult and lengthy journey, thus garnering the city an aura of mystery.

2306: 2531:". He added, "Those are to this day protected." He also added that due to the massive efforts of one individual, two hundred thousand other manuscripts were successfully transported to safety. This effort was organized by Abdel Kader Haidara, then director of Mamma Haidara Library, using his own funds. Haidara purchased metal footlockers in which up to 300 manuscripts could be securely stored. Nearly 2,500 of these lockers were distributed to safe houses across the city. Many were later moved to Dreazen. 2223:, as by the selection committee at the time of nomination. The first period on the Danger List lasted from 1990 until 2005, when a range of measures including restoration work and the compilation of an inventory warranted "its removal from the Danger List". In 2008 the WHC placed the protected area under increased scrutiny dubbed "reinforced monitoring", a measure made possible in 2007, as the impact of planned construction work was unclear. Special attention was given to the build of a 975: 669: 1856:, which housed many important manuscripts. The building housing the Ahmed Baba Institute was funded by South Africa, and held 30,000 manuscripts. BBC World Service radio news reported on 29 January 2013 that approximately 28,000 of the manuscripts in the Institute had been removed to safety from the premises before the attack by the Islamist groups, and that the whereabouts of about 2,000 manuscripts remained unknown. It was intended to be a resource for Islamic research. 166: 256: 2968: 657: 932:. In 1593, most of the university faculty was executed or exiled for disloyalty to the new rulers and this, along with a decline in trade as a result of increased competition from newly available trans-Atlantic sailing routes, caused the city to lose its relevance. It was not until the 1890s that Timbuktu was formally incorporated into the French colony of Mali, and, in 1960, was declared part of the independent nation of Mali. 2461:

However, there was no malicious destruction of any library or collection as most of the manuscripts were safely hidden away. 90% of these manuscripts were saved by the librarian Adbel Kader Haidara and the population organized around the NGO "Sauvegarde et valorisation des manuscrits pour la défense de la culture islamique" (SAVAMA-DCI). Some 350,000 manuscripts were transported to safety, and 300,000 of them were still in

175: 135: 1747: 6845: 1699: 2942: 2929: 716:. French spelling often appears in international reference as 'Tombouctou'. The German spelling 'Timbuktu' and its variant 'Timbucktu' have passed into English and the former has become widely used in recent years. Major English-language works have employed the spelling 'Timbuctoo', and this is considered the correct English form by scholars; 'Timbuctou' and 'Timbuctu' are sometimes used as well. 144: 2916: 2903: 7364: 7196: 2989: 2503: 2154: 2089: 2955: 325: 2336:), leading up to the city's golden age in the 15th and 16th centuries that proved fertile ground for scholarship of religions, arts and sciences. To the people of Timbuktu, literacy and books were symbols of wealth, power, and blessings and the acquisition of books became a primary concern for scholars. An active trade in books between Timbuktu and other parts of the 2427: 209: 155: 1810:. One of these tourists was subsequently murdered. As a result of this and various other incidents a number of states including France, Britain and the US, began advising their citizens to avoid travelling far from Bamako. The number of tourists visiting Timbuktu dropped precipitously from around 6000 in 2009 to only 492 in the first four months of 2011. 263: 920:

situated nine miles from the Niger River, making for good agricultural land, and is near the Sahara Desert, providing easily accessible trade routes. Timbuktu also acts as a midpoint between the regions of North, West, and Central Africa. Because of this, Timbuktu has developed into a cultural melting pot.

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This system of education survived until the late 19th century, while the 18th century saw the institution of itinerant Quranic school as a form of universal education, where scholars would travel throughout the region with their students, begging for food part of the day. Islamic education came under

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joyful occasion on Timbuktu's calendar", it combines "rituals of Sufi Islam with celebrating Timbuktu's rich literary traditions". It is a "period of feasting, singing, and dancing ... It culminated with an evening gathering of thousands of people in the large sandy square in front of the Sankor

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The plants grow up to three metres (10 feet) in height as the water level rises. The rice is harvested by canoe in December. The procedure is very precarious and the yields are low but the method has the advantage that little capital investment is required. A successful crop depends critically on the

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in 1896. Between 1917 and 1921, during the colonial period, the French used slave labour to dig a narrow canal linking Timbuktu with Kabara. Over the following decades this became silted and filled with sand, but in 2007 as part of the dredging project, the canal was re-excavated so that now when the

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Timbuktu has become a household reference as a faraway, mysterious place, but the city itself was once a world-renowned trade powerhouse, as well as an academic hotspot of the medieval world. Timbuktu is unique in the fact that it has seen many rulers, but the city reached its golden period under the

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Hidden in cellars or buried, hid between the mosque's mud walls and safeguarded by their patrons, many of these manuscripts survived the city's decline. They now form the collection of several libraries in Timbuktu, holding up to 700,000 manuscripts in 2003: In late January 2013 it was reported that

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The Sankore Mosque, built between 1325 and 1463, played a central role in Timbuktu's intellectual and educational landscape. As the city flourished as a centre of Islamic learning, the Sankore Mosque became a renowned centre of learning, attracting scholars and students from across the Muslim world.

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Timbuktu primarily gained its wealth from local gold and salt mining, in addition to the trans-Saharan slave trade. Gold was a highly valued commodity in the Mediterranean region and salt was most popular south of the city, though arguably the biggest asset Timbuktu had was its location. The city is

804:: "The Tuareg made it a depot for their belongings and provisions, and it grew into a crossroads for travelers coming and going. Looking after their belongings was a slave woman of theirs called Timbuktu, which in their language means 'lump'. The blessed spot where she encamped was named after her." 580:

Archaeological evidence suggests prehistoric settlements in the region, predating the city's Islamic scholarly and trade prominence in the medieval period. Timbuktu began as a seasonal settlement and became permanent early in the 12th century. After a shift in trading routes, particularly after the

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Because much of the gold in Europe in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries came from Timbuktu, the city has long been considered a mysterious, hidden place. This association remains with modern Europeans and North Americans: a 2006 survey of 150 young Britons found that 34% did not believe the

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These libraries are the largest among up to 60 private or public libraries that are estimated to exist in Timbuktu today, although some comprise little more than a row of books on a shelf or a bookchest. Under these circumstances, the manuscripts are vulnerable to damage and theft, as well as long

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Most tourists visit Timbuktu between November and February when the air temperature is lower. In the 1980s, accommodation for tourists was provided by Hendrina Khan Hotel and two other small hotels: Hotel Bouctou and Hotel Azalaï. Over the following decades the tourist numbers increased so that by

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The week-long festival of Mawloud is held every January, and celebrates the birthday of Muhammed; the city's "most cherished manuscripts" are read publicly, and are a central part of this celebration. It was originally a Shi'ite festival from Persia and arriving in Timbuktu around 1600. The "most

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The Sidi Yahya mosque, founded in 1440 by the revered marabout Sheikh al-Mukhtar Hamallah, held both religious and mystical significance for the people of Timbuktu. According to local legend, the mosque awaited the arrival of Sidi Yahya al-Tadlissi, a saint whose presence would sanctify the site.

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The caravans of several thousand camels took three weeks each way, transporting food to the miners and returning with each camel loaded with four or five 30 kg (66 lb) slabs of salt. The salt transport was largely controlled by desert nomads of the Arabic-speaking Berabich (or Barabish)

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is higher in the dry season than the wet season. Average daily maximum temperatures in the hottest months of the year – April, May and June – exceed 40 °C (104 °F). Lowest temperatures occur during the mildest months of the year – December, January and February. However, average maximum

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The French continue to use the spelling 'Tombouctou', as they have for over a century; variants include 'Temboctou' (used by explorer René Caillié) and 'Tombouktou', but they are seldom seen. Variant spellings exist for other places as well, such as Jenne (Djenné) and Segu (Ségou). As well as its

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The Djinguere Ber Mosque, built in 1328 under the patronage of Mansa Musa, the wealthy ruler of the Mali Empire, served as a testament to the city's prosperity during this golden age. Mansa Musa's legendary pilgrimage to Mecca, during which he distributed vast amounts of gold, contributed to the

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According to Leo Africanus, there were abundant supplies of locally produced grain, cattle, milk and butter, though there were neither gardens nor orchards surrounding the city. In another passage dedicated to describing the wealth of both the environment and the king, Africanus touches upon the

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settlements have been discovered near Timbuktu that predate the traditional foundation date of the town. Although the accumulation of thick layers of sand has thwarted archaeological excavations in the town itself, some of the surrounding landscape is deflating and exposing pottery shards on the

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Situated on the northern edge of the Niger Delta, Timbuktu is at the crossroads of the Saharan trade routes and the River Niger. Founded in 1100 by the Tuareg, this cultural centre boasts significant architectural landmarks, including three great mosques: Djinguere Ber, Sankore and Sidi Yahya.

640:, wrote about the city. These stories fuelled speculation in Europe, where the city's reputation shifted from being rich to mysterious. The city's golden age as a major learning and cultural centre of the Mali Empire was followed by a long period of decline. Different tribes governed until the 2460:

in Sankoré ... The men swept 4,202 manuscripts off lab tables and shelves, and carried them into the tiled courtyard ... They doused the manuscripts in gasoline ... and tossed in a lit match. The brittle pages and their dry leather covers ... were consumed by the inferno."

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These institutions were explicitly religious, as opposed to the more secular curricula of modern European universities and more similar to the medieval Europe model. However, where universities in the European sense started as associations of students and teachers, West-African education was

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magazine, the local residents claimed to have safeguarded the three hundred thousand manuscripts for generations. Many of these documents are still in the safe-keeping of the local residents, who are reluctant to give them over to the government-run Ahmed Baba Institute housed in a modern

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Roughly 250 years after Leo Africanus' visit to Timbuktu, the city had seen many rulers. The end of the 18th century saw the grip of the Moroccan rulers on the city wane, resulting in a period of unstable government by quickly changing tribes. During the rule of one of those tribes, the

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town existed, while the other 66% considered it "a mythical place". This perception has been acknowledged in literature describing African history and African-European relations. In popular Western culture, Timbuktu is also often considered an idiomatic stand-in for any faraway place.

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construction of the mosque and cemented Timbuktu's reputation as a centre of Islamic culture and learning. Over the centuries, the Djinguere Ber mosque has undergone various renovations and extensions, reflecting the changing architectural styles and religious practices of the region.

2272:. These acts have been described as crimes against humanity and war crimes. After the destruction of the tombs, UNESCO created a special fund to safeguard Mali's World Heritage Sites, vowing to carry out reconstruction and rehabilitation projects once the security situation allows. 1851:

On 28 January 2013, French and Malian government troops began retaking Timbuktu from the Islamist rebels. The force of 1,000 French troops with 200 Malian soldiers retook Timbuktu without a fight. The Islamist groups had already fled north a few days earlier, having set fire to the

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The Mali Empire reached a steady decline in the mid-1400s, giving rise to the Songhai Empire. However, the city of Timbuktu entered a brief period of rule under the Tuaregs before it fell to the Songhai people. Despite major shifts in power, Timbuktu generally flourished until the

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Timbuktu was a world centre of Islamic learning from the 13th to the 17th century, especially under the Mali Empire and Askia Mohammad I's rule. The Malian government and NGOs have been working to catalog and restore the remnants of this scholarly legacy: Timbuktu's manuscripts.

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decided to cease its increased monitoring program as it felt sufficient progress had been made to address the initial concerns. Following the takeover of Timbuktu by MNLA and the Islamist group Ansar Dine, it was returned to the List of World Heritage in Danger in 2012.

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Timbuktu is poorly connected to the Malian road network with only dirt roads to the neighbouring towns. Although the Niger River can be crossed by ferry at Korioumé, the roads south of the river are no better. However, a new paved road is under construction between

1761:) has traditionally been grown in regions near the river that are inundated during the annual flood. Seed is sown at the beginning of the rainy season (June–July) so that when the flood water arrives plants are already 30 to 40 cm (12 to 16 in) in height. 2006:

The natives of the town of Timbuctoo may be computed at 40,000, exclusive of slaves and foreigners ... The natives are all blacks: almost every stranger marries a female of the town, who are so beautiful that travellers often fall in love with them at first sight.

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Timbuktu served in this process as a distribution centre of scholars and scholarship. Its reliance on trade meant intensive movement of scholars between the city and its extensive network of trade partners. In 1468–1469 though, many scholars left for Walata when

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and the Mission Culturelle de Tombouctou. The results suggest that the site was first occupied during the 5th century BC, thrived throughout the second half of the 1st millennium AD and eventually collapsed sometime during the late 10th or early 11th-century AD.

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In recent history, Timbuktu faced threats from extremist groups leading to the destruction of cultural sites; efforts by local and international communities have aimed to preserve its heritage. The city's population has declined as a result of the recent issues.

