Virology - Knowledge (XXG)

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monolayers are infected with various dilutions of the virus sample and allowed to incubate for a relatively brief incubation period (e.g., 24–72 hours) under a semisolid overlay medium that restricts the spread of infectious virus, creating localized clusters (foci) of infected cells. Plates are subsequently probed with fluorescently labeled antibodies against a viral antigen, and fluorescence microscopy is used to count and quantify the number of foci. The FFA method typically yields results in less time than plaque or fifty-percent-tissue-culture-infective-dose (TCID

796: 457: 846:, despite the centrifugal force the virus particles cannot sink into solutions that are more dense than they are and they form discrete layers of, often visible, concentrated