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The rich king of Tombuto hath many plates and sceptres of gold, some whereof weigh 1300 pounds. ... He hath always 3000 horsemen ... (and) a great store of doctors, judges, priests, and other learned men, that are bountifully maintained at the king's cost and

2264:, were destroyed when attacked with shovels and pickaxes by members of the same group. An Ansar Dine spokesman said that all shrines in the city, including the 13 remaining World Heritage sites, would be destroyed because they consider them to be examples of 2114:

When Sidi Yahya claimed the mosque forty years later, it became a focal point for spiritual devotion and pilgrimage. Over time, the mosque underwent several renovations and refurbishments, reflecting the changing religious and cultural landscape of Timbuktu.

2817:". This development shifted the city's reputation, from being fabled because of its gold to fabled because of its location and mystery. Being used in this sense since at least 1863, English dictionaries now cite Timbuktu as a metaphor for any faraway place. 2080:. In England his story was recorded. Shabeeni gave an indication of the size of the city in the second half of the 18th century. In an earlier passage, he described an environment that was characterized by forest, as opposed to the modern arid surroundings. 935:

Today, the population of Timbuktu has substantially decreased since its estimated peak of 100,000 people in the Medieval period. The city has suffered from mass amounts of poverty for several years now, relying on government funding as a means of survival.

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Medupe, R.T.; Warner, B.; Jeppie, S.; Sanogo, S.; Maiga, M.; Maiga, A.; Dembele, M.; Diakite, D.; Tembely, L.; Kanoute, M.; Traore, S.; Sodio, B.; Hawkes, S. (2008). "The Timbuktu Astronomy Project". In Holbrook, J.; Medupe, R.T.; Urama, J.O. (eds.).

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The wealth and very existence of Timbuktu depended on its position as the southern terminus of an important trans-Saharan trade route; nowadays, the only goods that are routinely transported across the desert are slabs of rock salt brought from the

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several days' journey to the southeast. Two years later, he returned to Timbuktu to live there for another seven years – one of a population that was, even centuries after its peak and excluding slaves, double the size of the 21st-century town.

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River Niger floods, Timbuktu is again connected to Kabara. The Malian government has promised to address problems with the design of the canal as it currently lacks footbridges and the steep, unstable banks make access to the water difficult.

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In the past, the area flooded by the river was more extensive and in years with high rainfall, floodwater would reach the western outskirts of Timbuktu itself. A small navigable creek to the west of the town is shown on the maps published by

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with approximately 2,100 families cultivating small plots. Nearly all the rice produced is consumed by the families themselves. The yields are still relatively low and the farmers are being encouraged to change their agricultural practices.

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amount and timing of the rain in the wet season and the height of the flood. To a limited extent the arrival of the flood water can be controlled by the construction of small mud dikes that become submerged as the water rises.

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An earlier nomination in 1979 failed the following year as it lacked proper demarcation: the Malian government included the town of Timbuktu as a whole in the wish for inclusion. Close to a decade later, three mosques and 16

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is 8 km (5 mi) to the south of the town and is connected to an arm of the river by a 3 km (2 mi) canal. The canal had become heavily silted but in 2007 it was dredged as part of a Libyan financed project.

2832:, and as a spiritual and intellectual influence throughout, through the character of Umar, a man from that city enslaved in Europe under the name Loppe, and his friendship with Nicholas, the central character of the series. 2605:, it is mainly confined to the south of the country. With an improving infrastructure granting Timbuktu access to larger cities in Mali's South, use of Bambara was increasing in the city at least until Azawad independence. 955: 2075:

in Belgium in December 1789 but the British consul managed to get him and the ship released. He set off again in the same ship, but the captain, who claimed to be afraid of his ship being captured again, set him ashore in

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by families or lineages, with the Aqit and Bunu al-Qadi al-Hajj families being two of the most prominent in Timbuktu – these families also facilitated students in set-aside rooms in their housings. Although the basis of

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Kabara can function as a port only in December to January when the river is in full flood. When the water levels are lower, boats dock at Korioumé which is linked to Timbuktu by 18 km (11 mi) of paved road.

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There is insufficient rainfall in the Timbuktu region for purely rain-fed agriculture and crops are therefore irrigated using water from the River Niger. The main agricultural crop is rice. African floating rice

954:(JNIM), exacerbating poverty, and leading to food shortages. 33,000 fled the city and its surrounding areas and 1,000 have fled to Mauritania since the start of the siege. The siege began after the withdrawal of 2644:

arrive at Korioumé, Timbuktu's port, which is linked to the city centre by an 18 km (11 mi) paved road running through Kabara. In 2007, access to Timbuktu's traditional port, Kabara, was restored by a

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and accompanied his uncle on diplomatic missions throughout North Africa. During these travels, he visited Timbuktu. As a young man he was captured by pirates and presented as an exceptionally learned slave to

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on a Malian army checkpoint at the international airport, killing a soldier. Fighting lasted until 1 April, when French warplanes helped Malian ground forces chase the remaining rebels out of the city center.

752:. Heinrich Barth wrote: "The town was probably so called, because it was built originally in a hollow or cavity in the sand-hills. Tùmbutu means hole or womb in the Songhay language: if it were a Temáshight ( 6233: 5733:

Commisso, Corrie (1 May 2015). "The Literary Refugees of Timbuktu: How a Group of Unlikely Allies Thwarted Al Qaeda and Organized One of the Most Brazen Cultural Heritage Evacuations Ever Attempted".

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rebel forces destroyed many of the manuscripts before leaving the city. "On Friday morning, 25 January 2013, fifteen jihadis entered the restoration and conservation rooms on the ground floor of the

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Its libraries housed thousands of manuscripts on subjects ranging from theology to astronomy, contributing to Timbuktu's reputation as a centre of intellectual exchange and cultural diversity.

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Many of the current conservation efforts are undertaken by "traditional actors" in the community. Some of their efforts include managing and restoring the historic mosques in the city.

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mining centre in the central Sahara 664 km (413 mi) north of Timbuktu. Until the second half of the 20th century most of the slabs were transported by large salt caravans or

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2006 there were seven small hotels and guest houses. The town benefited by the revenue from the CFA 5000 tourist tax, the sale of handicrafts and employment of local guides.

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tribe. Although there are no roads, the slabs of salt are now usually transported from Taoudenni by truck. From Timbuktu the salt is transported by boat to other towns in Mali.

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These descriptions and passages alike caught the attention of European explorers. Africanus also described the more mundane aspects of the city, such as the "cottages built of

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Hundreds of thousands of manuscripts were collected in Timbuktu over the course of centuries: some were written in the town itself, others – including exclusive copies of the

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If the University of Sankore ... had survived the ravages of foreign invasions, the academic and cultural history of Africa might have been different from what it is today.

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digitalization building built by the South African government in 2009. The institute houses only 10% of the manuscripts. It was later confirmed by Jean-Michel Djian to

1077:. The weather is extremely hot and dry throughout much of the year, with most of the city's rainfall occurring between June and September, due to the influence of the 7177: 6187:

Travels and discoveries in North and Central Africa: Being a journal of an expedition undertaken under the auspices of H. B. M.'s government, in the years 1849–1855

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him under the name "Johannis Leo de Medici", and commissioned him to write, in Italian, a detailed survey of Africa. His accounts provided most of what Europeans

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During the occupation by Islamic extremists the citizens of the city embarked on a drive to save the "best written accounts of African History". Interviewed by

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Tales of Timbuktu's fabulous wealth helped prompt European exploration of the west coast of Africa. Among the most famous descriptions of Timbuktu are those of

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The inhabitants are very rich, especially the strangers who have settled in the country But salt is in very short supply because it is carried here from

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seeking trade, security, or to study. By 1300, the population increased to 10,000 and continued increasing until it reached about 50,000 in the 1500s.

2404:'s Songhay Empire absorbed Timbuktu. Then, in the 1591 Moroccan invasion of Timbuktu, scholars had to flee once more, or face imprisonment or murder. 2527:

that "the great majority of the manuscripts, about fifty thousand, are actually housed in the thirty-two family libraries of the 'City of 333 Saints

6662: 5616: 7878: 7843: 5341: 3026:"Timbuktu" – regardless of spelling, has long been used as a metaphor for "out in the middle of nowhere". E.g. "From here to Timbuktu and back." 7838: 5969: 5509: 2166: 925: 617: 5382: 7873: 6791: 6622: 6546: 6479: 6379: 6368: 6304: 6246: 4585: 3224: 951: 3588: 2571:

and ethnic Tuaregs, its use declined with the expulsion of many Tuaregs following the rebellion, increasing the dominance of Koyra Chiini.

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The origin of this mystification lies in the excitement brought to Europe by the legendary tales, especially those by Leo Africanus in his

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has not found remains dating from the 11th/12th century within the limits of the modern city given the difficulty of excavating through

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Cleaveland, Timothy (2008), "Timbuktu and Walata: lineages and higher education", in Jeppie, Shamil; Diagne, Souleymane Bachir (eds.),

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funded project that dredged the 3 km (2 mi) silted canal connecting Kabara to an arm of the Niger River. COMANAV ferries and

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Lovejoy, P.; Richardson, D. (1995). "Competing Markets for Male and Female Slaves: Prices in the Interior of West Africa, 1780-1850".

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surface. A survey of the area by Susan and Roderick McIntosh in 1984 identified several Iron Age sites along the el-Ahmar, an ancient

6485: 4195: 2068: 2063:, he was captured by a ship manned by Englishmen but sailing under a Russian flag, whose captain claimed that his Imperial mistress ( 7089: 6387: 6347: 5856: 5821: 5784: 3903: 1975: 1940: 1673: 515: 4028:

Introducing the System of Rice Intensification (SRI) to irrigated systems in Gao, Mopti, Timbuktu and to rainfed systems in Sikasso

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to the outskirts of Timbuktu. In November 2011, gunmen attacked tourists staying at a hotel in Timbuktu, killing one of them and

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had tried unsuccessfully to find Housa and Timbuktu (1795–7). In a later expedition he went near Timbuktu while descending the

2589:, introduced together with Islam during the 11th century, has mainly been the language of scholars and religion, comparable to 1799: 1040:, the flood peaks in September, while in Timbuktu the flood lasts longer and usually reaches a maximum at the end of December. 7848: 6513:. A facsimile of Pory's English translation of 1600 together with an introduction and notes by the editor. Internet Archive: 2392:

and its teaching were brought to Timbuktu from North Africa with the spread of Islam, Western African scholarship developed:

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Stories of great riches served as a catalyst for travellers to visit the inaccessible city, with prominent French explorer

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Lancement des travaux du Canal de Tombouctou : la mamelle nourricière redonne vie et espoir à la 'Cité mystérieuse'

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Lancement des travaux du Canal de Tombouctou : la mamelle nourricière redonne vie et espoir à la 'Cité mystérieuse'

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By the time Shabeni was 27, he was an established merchant in his hometown of Tetuan. He made a two-year pilgrimage to

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Travels through Central Africa to Timbuctoo; and across the Great Desert, to Morocco, performed in the years 1824–1828

2689:. The completed 81 km (50 mi) section between Niono and the small village of Goma Coura was financed by the 2318: 2195:

Criterion V: The construction of the mosques, still mostly original, shows the use of traditional building techniques.

896: mi) southeast of the Timbuktu near the Wadi el-Ahmar was excavated between 2008 and 2010 by archaeologists from 6762: 3076:"2016 TOMBOUCTOU PRIX INTERNATIONAL CGLU-VILLE DE MEXICO-CULTURE 21 CATÉGORIE VILLE/GOUVERNEMENT LOCAL GAGNANT 2016" 6678: 2959: 2747: 2257: 3590:

Rapports Économiques du Cercle de Tombouctou, 1922–1945: Archives Nationales du Mali, Fonds Recents (Series 1Q362)

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The validity of these theories depends on the identity of the original founders of the city: as recently as 2000,

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began kidnapping groups of tourists in the Sahel region. In January 2009, four tourists were kidnapped near the

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Pradines, Stéphane. Historic Mosques of Sub-Saharan Africa: From Timbuktu to Zanzibar. Volume 163. Brill, 2022.

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in 1485. His family was among the thousands of Muslims expelled by King Ferdinand and Queen Isabel after their

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temperatures do not drop below 30 °C (86 °F). These winter months are characterized by a dry, dusty

6113: 4982: 4026: 3975: 3974:(in French), Bamako, Mali: Ministère de l'Habitat et de l'Urbanisme, République du Mali, 2006, archived from 1957:, some 500 miles from Timbuktu. I happened to be in this city at a time when a load of salt sold for eighty 7868: 7858: 7833: 7079: 7064: 5292: 2846: 2825: 2567:

were represented by 10% each to an 80% dominance of the Koyra Chiini language. With Tamashek spoken by both

5472: 5142:

Makdisi, George (April–June 1989), "Scholasticism and Humanism in Classical Islam and the Christian West",

3529:. Diré is the nearest hydrometric station on the River Niger, 70 km (43 mi) upstream of Timbuktu. 636:, this established Timbuktu as a scholarly centre in Africa. Notable historic writers, such as Shabeni and 6733:

Ancient chroniclers of West Africa's past; journeys of discovery through the 'country of the black people'

6087: 4398: 3574: 3184: 3002: 2850: 2741: 2360: 1860: 6714:, co-directors of the Timbuktu Renaissance, and Lazare Eloundou Assomo, director of UNESCO World Heritage 4000:(in French), Commissariat à la Sécurité Alimentaire, République du Mali, USAID-Mali, 2006, archived from 1803: 1016:

The annual flood of the Niger River is a result of the heavy rainfall in the headwaters of the Niger and

724:

is still open to discussion. At least four possible origins of the name of Timbuktu have been described:

7543: 7110: 6360:

Timbuktu and the Songhay Empire: Al-Sadi's Tarikh al-Sudan down to 1613 and other contemporary documents

4965: 3044: 2775: 2544: 2393: 2261: 2013: 1833: 115: 7631: 6465:

Jeppie, Shamil (2008), "Re/discovering Timbuktu", in Jeppie, Shamil; Diagne, Souleymane Bachir (eds.),

4415: 2139: 2127: 2123: 1814: 6456:

An Account of Timbuctoo and Housa, Territories in the Interior of Africa By El Hage Abd Salam Shabeeny

3659:

Adefolalu, D.O. (25 December 1984). "On bioclimatological aspects of Harmattan dust haze in Nigeria".

974: 7853: 7151: 7125: 6834: 6777: 5919: 5349: 3928: 3798: 3668: 2594: 2469: 2457: 2421: 2310: 1853: 1773: 1098:. Picking up dust particles on their way, these winds limit visibility in what has been dubbed the " 839: 5978: 4090: 3515: 3492: 668: 7478: 7146: 7141: 6814: 4457: 3103: 3007: 2614: 2368: 2352: 2292: 2205: 2170: 2064: 910: 585:

around 1325, Timbuktu flourished, due to its strategic location, from the trade in salt, gold, and

424: 416: 215: 187: 6844: 6732: 4754: 4034:, Bamako, Mali: USAID, Initiatives Intégrées pour la Croissance Économique au Mali, Abt Associates 1102:

Haze." Additionally, when the dust settles in the city, sand builds up and desertification looms.

6874: 6829: 6824: 6700: 6589: 5750: 5265: 5222: 5159: 5112: 5104: 4698: 4556: 4514: 3944: 3726: 3684: 3594: 2715:. until the airline suspended operations in 2014. Its 6,923 ft (2,110 m) runway in a 07/25 2697:. The 484 km (301 mi) section between Goma Coura and Timbuktu is being financed by the 2662: 2060: 1864: 1066: 879: 628:

and extensive trade network supported an important book trade. Together with the campuses of the

7646: 7074: 6211: 4067: 2810: 2798:. Arabic sources focused mainly on more affluent cities in the Timbuktu region, such as Gao and 661: 165: 6297:

The Bad-Ass Librarians of Timbuktu And Their Race to Save the World's Most Precious Manuscripts

4372: 2328:

Timbuktu's rapid economic growth in the 13th and 14th centuries drew many scholars from nearby

7828: 7747: 7565: 7561: 6869: 6819: 6707: 6618: 6542: 6475: 6383: 6375: 6364: 6343: 6314: 6300: 6242: 5852: 5817: 5811: 5708: 5674: 5399: 5217: 5184: 5048: 4872: 4581: 4575: 4321: 4276:(in French), Primature: Portail Officiel du Gouvernement Mali, 28 October 2010, archived from 3899: 3220: 2854: 2759: 2480: 2372: 1807: 1722:

Between the 12th and 14th centuries, Timbuktu's population grew immensely due to an influx of

1626: 1029: 945: 929: 733: 570: 340: 97: 71: 6151: 6074: 5245: 5084: 2806:. As such, the picture of the city as the epitome of distance and mystery is a European one. 2018: 7771: 7664: 7262: 7258: 7200: 6581: 6534: 6281: 6129: 5742: 5257: 5151: 5096: 5038: 4780: 4548: 4222: 3936: 3919:

Thom, Derrick J.; Wells, John C. (1987), "Farming Systems in the Niger Inland Delta, Mali",

3841: 3718: 3676: 3558: 3200: 3158: 3040: 2863: 2842: 2704: 2598: 2564: 2548: 2540: 2376: 2220: 1757: 808: 780: 761: 737: 697: 689: 656: 629: 545: 477: 199: 191: 7688: 7684: 6722: 5995: 5557:"Le sort des manuscrits anciens du Mali au centre d'une conférence internationale à Bamako" 7739: 7120: 6906: 6687:– fuller presentation of the same manuscripts from the Mamma Haidara Commemorative Library 6280:, Tombouctou la mystérieuse.English.1896, translated by White, Diana, New York: Longmans, 4121: 3542: 2821: 2735: 2708: 2694: 2586: 2224: 2209: 2145:

Annually, during the winter, Timbuktu has hosted the Living Together festival since 2015.

1769: 897: 835: 815: 800: 625: 574: 527: 350: 6271: 1049: 6647: 6522: 6518: 6514: 6318: 6275: 5948: 5848: 3994:

Synthèse des Plan de Securité Alimentaire des Communes du Circle de Tombouctou 2006–2010

3932: 3672: 2543:

is the lingua franca of Mali, today the large majority of Timbuktu's inhabitants speaks

1008:. The town is surrounded by sand dunes and the streets are covered in sand. The port of 756:) word, it would be written Timbuktu. The name is generally interpreted by Europeans as 624:, who after 1612 became virtually independent of Morocco. In its golden age, the town's 7718: 7555: 7551: 7374: 7220: 6956: 6901: 6182: 2972: 2602: 2341: 2337: 2189: 2157:

The mausoleums, erected in the 15th and 16th centuries, being restored by local workers

1922: 1735: 1095: 1091: 1045: 959: 811: 705: 673: 606: 404: 3859: 7822: 7282: 7278: 6951: 6926: 6593: 6533:. Astrophysics and Space Science Proceedings. Springer, Dordrecht. pp. 179–188. 6504: 5754: 5269: 5116: 3730: 3688: 2967: 2876: 2802:. In West Africa, the city holds an image that has been compared to Europe's view on 2579: 2552: 2288: 2269: 1970: 1935: 1889: 1877: 1844:. Five days later, the MNLA declared the region independent of Mali as the nation of 1727: 855: 729: 685: 637: 613: 602: 6434: 1746: 174: 7797: 7791: 7787: 7605: 7601: 7406: 7402: 7348: 6941: 6931: 6921: 6864: 6761:. Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT School of Architecture and Planning. Archived from 6286: 5533: 5179:. Timbuktu Educational Foundation. Archived from the original on 24 September 2012. 4944: 4897: 4837:"WHC Requests Close Surveillance of Bordeaux, Machu Picchu, Timbuktu and Samarkand" 4699:"Timbuktu: The Living Together Festival is "our contribution to the peace process"" 4433: 4298: 3722: 2883:

and George Bell. Geoffrey Holder was director, choreographer and costume designer.

2858: 2437: 2178: 2131: 2033: 1698: 1009: 641: 535: 225: 7492: 7043: 6604:

Climate Change, Human Response and the Origins of Urbanism at Prehistoric Timbuktu

6564:. Link requires subscription to Aluka. Reissued by Anchor Books, New York in 1965. 6204: 4727: 2444:

clan, from which the Al Kounti manuscript collection derives its name. Dated 1898.

620:

and made Timbuktu their capital. The invaders established a new ruling class, the

6751: 6747:

early warning and threat monitoring system for endangered cultural heritage sites

6538: 6454: 6358: 6337: 6225: 6221: 6200: 6196: 6192: 6018: 4672: 4614: 3471: 3214: 2693:. This new section will service the Alatona irrigation system development of the 644:, in a regime that lasted until the country became the Republic of Mali in 1960. 597:

trade route and attracted many scholars and traders before it became part of the

7802: 7757: 7708: 7704: 7658: 7532: 7528: 7442: 7238: 7038: 6966: 6946: 6879: 6859: 6800: 6711: 6684: 6326: 4999:"Creation of a Special Fund for the Safeguarding of Mali's World Heritage sites" 4250: 3048: 2994: 2892: 2880: 2868: 2674: 2314: 2043:

Shabeni stayed in Timbuktu for three years before moving to a major city called

1897: 1777: 1731: 1723: 1025: 1005: 831: 621: 598: 566: 229: 134: 5875: 5841: 5445: 4788:

Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage

4733:

Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage

3615: 2355:

model. Lecturing was presented through a range of informal institutions called

2142:

Mosque and a public reading of some of the city's most treasured manuscripts."

143: 7488: 7472: 7468: 7426: 7422: 7363: 7352: 7084: 6936: 6916: 6911: 6672: 6615:

Social History of Timbuktu: The Role of Muslim Scholars and Notables 1400–1900

6585: 6410: 5895: 5556: 4731: 2984: 2920: 2502: 2345: 2333: 2253: 2185: 2153: 2088: 1910: 1841: 1087: 1017: 582: 237: 5712: 5678: 5052: 4919: 4616:

Festival au Desert, Essakane, Mali: a postcolonial, postwar Tuareg experiment

3751: 2738:(1939–2006), a famous musician, known for popularizing the desert blues genre 2408:

pressure after the French occupation, droughts in the 1970s and 1980s and by

2134:, was held every January in the desert, 75 km from the city until 2010. 2040:

on the north coast of Morocco accompanied his father on a visit to Timbuktu.

1925:

was at its height, the English edition of his book includes the description:

826:. The meaning "hidden" could point to the city's location in a slight hollow. 302: 289: 7781: 7777: 7654: 7635: 7621: 7611: 7595: 7522: 7518: 7512: 7508: 7482: 7462: 7458: 7438: 7392: 7322: 7318: 7302: 7298: 7242: 6961: 4577:

The Papers of Thomas Jefferson, Volume 30: 1 January 1798 to 31 January 1799

4246:

Festival sur le désert : Essakane a vibré au rythme de la 10ème édition

4143: 2946: 2837: 2618: 2560: 2401: 2384: 2356: 2201: 1708: 1099: 1033: 863: 822:, meaning "to be distant" or "hidden", and the feminine possessive particle 776: 5746: 5667:"Timbuktu's Ancient Libraries: Saved by Locals, Endangered by a Government" 4862: 3845: 851: 680:

Over the centuries, the spelling of Timbuktu has varied a great deal: from

233: 6667:

The southern shores of the Mediterranean and beyond: 1800 – to the present

6058:

Berbers and Blacks: Impressions of Morocco, Timbuktu and the Western Sudan

5510:"Timbuktu's 'Badass Librarians': Checking Out Books Under Al-Qaida's Nose" 5261: 5100: 3163: 3146: 2426: 2165:(WHC) selected parts of Timbuktu's historic centre for inscription on its 795:, a small dune. Hence, Timbuktu would mean "place covered by small dunes". 17: 7714: 7678: 7674: 7591: 7502: 7498: 7432: 7416: 7412: 7342: 7338: 7332: 7328: 7292: 7288: 6992: 6639: 4673:"Timbuktu: Mali's ancient city defies jihadist siege to stage a festival" 2933: 2907: 2768:(1948–2021) a Malian politician, the first female prime minister of Mali. 2723: 2630: 2433: 2265: 2256:

destroyed a shrine in the city and in June 2012, in the aftermath of the

1888:

Perhaps most famous among the accounts written about Timbuktu is that by

1818: 963: 867: 753: 721: 6431:

Researching Africa's Past. New Contributions from British Archaeologists

5108: 4458:"Mali – Islamists Rebels Burn Manuscript Library as They Leave Timbuktu" 2059:, Asseed El Hage Abd Salam Shabeeny. Returning from a trading voyage to 1776:

which were first installed in the 1990s. The irrigated areas are run as

7625: 7386: 7382: 7232: 7228: 7069: 7022: 6982: 5043: 5026: 4218:

Travel Warning US Department of State, Bureau of Consular Affairs: Mali

3680: 2941: 2928: 2902: 2771: 2744:(1556–1627), a Sanhaja Berber writer, scholar and political provocateur 2686: 2682: 2666: 2634: 2430: 1914: 1901: 1893: 1813:

Because of the security concerns, the Malian government moved the 2010

633: 590: 154: 5897:

Route Tombouctou-Goma Coura: un nouveau chantier titanesque est ouvert

5163: 4811:"Three Sites Withdrawn from UNESCO's List of World Heritage in Danger" 4810: 4560: 3948: 3470:, Présidence de la République du Mali, 3 December 2007, archived from 3051:. After being attacked many times by Africans he drowned in the river. 2756:(1910–1981) a politician who was elected to the French Senate in 1948. 1715:, one leaving Timbuktu in early November and the other in late March. 601:

early in the 14th century. In the first half of the 15th century, the

7806: 7767: 7728: 7724: 7698: 7694: 7615: 7452: 7448: 7396: 7272: 7268: 7017: 7012: 6987: 5947:, Embassy of the United States, Mali, 7 February 2009, archived from 5529:"Timbuktu mayor: Mali rebels torched library of historic manuscripts" 5316:"Timbuktu mayor: Mali rebels torched library of historic manuscripts" 4998: 4836: 4750: 3036: 2954: 2803: 2799: 2762:(born 1942) a Moroccan film director, screenwriter and film producer. 2716: 2568: 2462: 2441: 2389: 2329: 2231: 2072: 2037: 1993: 1958: 1954: 1845: 1712: 1037: 1021: 987: 979: 594: 437: 195: 5977:, Millennium Challenge Corporation, 17 November 2006, archived from 875:

system that passes a few kilometers to the east of the modern town.

775:

Berber origin: Malian historian Sekene Cissoko proposes a different

5583:"Mali : les précieux manuscrits de Tombouctou – Jeune Afrique" 5155: 4552: 3940: 3309: 7761: 7585: 7581: 7312: 7308: 7252: 7248: 6997: 5027:"Divine Learning: The Traditional Islamic Scholarship of Timbuktu" 4500:. Vol. II. Fort Worth, TX: Harcourt Brace College Publishing. 3968:

Schéma Directeur d'Urbanisme de la Ville de Tombouctou et Environs

3435:"Islamist Blockade on Timbuktu Stops Food and Aid as Prices Spike" 2915: 2814: 2712: 2658: 2646: 2590: 2501: 2449: 2425: 2351:

Knowledge was gathered in a manner similar to the early, informal

2304: 2152: 2087: 2077: 2056: 2052: 2044: 1989: 1962: 1745: 1697: 973: 667: 655: 586: 241: 4373:"Tuareg rebels declare the independence of Azawad, north of Mali" 950:

On 8 August 2023, Timbuktu was brought under a total blockade by

7195: 5246:"African Bibliophiles: Books and Libraries in Medieval Timbuktu" 5085:"African Bibliophiles: Books and Libraries in Medieval Timbuktu" 4194:, United Kingdom Foreign and Commonwealth Office, archived from 2867:, changing the setting to mid-14th century Timbuktu. It starred 2653:

are now able to reach the port when the river is in full flood.

2515:

funded by independent universities have aimed to preserve them.

872: 562: 330: 7166: 6773: 6663:"A Timbuktu book collector between the Mediterranean and Sahel" 6646: 4867:, Final Decisions of the 33rd Session of the WHC, Seville, 2009 2184:

Criterion IV: Timbuktu's mosques show a cultural and scholarly

7007: 6769: 6607:(PhD). New Haven: Yale University, Department of Anthropology. 5609:"The Brave Sage of Timbuktu: Abdel Kader Haidara | Innovators" 3707:"Myths of Timbuktu: From African El Dorado to Desertification" 2622: 2452:

for wealthy families – imported through the lively booktrade.

1905: 1829: 859: 838:

that have buried the remains over the past centuries. Without

748:(Wall of Butu). Africanus did not explain the meaning of this 5816:, Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, p. 222, 5813:

Political Parties and National Integration in Tropical Africa

4171:(in French), Ministère des affaires étrangères et européennes 3121:

Stamm, Andrea L.; Bastian, Dawn E.; Myers, Robert A. (1998).

1921:

for the next several centuries. Describing Timbuktu when the

1109:

Climate data for Timbuktu (1950–2000, extremes 1897–present)

507: 7362: 5921:

Route Tombouctou-Goma Coura: le chantier advance à grand pas

3752:"World Weather Information Service – Tombouctou (1950–2000)" 3467:

Développement régional: le fleuve est de rétour à Tombouctou

1825:. This was the first terrorist incident in Timbuktu itself. 3383:"In Mali, Timbuktu grapples with resurgent jihadist threat" 3176: 3174: 798:

Abd al-Sadi offers a third explanation in his 17th-century

6681:– contains video footage of Timbuktu's Iron Age occupation 2511:

term climate damage, despite Timbuktu's arid climate. Two

2071:). He and the ship he had been sailing in were brought to 732:

and Heinrich Barth believed the name was derived from two

539: 49: 5066: 5064: 5062: 4945:"Mali Islamist militants 'destroy' Timbuktu saint's tomb" 4446:

Also broadcast BBC World Service news on 29 January 2013.

3310:"Archaeological reconnaissance in the region of Timbuktu" 2625:

on a roughly weekly basis. Also requiring high water are

2601:

is spoken by the most numerous ethnic group in Mali, the

2177:

Criterion II: Timbuktu's holy places were vital to early

850:

Like other important Medieval West African towns such as

495: 486: 5766: 5764: 5129: 4728:"Report of the World Heritage Committee Twelfth Session" 4655: 4653: 4299:"Mali kidnapping: One dead and three seized in Timbuktu" 4221:, US Department of State, 4 October 2011, archived from 3043:

mentions in connexion to a letter of 1798 that explorer

1832:, Timbuktu was captured from the Malian military by the 928:

in 1590 and began to occupy Timbuktu in 1591, after the

696:, used in a letter he wrote in 1447 and also adopted by 6723:

Timbuktu manuscripts: Africa's written history unveiled

6060:. Whitefish, Montana: Kessinger Publishing. p. 10. 5342:"French, Malians retake Timbuktu, rebels torch library" 4898:"Timbuktu shrines damaged by Mali Ansar Dine Islamists" 4541:

The International Journal of African Historical Studies

4416:"French seal off Mali's Timbuktu, rebels torch library" 3593:, West Chester University, Pennsylvania, archived from 3520:, University of New Hampshire/Global Runoff Data Center 3497:, University of New Hampshire/Global Runoff Data Center 3035:

A paper from 1995 says this was "apparently one of the

2665:. The 565 km (351 mi) road will pass through 2036:, a 14-year-old child named Shabeni (or Shabeeny) from 6323:, Paris: Société des études coloniales & maritimes 5446:"Precious history in Timbuktu library saved from fire" 3898:. New York: Oxford University Press, Inc. p. 45. 3832:

Meunier, D. (1980), "Le commerce du sel de Taoudeni",

2828:

series of historical novels, as a physical setting in

1892:, born El Hasan ben Muhammed el- Wazzan-ez-Zayyati in 556: 4892: 4890: 4888: 4628: 4626: 3634:

Canal de Daye à Tombouctou: la sécurité des riverains

3307:

McIntosh, Susan Keech; McIntosh, Roderick J. (1986).

3278: 3276: 3274: 3272: 2722:

Currently (July 2023), Timbuktu Airport is served by

2344:'s strong support led to the writing of thousands of 2215:

Shortly afterwards, the monuments were placed on the

2092:

Reconstruction of the Ben Essayouti Library, Timbuktu

1949:

rarity of one of Timbuktu's trade commodities: salt.

605:

took control for a short period, until the expanding

516: 498: 480: 6039: 6037: 2861:, it is a retelling of Forrest and Wright's musical 814:

forwarded another theory: the name derives from the

577:, having a population of 54,453 in the 2009 census. 504: 492: 483: 7738: 7645: 7542: 7373: 7219: 7134: 7103: 7052: 7031: 6975: 6888: 6852: 6807: 4249:(in French), Le Quotidien de Bamako, archived from 501: 489: 455: 443: 433: 423: 414: 398: 390: 385: 377: 369: 364: 356: 346: 336: 318: 194:, Aerial view of Timbuktu, The market of Timbuktu, 113: 95: 90: 44: 6685:Islamic Manuscripts from Mali, Library of Congress 6669:held at the University of Minnesota in April 2013. 6665:, Video of a presentation given at the conference 6339:A Grammar of Koyra Chiini: the Songhay of Timbuktu 5840: 4114:"Mali says Tuareg rebels abduct group of tourists" 3308: 2813:characterising Timbuktu as "a mass of ill-looking 2204:or cemeteries were selected from the Old Town for 2161:During its twelfth session, in December 1988, the 1768:Although floating rice is still cultivated in the 764:is bâkhtàr باختر = where the sun sets, West), but 6657:. Vol. 26 (11th ed.). pp. 981–983. 6429:, in Mitchell, P.; Haour, A.; Hobart, J. (eds.), 4755:"Advisory Body Evaluation of Timbuktu Nomination" 565:, situated 20 kilometres (12 miles) north of the 228:(until the 13th century) and 13th – 15th century 6511:, Brown, Robert, editor, London: Hakluyt Society 5285:"Reclaiming the Ancient Manuscripts of Timbuktu" 4273:Tombouctou: Le Festival du Désert aura bien lieu 4095:, United Kingdom Foreign and Commonwealth Office 3409:"Mali's ancient city Timbuktu under siege again" 986:Timbuktu is located on the southern edge of the 6718:Timbuktu materials in the Aluka digital library 6459:, London: Longman, Hurst, Rees, Orme, and Brown 6433:, Oxford: Oxbow, pp. 81–88, archived from 4722: 4720: 3778:National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 3637:, Primature: République du Mali, archived from 2726:to and from Bamako, using Boeing 737 aircraft. 2280: 2248:Islamist destruction of Timbuktu heritage sites 2004: 1951: 1927: 1681:Source 2: Meteo Climat (record highs and lows) 6509:The History and Description of Africa (3 Vols) 6152:"Hay-on-Wye toasts its twinning with Timbuktu" 5735:Preservation, Digital Technology & Culture 5701:"Has the Great Library of Timbuktu Been Lost?" 5421:"Has the great library of Timbuktu been lost?" 5218:"Timbuktu Hopes Ancient Texts Spark a Revival" 4966:"Ansar Dine fighters destroy Timbuktu shrines" 4346:"Mali coup leader reinstates old constitution" 3700: 3698: 2711:, hosting flights to and from Bamako, Gao and 2637:or public, that travel up and down the river. 1828:On 1 April 2012, one day after the capture of 63: 7178: 6785: 5889: 5887: 5020: 5018: 5016: 4619:. Madison: University of Wisconsin – Madison. 4478: 4061: 4059: 3861:Timbuktu's ancient salt caravans under threat 3774:"Tomb (Tombouctou) Climate Normals 1961–1990" 3180: 842:, the etymology of Timbuktu remains unclear. 8: 5847:. Melbourne: Lonely Planet Guides. pp. 5834: 5832: 5473:"Historic Timbuktu Texts Saved From Burning" 5001:. UNESCO World Heritage Centre. 25 July 2012 4981:Guled Yusuf and Lucas Bento (31 July 2012). 2582:man, wearing traditional attire, in Timbuktu 2396:is regarded as the city's greatest scholar. 2260:, other shrines, including the mausoleum of 1961:. The king has a rich treasure of coins and 779:: the Tuareg founders of the city gave it a 6396:"The Archaeology of Post Medieval Timbuktu" 4841:World Heritage Convention News & Events 4815:World Heritage Convention News & Events 4580:. Princeton University Press. p. 154. 4069:Tombouctou : le tourisme en desherence 3705:Benjaminsen, Tor A; Berge, Gunnvor (2004). 1004: mi) north of the main channel of the 7185: 7171: 7163: 6792: 6778: 6770: 5070: 5025:Huddleston, Alexandra (1 September 2009). 4877:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher ( 4460:. Reuters (via Africa – News and Analysis) 3711:International Journal of Political Economy 1996:" – although these went largely unheeded. 1105: 1036:, 60 km (37 mi) downstream from 740:. The word itself consisted of two parts: 41: 6570:"Timbuktu and its prehistoric hinterland" 6285: 6241:, Cape Town: HSRC Press, pp. 77–91, 5042: 4745: 4743: 4608: 4606: 4489: 4487: 4400:Azawad: the latest African Border Dilemma 3961: 3959: 3957: 3460: 3458: 3456: 3162: 3140: 3138: 3136: 3134: 3132: 2661:and Timbuktu running to the north of the 2613:With no railroads in Mali except for the 6474:, Cape Town: HSRC Press, pp. 1–17, 5144:Journal of the American Oriental Society 5031:Fourth Genre: Explorations in Nonfiction 3538: 3494:Composite Runoff Fields V 1.0: Koulikoro 3147:"Timbuktu: A Lesson in Underdevelopment" 2573: 589:. It gradually expanded as an important 7201:Communes and towns of Tombouctou Region 6752:Presentation showing images of Timbuktu 6382:(paperback) First published in 1999 as 6070: 5699:Zanganeh, Lila Azam (29 January 2013). 5419:Zanganeh, Lila Azam (29 January 2013). 5203: 4526: 4510: 3881: 3251: 3239: 3064: 3019: 1806:after attending a cultural festival at 397: 384: 376: 363: 355: 317: 282: 248: 206: 126: 112: 89: 5997:Pilot Information for Timbuktu Airport 5496: 5397: 5369: 5182: 4870: 4864:Decision 33COM 7B.45 – Timbuktu (Mali) 4659: 4644: 4632: 4243:Togola, Diakaridia (11 January 2010), 3894:Maynes, Mary Jo; Waltner, Ann (2012). 3570: 3441:from the original on 13 September 2023 3389:from the original on 14 September 2023 3294: 3282: 3263: 3125:. Vol. 207. ABC-CLIO. p. 30. 3123:Mali, The World Bibliographical Series 3070: 3068: 2067:) was "at war with all Muselmen" (see 1702:Azalai salt caravan, mid-December 1985 232:, with the western route running from 6640:Timbuktu – World History Encyclopedia 5770: 4920:"Timbuktu State of Conservation 2023" 3819: 3554: 3196: 2122:The best-known cultural event is the 454: 442: 432: 422: 413: 389: 368: 345: 335: 94: 7: 6691:Green, Jonathan (24 November 2022). 6043: 5894:Coulibaly, Baye (24 November 2010), 4972:(1 June 2012). Retrieved 1 July 2012 4397:Moseley, Walter G. (18 April 2012), 4344:Callimachi, Rukmini (1 April 2012), 3343: 3331: 2506:Manuscripts of the Ahmed Baba Centre 926:Moroccans invaded the Songhai Empire 6743:Timbuktu on Global Heritage Network 6130:"Timbuktu 'twins' make first visit" 5918:Coulibaly, Baye (19 January 2012), 5783:Forma, Aminatta (7 February 2009). 5244:Singleton, Brent D. (Winter 2004). 4320:Sayad, Moulaye (28 November 2011), 4092:Travelling and living abroad: Sahel 3858:Harding, Andrew (3 December 2009), 3754:. World Meteorological Organization 3661:Meteorology and Atmospheric Physics 3517:Composite Runoff Fields V 1.0: Diré 3415:from the original on 2 October 2023 3083:United Cities and Local Governments 2857:, Forrest and Wright and a book by 2169:. The selection was based on three 6299:. New York: Simon & Schuster. 5944:Niono-Goma Coura Road Inauguration 4432:Shamil, Jeppie (29 January 2013). 1859:On 30 March 2013, jihadist rebels 952:Jama'at Nasr al-Islam wal Muslimin 25: 6693:"S2 07 - Timbuktu - a true story" 6189:, New York: Harper & Brothers 5527:Harding, Luke (28 January 2013). 5471:Hinshaw, Drew (1 February 2013). 5340:Diarra, Adama (28 January 2013), 5314:Harding, Luke (28 January 2013), 5216:Polgreen, Lydia (7 August 2007). 4120:. 22 January 2009. Archived from 4066:Sayah, Moulaye (3 October 2011), 3631:Coulibaly, Be (12 January 2011), 3219:(in French). Paris: L'Harmattan. 3151:Journal of World-Systems Research 2845:on March 1, 1978. With lyrics by 2242:Attacks by radical Islamic groups 2024:An Account of Timbuctoo and Hausa 1863:into Timbuktu nine days before a 1674:World Meteorological Organization 882:complex located nine kilometres ( 7194: 6843: 6674:Ancient West Africa's Megacities 6056:Barrows, David Prescott (1927). 5785:"The Lost Libraries of Timbuktu" 5638:Grant, Simon (8 February 2007). 4414:Diarra, Adam (28 January 2013), 4351:The Atlanta Journal-Constitution 4145:Al-Qaeda 'kills British hostage' 3108:education.nationalgeographic.org 2987: 2966: 2953: 2940: 2927: 2914: 2901: 2691:Millennium Challenge Corporation 2217:List of World Heritage in Danger 783:, a word composed of two parts: 476: 323: 275:Location of Timbuktu within Mali 262: 261: 254: 208: 173: 164: 153: 142: 133: 6645:Cana, Frank Richardson (1911). 6559:The Primitive City of Timbuctoo 6424:"Timbuktu the less Mysterious?" 6218:, London: Colburn & Bentley 6115:SCALES OF GOLD | Kirkus Reviews 5615:. 21 April 2014. Archived from 4983:"The 'End Times' for Timbuktu?" 4779:Mali Government (14 May 1979). 4574:Oberg, Barbara B., ed. (2003). 2820:Timbuktu plays a vital role in 2778:fashion designer, known as the 2230:During a session in June 2009, 1800:al-Qaeda in the Islamic Maghreb 39:City in Tombouctou Region, Mali 27:City in Tombouctou Region, Mali 7879:World Heritage Sites in Danger 7844:Communities on the Niger River 6617:, Cambridge University Press, 6000:, Megginson Technologies, 2010 5283:Rainier, Chris (27 May 2003). 4613:Reiser, Melissa Diane (2007). 4434:"Timbuktu Manuscripts Project" 4323:Tombouctou : Sous le Choc 3723:10.1080/08911916.2004.11042915 1079:Intertropical Convergence Zone 575:administrative regions of Mali 373:21 km (8 sq mi) 1: 7839:Communes of Tombouctou Region 6342:, Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, 6020:Search on for Timbuktu's twin 5810:Rosberg, Carl Gustav (1964), 4809:Amelan, Roni (13 July 2005). 3039:towns". A book of letters to 2513:Timbuktu Manuscripts Projects 2367:facilitated 25,000 students: 2069:Russo-Turkish War (1787–1792) 1508:Average rainfall mm (inches) 1083:diurnal temperature variation 1075:Köppen Climate Classification 642:French took over Mali in 1893 218: 7874:World Heritage Sites in Mali 7116:National Park of Upper Niger 7095:River Niger Bridge (Onitsha) 6562:, Princeton University Press 6539:10.1007/978-1-4020-6639-9_13 6453:Jackson, James Grey (1820), 5589:(in French). 21 January 2022 5563:(in French). 28 January 2015 5083:Singleton, Brent D. (2004). 4301:. BBC News. 25 November 2011 3315:National Geographic Research 2353:European Medieval university 760:of Buktu (also same word in 618:defeated the Songhai in 1591 557: 549: 216:trans-Saharan caravan routes 6132:. BBC News. 24 October 2007 6092:Online Etymology Dictionary 6023:, BBC News, 18 October 2006 5640:"Beyond the Saharan Fringe" 3896:The Family: A World History 2766:Cissé Mariam Kaïdama Sidibé 2719:is both lighted and paved. 2551:that also functions as the 2319:astronomy in medieval Islam 1368:Mean daily minimum °C (°F) 1228:Mean daily maximum °C (°F) 962:mission to Mali during the 569:. It is the capital of the 91:Names transcription(s) 7895: 6531:African Cultural Astronomy 5880:, Afribone, 14 August 2006 3620:, Afribone, 14 August 2006 3361:World History Encyclopedia 3145:Pelizzo, Riccardo (2001). 2887:Twin towns – sister cities 2748:Abdul Rahman Ibrahima Sori 2419: 2258:Battle of Gao and Timbuktu 2245: 1872:Early accounts in the West 1680: 1671: 1108: 943: 908: 417:UNESCO World Heritage Site 29: 7864:Regional capitals in Mali 7360: 7207: 6841: 6706:Features interviews with 6586:10.1017/S0003598X00067090 6357:Hunwick, John O. (2003), 6320:Monographie de Tombouctou 6175:Cited and general sources 5404:: CS1 maint: unfit URL ( 5189:: CS1 maint: unfit URL ( 4456:Staff (28 January 2013). 3801:(in French). Meteo Climat 2780:"Magician of the Desert". 2754:Mahamane Alassane Haidara 2699:European Development Fund 2416:Manuscripts and libraries 1976:Descrittione dell' Africa 1941:Descrittione dell' Africa 1900:in 1492. They settled in 1624: 1577: 1507: 1437: 1367: 1297: 1227: 1157: 1152: 1149: 1146: 1143: 1140: 1137: 1134: 1131: 1128: 1125: 1122: 1119: 1116: 1113: 1090:blowing from the Saharan 465: 410: 283: 249: 207: 127: 120: 106: 83: 32:Timbuktu (disambiguation) 6468:The Meanings of Timbuktu 6422:Insoll, Timothy (2004), 6394:Insoll, Timothy (2002), 6277:Timbuctoo the mysterious 6235:The Meanings of Timbuktu 5289:National Geographic News 5177:"University of Timbuktu" 4988:. Retrieved 31 July 2012 4900:. BBC News. 30 June 2012 4736:, Brasilia: UNESCO, 1988 3834:Journal des Africanistes 2923:, Wales (United Kingdom) 2359:. Nowadays known as the 2163:World Heritage Committee 1919:knew about the continent 982:desert, outside Timbuktu 561:) is an ancient city in 381:261 m (856 ft) 6654:Encyclopædia Britannica 6613:Saad, Elias N. (1983), 6295:Hammer, Joshua (2016). 6287:2027/mdp.39015008010343 5863:timbuktu lonely planet. 5839:Pitcher, Gemma (2007). 5477:The Wall Street Journal 5250:Libraries & Culture 5089:Libraries & Culture 4497:Reading About the World 4148:, BBC News, 3 June 2009 2555:. Before the 1990–1994 1981:Reading About the World 1823:kidnapping three others 1676:, NOAA (sun 1961–1990) 832:archaeological research 787:, the feminine form of 768:has nothing to do with 660:Timbuktu looking west, 540: 461:1990–2005; 2012–present 64: 50: 7367: 6729:, 2007–5, pp. 7–9 6601:Park, Douglas (2011). 6568:Park, Douglas (2010), 6556:Miner, Horace (1953), 6409:: 7–22, archived from 6325:. Also available from 6094:. Douglas Harper. 2002 5747:10.1515/pdtc-2015-0012 4947:. BBC News. 6 May 2012 4843:. UNESCO. 10 July 2008 4025:Styger, Erika (2010), 3846:10.3406/jafr.1980.2010 3003:List of cities in Mali 2774:(born 1957) a notable 2742:Ahmad Baba al-Timbukti 2583: 2507: 2445: 2361:University of Timbuktu 2321: 2284: 2158: 2093: 2009: 1986: 1946: 1904:, where he studied in 1815:Festival in the Desert 1751: 1703: 1081:(ITCZ). The degree of 983: 677: 665: 531: 7849:History of the Sahara 7544:Gourma-Rharous Cercle 7366: 7111:Niger Basin Authority 6203:. |internet Archive: 6088:"Entry on 'Timbuktu'" 5262:10.1353/lac.2004.0019 5101:10.1353/lac.2004.0019 4494:Brians, Paul (1998). 4046:"Hotel Hendrina Khan" 3213:Cissoko, S.M (1996). 3164:10.5195/JWSR.2001.166 3104:"A Guide to Timbuktu" 2815:houses built of earth 2796:Description of Africa 2577: 2505: 2486:Mohamed Tahar Library 2474:Mamma Haidara Library 2429: 2394:Ahmad Baba al Massufi 2308: 2246:Further information: 2206:World Heritage status 2156: 2091: 1749: 1701: 977: 728:Songhay origin: both 720:spelling, Timbuktu's 688:(1375), to traveller 671: 659: 609:absorbed it in 1468. 224:. Also shown are the 7152:Ogbaru boat disaster 7126:Kainji National Park 4781:"Nomination No. 119" 4326:(in French), L'Essor 4280:on 24 September 2015 4124:on 28 September 2020 4072:(in French), L'Essor 3799:"Station Tombouctou" 3597:on 27 September 2011 3254:, p. 29 note 4. 2595:Western Christianity 2470:Ahmed Baba Institute 2458:Ahmed Baba Institute 2422:Timbuktu Manuscripts 2412:in the early 1990s. 2311:Timbuktu Manuscripts 2014:James Grey Jackson's 1854:Ahmed Baba Institute 1750:Women pounding grain 1158:Record high °C (°F) 1065:Timbuktu features a 978:A camel ride in the 702:Voyages of Cadamosto 303:16.77583°N 3.00944°W 58:Koyra Chiini Songhay 30:For other uses, see 7147:Kwara boat disaster 7142:Kebbi boat disaster 6860:Source of the Niger 5372:, pp. 235–236. 5352:on 30 November 2018 4225:on 26 November 2011 4007:on 6 September 2011 3933:1987GeoRv..77..328T 3921:Geographical Review 3673:1984AMGBB..33..387A 3587:Jones, Jim (1999), 3201:284 footnote Vol. 3 3008:History of Timbuktu 2615:Dakar-Niger Railway 2492:Boularaf Collection 2293:University of Ghana 2167:World Heritage list 2149:World Heritage Site 2130:, to celebrate the 2065:Catherine the Great 1992:, and covered with 1898:reconquest of Spain 1578:Average rainy days 1438:Record low °C (°F) 1298:Daily mean °C (°F) 1073:) according to the 911:History of Timbuktu 573:, one of the eight 429:Cultural: ii, iv, v 299: / 188:Djinguereber Mosque 7368: 6737:The UNESCO Courier 6727:The UNESCO Courier 6701:ABC Radio National 6580:(326): 1076–1088, 6315:Hacquard, Augustin 5223:The New York Times 5130:Medupe et al. 2008 5044:10.1353/fge.0.0080 4986:The New York Times 4679:. 19 December 2023 4479:Leo Africanus 1896 4354:, Associated Press 4191:Mali travel advice 3681:10.1007/BF02274004 3437:. 28 August 2023. 3181:Leo Africanus 1896 2853:, set to music by 2786:In popular culture 2717:runway orientation 2663:Inland Niger Delta 2584: 2508: 2446: 2322: 2317:and a heritage of 2301:Centre of learning 2295:inauguration, 1961 2159: 2128:Festival au Désert 2124:Festival au Désert 2094: 2055:and thus became a 1798:Starting in 2008, 1774:Archimedes' screws 1752: 1704: 1067:hot desert climate 984: 678: 672:View of Timbuktu, 666: 634:Islamic university 391: • Total 308:16.77583; -3.00944 7816: 7815: 7160: 7159: 6870:Inner Niger Delta 6765:on 14 April 2013. 6708:Cynthia Schneider 6696:(audio (30 mins)) 6624:978-0-521-24603-3 6548:978-1-4020-6639-9 6481:978-0-7969-2204-5 6380:978-90-04-12822-4 6370:978-90-04-12560-5 6363:, Leiden: Brill, 6306:978-1-4767-7743-6 6248:978-0-7969-2204-5 6158:. 7 February 2007 5452:. 2 February 2013 4705:. 2 February 2021 4703:sahelien.com | EN 4587:978-0-691-09498-4 4198:on 4 October 2009 3822:, p. 68 n27. 3474:on 1 October 2011 3363:. Mark Cartwright 3226:978-2-7384-4384-7 3014:Explanatory notes 2760:Souheil Ben-Barka 2640:Both ferries and 2629:(large motorized 2221:Malian government 1913:, who freed him, 1804:Mali–Niger border 1685: 1684: 1094:southward to the 1030:Inner Niger Delta 946:Siege of Timbuktu 940:Siege of Timbuktu 930:Battle of Tondibi 571:Tombouctou Region 555: 469: 468: 370: • Land 341:Tombouctou Region 214:Map showing main 16:(Redirected from 7886: 7665:Banikane Narhawa 7263:Bourem Sidi Amar 7259:Bourem Sidi Amar 7199: 7198: 7187: 7180: 7173: 7164: 7060:King Fahd Bridge 7053:Dams and bridges 6847: 6794: 6787: 6780: 6771: 6766: 6705: 6704:. Return Ticket. 6697: 6675: 6658: 6650: 6648:"Timbuktu" 6627: 6608: 6596: 6563: 6552: 6512: 6499: 6498: 6496: 6491:on 24 April 2021 6490: 6484:, archived from 6473: 6460: 6448: 6447: 6445: 6439: 6428: 6417: 6415: 6400: 6373: 6352: 6324: 6310: 6290: 6289: 6266: 6265: 6263: 6258:on 24 April 2021 6257: 6251:, archived from 6240: 6220:. Google books: 6219: 6191:. Google books: 6190: 6168: 6167: 6165: 6163: 6148: 6142: 6141: 6139: 6137: 6126: 6120: 6119: 6110: 6104: 6103: 6101: 6099: 6084: 6078: 6068: 6062: 6061: 6053: 6047: 6041: 6032: 6031: 6030: 6028: 6015: 6009: 6008: 6007: 6005: 5992: 5986: 5985: 5984:on 25 March 2012 5983: 5976: 5966: 5960: 5959: 5958: 5956: 5939: 5933: 5932: 5931: 5929: 5915: 5909: 5908: 5907: 5905: 5891: 5882: 5881: 5872: 5866: 5865: 5846: 5836: 5827: 5826: 5807: 5801: 5800: 5798: 5796: 5789:The Sunday Times 5780: 5774: 5768: 5759: 5758: 5730: 5724: 5723: 5721: 5719: 5696: 5690: 5689: 5687: 5685: 5665:Walt, Vivienne. 5662: 5656: 5655: 5653: 5651: 5635: 5629: 5628: 5626: 5624: 5619:on 18 March 2021 5605: 5599: 5598: 5596: 5594: 5587:JeuneAfrique.com 5579: 5573: 5572: 5570: 5568: 5553: 5547: 5546: 5544: 5542: 5524: 5518: 5517: 5506: 5500: 5494: 5488: 5487: 5485: 5483: 5468: 5462: 5461: 5459: 5457: 5450:The History Blog 5442: 5436: 5435: 5433: 5431: 5416: 5410: 5409: 5403: 5395: 5394: 5392: 5379: 5373: 5367: 5361: 5360: 5359: 5357: 5348:, archived from 5337: 5331: 5330: 5329: 5327: 5311: 5305: 5304: 5302: 5300: 5295:on 3 August 2003 5291:. 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4996: 4992: 4980: 4976: 4964: 4960: 4950: 4948: 4943: 4942: 4938: 4928: 4926: 4918: 4917: 4913: 4903: 4901: 4896: 4895: 4886: 4869: 4861: 4860: 4856: 4846: 4844: 4835: 4834: 4830: 4820: 4818: 4808: 4807: 4803: 4793: 4791: 4783: 4778: 4777: 4773: 4763: 4761: 4757: 4753:(14 May 1979). 4749: 4748: 4741: 4726: 4725: 4718: 4708: 4706: 4697: 4696: 4692: 4682: 4680: 4671: 4670: 4666: 4658: 4651: 4643: 4639: 4631: 4624: 4612: 4611: 4604: 4599: 4595: 4588: 4573: 4572: 4568: 4538: 4537: 4533: 4525: 4521: 4509: 4505: 4493: 4492: 4485: 4477: 4473: 4463: 4461: 4455: 4454: 4450: 4439: 4437: 4431: 4430: 4426: 4413: 4412: 4408: 4396: 4395: 4391: 4382: 4380: 4371: 4370: 4366: 4357: 4355: 4343: 4342: 4338: 4329: 4327: 4319: 4318: 4314: 4304: 4302: 4297: 4296: 4292: 4283: 4281: 4270: 4269: 4265: 4256: 4254: 4242: 4241: 4237: 4228: 4226: 4215: 4214: 4210: 4201: 4199: 4188: 4187: 4183: 4174: 4172: 4165: 4164: 4160: 4151: 4149: 4142: 4141: 4137: 4127: 4125: 4112: 4111: 4107: 4098: 4096: 4089: 4088: 4084: 4075: 4073: 4065: 4064: 4057: 4044: 4043: 4039: 4031: 4024: 4023: 4019: 4010: 4008: 4004: 3997: 3991: 3990: 3986: 3978: 3971: 3965: 3964: 3955: 3918: 3917: 3913: 3906: 3893: 3892: 3888: 3880: 3876: 3867: 3865: 3857: 3856: 3852: 3831: 3830: 3826: 3818: 3814: 3804: 3802: 3797: 3796: 3792: 3782: 3780: 3772: 3771: 3767: 3757: 3755: 3750: 3749: 3745: 3735: 3733: 3704: 3703: 3696: 3658: 3657: 3653: 3644: 3642: 3641:on 24 July 2011 3630: 3629: 3625: 3614: 3613: 3609: 3600: 3598: 3586: 3585: 3581: 3569: 3565: 3553: 3549: 3537: 3533: 3523: 3521: 3514: 3513: 3509: 3500: 3498: 3491: 3490: 3486: 3477: 3475: 3464: 3463: 3454: 3444: 3442: 3433: 3432: 3428: 3418: 3416: 3407: 3406: 3402: 3392: 3390: 3381: 3380: 3376: 3366: 3364: 3355: 3354: 3350: 3342: 3338: 3330: 3326: 3306: 3305: 3301: 3293: 3289: 3281: 3270: 3262: 3258: 3250: 3246: 3238: 3234: 3227: 3212: 3211: 3207: 3195: 3191: 3179: 3172: 3144: 3143: 3130: 3120: 3119: 3115: 3102: 3101: 3097: 3087: 3085: 3078: 3074: 3073: 3066: 3061: 3056: 3055: 3034: 3030: 3025: 3021: 3016: 2993: 2988: 2986: 2983: 2978: 2975:, United States 2965: 2952: 2939: 2926: 2913: 2900: 2889: 2822:Dorothy Dunnett 2788: 2736:Ali Farka Toure 2732: 2695:Office du Niger 2611: 2537: 2528: 2489:Maigala Library 2424: 2418: 2313:, showing both 2303: 2298: 2286: 2278: 2250: 2244: 2225:cultural centre 2151: 2120: 2118:Cultural events 2099: 2086: 2029: 2016: 2011: 2002: 1985: 1969: 1945: 1934: 1886: 1874: 1865:suicide bombing 1796: 1787: 1770:Timbuktu Cercle 1744: 1696: 1691: 1686: 1579: 1572: 1567: 1562: 1557: 1552: 1547: 1542: 1537: 1532: 1527: 1522: 1517: 1512: 1502: 1497: 1492: 1487: 1482: 1477: 1472: 1467: 1462: 1457: 1452: 1447: 1442: 1432: 1427: 1422: 1417: 1412: 1407: 1402: 1397: 1392: 1387: 1382: 1377: 1372: 1362: 1357: 1352: 1347: 1342: 1337: 1332: 1327: 1322: 1317: 1312: 1307: 1302: 1292: 1287: 1282: 1277: 1272: 1267: 1262: 1257: 1252: 1247: 1242: 1237: 1232: 1222: 1217: 1212: 1207: 1202: 1197: 1192: 1187: 1182: 1177: 1172: 1167: 1162: 1063: 1000: 996: 993: 991: 972: 948: 942: 913: 907: 898:Yale University 892: 888: 885: 883: 848: 801:Tarikh al-Sudan 791:(place of) and 654: 521: 517: 479: 475: 419: 360:5th century BCE 351:Timbuktu Cercle 324: 322: 307: 305: 301: 298: 293: 290: 288: 286: 285: 279: 278: 277: 276: 273: 272: 271: 270: 266: 245: 221: 203: 182: 181: 180: 179: 178: 170: 169: 160: 159: 158: 149: 148: 147: 139: 138: 105: 102: 86: 79: 76: 69: 62: 55: 47: 40: 35: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 7892: 7890: 7882: 7881: 7876: 7871: 7869:Songhai Empire 7866: 7861: 7859:Massina Empire 7856: 7851: 7846: 7841: 7836: 7834:Ancient cities 7831: 7821: 7820: 7814: 7813: 7811: 7810: 7800: 7795: 7785: 7775: 7765: 7755: 7744: 7742: 7736: 7735: 7733: 7732: 7722: 7712: 7702: 7692: 7682: 7672: 7662: 7651: 7649: 7643: 7642: 7640: 7639: 7629: 7619: 7609: 7599: 7589: 7579: 7569: 7566:Bambara Maoudé 7562:Bambara Maoudé 7559: 7556:Gourma-Rharous 7552:Gourma-Rharous 7548: 7546: 7540: 7539: 7537: 7536: 7526: 7516: 7506: 7496: 7486: 7476: 7466: 7456: 7446: 7436: 7430: 7420: 7410: 7400: 7390: 7379: 7377: 7375:Goundam Cercle 7371: 7370: 7361: 7359: 7357: 7356: 7346: 7336: 7326: 7316: 7306: 7296: 7286: 7276: 7266: 7256: 7246: 7236: 7225: 7223: 7217: 7216: 7208: 7205: 7204: 7192: 7190: 7189: 7182: 7175: 7167: 7158: 7157: 7155: 7154: 7149: 7144: 7138: 7136: 7132: 7131: 7129: 7128: 7123: 7118: 7113: 7107: 7105: 7101: 7100: 7098: 7097: 7092: 7087: 7082: 7077: 7072: 7067: 7065:Martyrs Bridge 7062: 7056: 7054: 7050: 7049: 7047: 7046: 7041: 7035: 7033: 7029: 7028: 7026: 7025: 7020: 7015: 7010: 7005: 7000: 6995: 6990: 6985: 6979: 6977: 6973: 6972: 6970: 6969: 6964: 6959: 6957:Forcados River 6954: 6949: 6944: 6939: 6934: 6929: 6924: 6919: 6914: 6909: 6904: 6902:Tinkisso River 6898: 6896: 6895:distributaries 6886: 6885: 6883: 6882: 6877: 6872: 6867: 6862: 6856: 6854: 6850: 6849: 6842: 6840: 6838: 6837: 6832: 6827: 6822: 6817: 6811: 6809: 6805: 6804: 6799: 6797: 6796: 6789: 6782: 6774: 6768: 6767: 6754: 6749: 6740: 6739:, October 1959 6730: 6720: 6715: 6688: 6682: 6670: 6659: 6642: 6635: 6634:External links 6632: 6630: 6629: 6623: 6610: 6598: 6565: 6553: 6547: 6525: 6501: 6480: 6462: 6450: 6419: 6391: 6369: 6354: 6348: 6334:Heath, Jeffrey 6330: 6311: 6305: 6292: 6268: 6247: 6229: 6208: 6178: 6176: 6173: 6170: 6169: 6143: 6121: 6105: 6079: 6063: 6048: 6033: 6010: 5987: 5961: 5951:on 14 May 2011 5934: 5910: 5883: 5867: 5857: 5828: 5822: 5802: 5775: 5760: 5725: 5705:The New Yorker 5691: 5657: 5630: 5600: 5574: 5561:United Nations 5548: 5519: 5501: 5489: 5463: 5437: 5425:The New Yorker 5411: 5374: 5362: 5332: 5306: 5275: 5236: 5208: 5196: 5168: 5156:10.2307/604423 5134: 5132:, p. 179. 5122: 5075: 5058: 5037:(2): 129–135. 5012: 4990: 4974: 4958: 4936: 4911: 4884: 4854: 4828: 4801: 4771: 4739: 4716: 4690: 4664: 4662:, p. 228. 4649: 4647:, p. 133. 4637: 4622: 4602: 4593: 4586: 4566: 4553:10.2307/221615 4547:(2): 261–293. 4531: 4519: 4503: 4483: 4471: 4448: 4424: 4406: 4389: 4379:, 6 April 2012 4364: 4336: 4312: 4290: 4263: 4235: 4208: 4181: 4168:Mali: Securite 4158: 4135: 4105: 4082: 4055: 4037: 4017: 3984: 3953: 3941:10.2307/214124 3927:(3): 328–342, 3911: 3904: 3886: 3874: 3850: 3840:(2): 133–144, 3824: 3812: 3790: 3765: 3743: 3694: 3667:(4): 387–404. 3651: 3623: 3607: 3579: 3563: 3559:Vol. 3, p. 324 3547: 3531: 3507: 3484: 3452: 3426: 3400: 3374: 3348: 3336: 3324: 3299: 3287: 3268: 3256: 3244: 3232: 3225: 3205: 3189: 3170: 3157:(2): 265–283. 3128: 3113: 3095: 3063: 3062: 3060: 3057: 3054: 3053: 3028: 3018: 3017: 3015: 3012: 3011: 3010: 3005: 2999: 2998: 2982: 2979: 2977: 2976: 2963: 2950: 2937: 2924: 2911: 2897: 2888: 2885: 2847:George Forrest 2830:Scales of Gold 2787: 2784: 2783: 2782: 2769: 2763: 2757: 2751: 2745: 2739: 2731: 2730:Notable people 2728: 2707:was served by 2610: 2609:Infrastructure 2607: 2603:Bambara people 2536: 2533: 2525:The New Yorker 2500: 2499: 2493: 2490: 2487: 2484: 2478: 2475: 2472: 2420:Main article: 2417: 2414: 2342:Askia Mohammed 2302: 2299: 2279: 2277: 2274: 2243: 2240: 2197: 2196: 2193: 2190:Songhai Empire 2182: 2150: 2147: 2119: 2116: 2098: 2095: 2085: 2082: 2003: 2001: 1998: 1967: 1932: 1923:Songhai Empire 1885: 1882: 1873: 1870: 1808:Anderamboukané 1795: 1792: 1786: 1783: 1743: 1740: 1695: 1692: 1690: 1687: 1683: 1682: 1678: 1677: 1669: 1668: 1665: 1662: 1659: 1656: 1653: 1650: 1647: 1644: 1641: 1638: 1635: 1632: 1629: 1627:sunshine hours 1622: 1621: 1618: 1615: 1612: 1609: 1606: 1603: 1600: 1597: 1594: 1591: 1588: 1585: 1582: 1575: 1574: 1569: 1564: 1559: 1554: 1549: 1544: 1539: 1534: 1529: 1524: 1519: 1514: 1509: 1505: 1504: 1499: 1494: 1489: 1484: 1479: 1474: 1469: 1464: 1459: 1454: 1449: 1444: 1439: 1435: 1434: 1429: 1424: 1419: 1414: 1409: 1404: 1399: 1394: 1389: 1384: 1379: 1374: 1369: 1365: 1364: 1359: 1354: 1349: 1344: 1339: 1334: 1329: 1324: 1319: 1314: 1309: 1304: 1299: 1295: 1294: 1289: 1284: 1279: 1274: 1269: 1264: 1259: 1254: 1249: 1244: 1239: 1234: 1229: 1225: 1224: 1219: 1214: 1209: 1204: 1199: 1194: 1189: 1184: 1179: 1174: 1169: 1164: 1159: 1155: 1154: 1151: 1148: 1145: 1142: 1139: 1136: 1133: 1130: 1127: 1124: 1121: 1118: 1115: 1111: 1110: 1104: 1096:Gulf of Guinea 1092:Tibesti Region 1062: 1059: 1046:Heinrich Barth 971: 968: 960:United Nations 941: 938: 909:Main article: 906: 903: 847: 844: 836:metres of sand 828: 827: 805: 796: 773: 738:Mansa Sulayman 706:Heinrich Barth 674:Heinrich Barth 653: 650: 607:Songhai Empire 467: 466: 463: 462: 459: 453: 452: 445: 441: 440: 435: 431: 430: 427: 421: 420: 415: 412: 411: 408: 407: 402: 396: 395: 392: 388: 387: 383: 382: 379: 375: 374: 371: 367: 366: 362: 361: 358: 354: 353: 348: 344: 343: 338: 334: 333: 320: 316: 315: 281: 280: 274: 268: 267: 260: 259: 253: 252: 251: 250: 247: 246: 240:. Present day 213: 205: 204: 185:Left to right: 183: 172: 171: 163: 162: 161: 152: 151: 150: 141: 140: 132: 131: 130: 129: 128: 125: 124: 118: 111: 110: 100: 93: 92: 88: 87: 84: 81: 80: 77: 48: 45: 38: 26: 24: 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 7891: 7880: 7877: 7875: 7872: 7870: 7867: 7865: 7862: 7860: 7857: 7855: 7852: 7850: 7847: 7845: 7842: 7840: 7837: 7835: 7832: 7830: 7827: 7826: 7824: 7808: 7804: 7801: 7799: 7796: 7793: 7789: 7786: 7783: 7779: 7776: 7773: 7769: 7766: 7763: 7759: 7756: 7753: 7749: 7746: 7745: 7743: 7741: 7737: 7730: 7726: 7723: 7720: 7716: 7713: 7710: 7706: 7703: 7700: 7696: 7693: 7690: 7686: 7683: 7680: 7676: 7673: 7670: 7666: 7663: 7660: 7656: 7653: 7652: 7650: 7648: 7644: 7637: 7633: 7630: 7627: 7623: 7620: 7617: 7613: 7610: 7607: 7603: 7600: 7597: 7593: 7590: 7587: 7583: 7580: 7577: 7573: 7570: 7567: 7563: 7560: 7557: 7553: 7550: 7549: 7547: 7545: 7541: 7534: 7530: 7527: 7524: 7520: 7517: 7514: 7510: 7507: 7504: 7500: 7497: 7494: 7490: 7487: 7484: 7480: 7477: 7474: 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6950: 6948: 6945: 6943: 6940: 6938: 6935: 6933: 6930: 6928: 6927:Alibori River 6925: 6923: 6920: 6918: 6915: 6913: 6910: 6908: 6905: 6903: 6900: 6899: 6897: 6892: 6889:Tributaries ( 6887: 6881: 6878: 6876: 6873: 6871: 6868: 6866: 6863: 6861: 6858: 6857: 6855: 6851: 6846: 6836: 6833: 6831: 6828: 6826: 6823: 6821: 6818: 6816: 6813: 6812: 6810: 6806: 6802: 6795: 6790: 6788: 6783: 6781: 6776: 6775: 6772: 6764: 6760: 6757:ArchNet.org. 6755: 6753: 6750: 6748: 6744: 6741: 6738: 6734: 6731: 6728: 6724: 6721: 6719: 6716: 6713: 6709: 6703: 6702: 6694: 6689: 6686: 6683: 6680: 6676: 6671: 6668: 6664: 6660: 6656: 6655: 6649: 6643: 6641: 6638: 6637: 6633: 6626: 6620: 6616: 6611: 6606: 6605: 6599: 6595: 6591: 6587: 6583: 6579: 6575: 6571: 6566: 6561: 6560: 6554: 6550: 6544: 6540: 6536: 6532: 6526: 6524: 6520: 6516: 6510: 6506: 6505:Leo Africanus 6502: 6487: 6483: 6477: 6470: 6469: 6463: 6458: 6457: 6451: 6436: 6432: 6425: 6420: 6412: 6408: 6404: 6397: 6392: 6389: 6388:90-04-11207-3 6385: 6381: 6377: 6372: 6366: 6362: 6361: 6355: 6351: 6349:9783110162851 6345: 6341: 6340: 6335: 6331: 6328: 6322: 6321: 6316: 6312: 6308: 6302: 6298: 6293: 6288: 6283: 6279: 6278: 6273: 6272:Dubois, Felix 6269: 6254: 6250: 6244: 6237: 6236: 6230: 6227: 6223: 6217: 6213: 6212:Caillié, Réné 6209: 6206: 6202: 6198: 6194: 6188: 6184: 6180: 6179: 6174: 6157: 6153: 6147: 6144: 6131: 6125: 6122: 6117: 6116: 6109: 6106: 6093: 6089: 6083: 6080: 6076: 6072: 6067: 6064: 6059: 6052: 6049: 6045: 6040: 6038: 6034: 6022: 6021: 6014: 6011: 5999: 5998: 5991: 5988: 5980: 5973: 5972: 5965: 5962: 5950: 5946: 5945: 5938: 5935: 5923: 5922: 5914: 5911: 5899: 5898: 5890: 5888: 5884: 5879: 5878: 5871: 5868: 5864: 5860: 5858:9781741044829 5854: 5850: 5845: 5844: 5835: 5833: 5829: 5825: 5823:9780520002531 5819: 5815: 5814: 5806: 5803: 5790: 5786: 5779: 5776: 5772: 5767: 5765: 5761: 5756: 5752: 5748: 5744: 5740: 5736: 5729: 5726: 5714: 5710: 5706: 5702: 5695: 5692: 5680: 5676: 5672: 5668: 5661: 5658: 5645: 5641: 5634: 5631: 5618: 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3901: 3897: 3890: 3887: 3883: 3878: 3875: 3863: 3862: 3854: 3851: 3847: 3843: 3839: 3836:(in French), 3835: 3828: 3825: 3821: 3816: 3813: 3800: 3794: 3791: 3779: 3775: 3769: 3766: 3753: 3747: 3744: 3732: 3728: 3724: 3720: 3716: 3712: 3708: 3701: 3699: 3695: 3690: 3686: 3682: 3678: 3674: 3670: 3666: 3662: 3655: 3652: 3640: 3636: 3635: 3627: 3624: 3619: 3618: 3611: 3608: 3596: 3592: 3591: 3583: 3580: 3576: 3572: 3567: 3564: 3560: 3556: 3551: 3548: 3544: 3540: 3539:Hacquard 1900 3535: 3532: 3519: 3518: 3511: 3508: 3496: 3495: 3488: 3485: 3473: 3469: 3468: 3461: 3459: 3457: 3453: 3440: 3436: 3430: 3427: 3414: 3410: 3404: 3401: 3388: 3384: 3378: 3375: 3362: 3358: 3352: 3349: 3345: 3340: 3337: 3333: 3328: 3325: 3320: 3316: 3311: 3303: 3300: 3296: 3291: 3288: 3284: 3279: 3277: 3275: 3273: 3269: 3265: 3260: 3257: 3253: 3248: 3245: 3242:, p. 29. 3241: 3236: 3233: 3228: 3222: 3218: 3217: 3209: 3206: 3202: 3198: 3193: 3190: 3186: 3182: 3177: 3175: 3171: 3165: 3160: 3156: 3152: 3148: 3141: 3139: 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1912: 1907: 1903: 1899: 1895: 1891: 1890:Leo Africanus 1884:Leo Africanus 1883: 1881: 1880:and Shabeni. 1879: 1878:Leo Africanus 1871: 1869: 1866: 1862: 1857: 1855: 1849: 1847: 1843: 1839: 1835: 1834:Tuareg rebels 1831: 1826: 1824: 1820: 1816: 1811: 1809: 1805: 1801: 1793: 1791: 1784: 1782: 1779: 1775: 1771: 1766: 1762: 1760: 1759: 1748: 1741: 1739: 1737: 1733: 1729: 1725: 1720: 1716: 1714: 1710: 1700: 1693: 1688: 1679: 1675: 1670: 1666: 1663: 1660: 1657: 1654: 1651: 1648: 1645: 1642: 1639: 1636: 1633: 1630: 1628: 1625:Mean monthly 1623: 1619: 1616: 1613: 1610: 1607: 1604: 1601: 1598: 1595: 1592: 1589: 1586: 1583: 1576: 1570: 1565: 1560: 1555: 1550: 1545: 1540: 1535: 1530: 1525: 1520: 1515: 1510: 1506: 1500: 1495: 1490: 1485: 1480: 1475: 1470: 1465: 1460: 1455: 1450: 1445: 1440: 1436: 1430: 1425: 1420: 1415: 1410: 1405: 1400: 1395: 1390: 1385: 1380: 1375: 1370: 1366: 1360: 1355: 1350: 1345: 1340: 1335: 1330: 1325: 1320: 1315: 1310: 1305: 1300: 1296: 1290: 1285: 1280: 1275: 1270: 1265: 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436: 428: 426: 418: 409: 406: 403: 401: 393: 380: 372: 359: 352: 349: 342: 339: 332: 321: 312: 284:Coordinates: 257: 243: 239: 235: 231: 227: 217: 211: 201: 197: 193: 189: 186: 176: 167: 156: 145: 136: 119: 117: 114: • 101: 99: 96: • 82: 73: 66: 59: 52: 43: 37: 33: 19: 7792:Bourem-Inaly 7788:Bourem-Inaly 7751: 7606:Inadiatafane 7602:Inadiatafane 7407:Bintagoungou 7403:Bintagoungou 7349:Tinguereguif 7212: 7209: 7002: 6942:Kaduna River 6932:Sokoto River 6922:Mekrou River 6865:Middle Niger 6763:the original 6746: 6736: 6726: 6699: 6666: 6652: 6614: 6603: 6577: 6573: 6558: 6530: 6508: 6493:, retrieved 6486:the original 6467: 6455: 6442:, retrieved 6435:the original 6430: 6411:the original 6406: 6402: 6359: 6338: 6319: 6296: 6276: 6260:, retrieved 6253:the original 6234: 6215: 6186: 6160:. Retrieved 6156:the Guardian 6155: 6146: 6134:. Retrieved 6124: 6114: 6108: 6098:17 September 6096:. Retrieved 6091: 6082: 6071:Caillié 1830 6066: 6057: 6051: 6025:, retrieved 6019: 6013: 6002:, retrieved 5996: 5990: 5979:the original 5971:Mali Compact 5970: 5964: 5953:, retrieved 5949:the original 5943: 5937: 5926:, retrieved 5920: 5913: 5902:, retrieved 5896: 5876: 5870: 5862: 5842: 5812: 5805: 5793:. Retrieved 5788: 5778: 5741:(2): 69–77. 5738: 5734: 5728: 5716:. Retrieved 5704: 5694: 5682:. Retrieved 5670: 5660: 5648:. Retrieved 5644:The Guardian 5643: 5633: 5623:25 September 5621:. Retrieved 5617:the original 5612: 5603: 5593:25 September 5591:. Retrieved 5586: 5577: 5567:25 September 5565:. Retrieved 5560: 5551: 5539:. Retrieved 5534:The Guardian 5532: 5522: 5513: 5504: 5492: 5480:. Retrieved 5476: 5466: 5454:. Retrieved 5449: 5440: 5428:. Retrieved 5424: 5414: 5389:, retrieved 5383: 5377: 5365: 5354:, retrieved 5350:the original 5345: 5335: 5324:, retrieved 5320:The Guardian 5319: 5309: 5297:. Retrieved 5293:the original 5288: 5278: 5253: 5249: 5239: 5227:. Retrieved 5221: 5211: 5204:Hunwick 2003 5199: 5171: 5147: 5143: 5137: 5125: 5092: 5088: 5078: 5034: 5030: 5003:. Retrieved 4993: 4985: 4977: 4969: 4961: 4949:. Retrieved 4939: 4927:. Retrieved 4923: 4914: 4902:. Retrieved 4863: 4857: 4845:. Retrieved 4840: 4831: 4819:. Retrieved 4814: 4804: 4792:. Retrieved 4787: 4774: 4762:. Retrieved 4732: 4707:. Retrieved 4702: 4693: 4681:. Retrieved 4676: 4667: 4640: 4615: 4596: 4576: 4569: 4544: 4540: 4534: 4527:Jackson 1820 4522: 4511:Jackson 1820 4506: 4496: 4474: 4462:. Retrieved 4451: 4438:. Retrieved 4427: 4419: 4409: 4403:, Al Jazeera 4399: 4392: 4381:, retrieved 4376: 4367: 4356:, retrieved 4349: 4339: 4328:, retrieved 4322: 4315: 4303:. Retrieved 4293: 4282:, retrieved 4278:the original 4272: 4266: 4255:, retrieved 4251:the original 4245: 4238: 4227:, retrieved 4223:the original 4217: 4211: 4200:, retrieved 4196:the original 4190: 4184: 4173:, retrieved 4167: 4161: 4150:, retrieved 4144: 4138: 4126:. Retrieved 4122:the original 4117: 4108: 4097:, retrieved 4091: 4085: 4074:, retrieved 4068: 4049: 4040: 4027: 4020: 4009:, retrieved 4002:the original 3993: 3987: 3976:the original 3967: 3924: 3920: 3914: 3895: 3889: 3882:Hunwick 2003 3877: 3866:, retrieved 3860: 3853: 3837: 3833: 3827: 3815: 3803:. Retrieved 3793: 3781:. Retrieved 3768: 3756:. Retrieved 3746: 3736:14 September 3734:. Retrieved 3717:(1): 31–59. 3714: 3710: 3664: 3660: 3654: 3643:, retrieved 3639:the original 3633: 3626: 3616: 3610: 3599:, retrieved 3595:the original 3589: 3582: 3566: 3550: 3534: 3522:, retrieved 3516: 3510: 3499:, retrieved 3493: 3487: 3476:, retrieved 3472:the original 3466: 3445:14 September 3443:. Retrieved 3429: 3419:14 September 3417:. Retrieved 3403: 3393:14 September 3391:. Retrieved 3377: 3365:. Retrieved 3360: 3351: 3339: 3327: 3318: 3314: 3302: 3290: 3266:, p. 9. 3259: 3252:Hunwick 2003 3247: 3240:Hunwick 2003 3235: 3215: 3208: 3192: 3154: 3150: 3122: 3116: 3107: 3098: 3086:. Retrieved 3031: 3022: 2891:Timbuktu is 2890: 2862: 2859:Luther Davis 2836: 2835:The musical 2834: 2829: 2819: 2811:René Caillié 2808: 2795: 2793: 2789: 2779: 2721: 2703: 2655: 2650: 2641: 2639: 2626: 2612: 2585: 2545:Koyra Chiini 2538: 2524: 2519: 2517: 2509: 2454: 2447: 2440:, an ethnic 2438:Kuntua tribe 2406: 2398: 2381: 2369:Djinguereber 2364: 2350: 2340:and emperor 2327: 2323: 2285: 2281: 2270:sin in Islam 2262:Sidi Mahmoud 2251: 2237: 2229: 2214: 2198: 2179:Islamization 2160: 2144: 2136: 2132:peace treaty 2121: 2112: 2108: 2104: 2100: 2050: 2042: 2030: 2023: 2010: 2005: 1987: 1980: 1974: 1952: 1947: 1939: 1928: 1887: 1875: 1858: 1850: 1827: 1812: 1797: 1788: 1778:cooperatives 1767: 1763: 1756: 1753: 1721: 1717: 1705: 1070: 1064: 1055: 1050:Félix Dubois 1048:in 1857 and 1042: 1015: 990:15 km ( 985: 949: 934: 922: 918: 914: 878:An Iron Age 877: 849: 829: 823: 819: 799: 792: 788: 784: 769: 765: 757: 749: 745: 741: 718: 713: 709: 701: 693: 681: 679: 662:René Caillié 646: 611: 593:city on the 579: 536:Koyra Chiini 471: 470: 226:Ghana Empire 184: 116:Koyra Chiini 107:تِينْ بُكْتْ 36: 7854:Mali Empire 7443:Toucabangou 7221:Diré Cercle 7070:Markala Dam 7039:Kainji Lake 6967:Brass River 6947:Benue River 6880:Niger Delta 6875:Lower Niger 6801:Niger River 6712:Manny Ansar 6495:26 February 6027:22 November 6004:18 February 5795:15 February 5499:, p. . 5497:Hammer 2016 5482:27 February 5456:27 February 5430:27 February 5391:27 February 5370:Hammer 2016 5356:27 February 5326:27 February 5095:(1): 1–12. 4929:21 February 4847:22 February 4821:22 February 4794:22 February 4764:22 February 4709:19 December 4683:19 December 4660:Hammer 2016 4645:Hammer 2016 4633:Jeppie 2008 4305:28 November 4284:25 December 4257:25 December 4229:28 November 4202:28 November 4175:28 November 4076:28 November 4050:Tripadvisor 3884:, p. . 3758:14 February 3571:Dubois 1896 3295:Insoll 2002 3283:Insoll 2004 3264:Insoll 2002 3049:Niger River 2995:Mali portal 2881:Melba Moore 2869:Eartha Kitt 2597:. Although 2563:Arabic and 2498:Collections 2390:Islamic law 2346:manuscripts 2315:mathematics 2188:during the 2097:The mosques 2017: [ 1963:gold ingots 1861:infiltrated 1742:Agriculture 1026:Ivory Coast 1006:River Niger 812:René Basset 809:Orientalist 807:The French 781:Berber name 744:(wall) and 599:Mali Empire 567:Niger River 447:1988 (12th 444:Inscription 306: / 230:Mali Empire 222: 1400 7823:Categories 7752:Tombouctou 7748:Tombouctou 7435:(Gargando) 7427:Adarmalane 7423:Adarmalane 7283:Garbakoïra 7279:Garbakoïra 7085:Kainji Dam 7075:Gao Bridge 6937:Sota River 6917:Bani River 6912:Milo River 6759:"Timbuctu" 6444:8 February 6073:, p. 5771:Heath 1999 5541:28 January 4970:Al Jazeera 4513:, p. 4464:31 January 4440:29 January 4436:. BBC News 4377:Al Arabiya 3864:, BBC News 3820:Miner 1953 3783:12 October 3573:, p. 3555:Barth 1857 3541:, p. 3524:30 January 3501:30 January 3357:"Timbuktu" 3321:: 302–319. 3199:, p. 3197:Barth 1857 3185:824 Vol. 3 3183:, p. 3045:Mungo Park 2921:Hay-on-Wye 2633:), either 2481:Al-Wangari 2477:Fondo Kati 2385:patronized 2373:Sidi Yahya 2334:Mauritania 2332:(today in 2254:Ansar Dine 2202:mausoleums 2186:Golden Age 2181:in Africa. 1983:, Volume 2 1911:Pope Leo X 1842:Ansar Dine 1694:Salt trade 1672:Source 1: 1580:(≥ 0.1 mm) 1088:trade wind 1020:rivers in 944:See also: 856:Jenné-Jeno 846:Prehistory 583:Mansa Musa 532:Tombouctou 457:Endangered 386:Population 291:16°46′33″N 244:in yellow. 238:Sijilmassa 18:Timbouctou 7655:Soboundou 7636:Madiakoye 7622:Hanzakoma 7612:Ouinerden 7596:Daka Fifo 7523:Tin Aicha 7519:Tin Aicha 7513:Raz El Ma 7509:Raz El Ma 7493:Hangabéra 7483:Kel Malha 7463:Doukouria 7459:Doukouria 7439:Issa Bery 7393:Alzounoub 7323:Sareyamou 7319:Sareyamou 7303:Kirchamba 7299:Kirchamba 7243:Sarakoira 7135:disasters 7090:Jebba Dam 6962:Nun River 6808:Countries 6594:161730981 6574:Antiquity 6075:49 Vol. 2 6044:Saad 1983 5924:, L'Essor 5900:, L'Essor 5755:133065754 5713:0028-792X 5679:0040-781X 5270:161645561 5117:161645561 5053:1522-3868 4330:1 January 4152:1 January 4128:1 January 4099:1 January 3731:152301812 3689:118906504 3344:Park 2011 3332:Park 2010 3059:Citations 2949:, Morocco 2947:Marrakesh 2936:, Tunisia 2910:, Germany 2838:Timbuktu! 2635:chartered 2619:Koulikoro 2561:Hassaniya 2539:Although 2496:Al Kounti 2465:in 2022. 2402:Sunni Ali 2365:madrasahs 2357:madrasahs 2276:Education 1709:Taoudenni 1100:Harmattan 1034:Koulikoro 970:Geography 840:consensus 777:etymology 714:Timbu'ktu 581:visit by 434:Reference 378:Elevation 294:3°00′34″W 7829:Timbuktu 7719:Saraféré 7715:Fittouga 7709:N'Gorkou 7705:N'Gorkou 7679:Koumaira 7675:Koumaira 7669:Banikane 7659:Niafunké 7592:Haribomo 7576:Banikane 7572:Banikane 7503:Essakane 7499:Essakane 7433:Gargando 7417:Douekire 7413:Douekire 7343:Tindirma 7339:Tindirma 7333:Tienkour 7329:Tienkour 7293:Haibongo 7289:Haibongo 7213:Timbuktu 7210:Capital: 7044:Lac Debo 7003:Timbuktu 6853:Sections 6523:Volume 3 6519:Volume 2 6515:Volume 1 6507:(1896), 6336:(1999), 6317:(1900), 6274:(1896), 6262:29 April 6226:Volume 2 6222:Volume 1 6214:(1830), 6205:Volume 3 6201:Volume 3 6197:Volume 2 6193:Volume 1 6185:(1857), 6162:25 March 5955:19 March 5904:19 March 5791:. London 5718:23 April 5684:23 April 5646:. London 5537:. London 5400:citation 5322:, London 5256:(1): 2. 5185:cite web 5109:25549150 4873:citation 4817:. UNESCO 4790:. UNESCO 4760:. 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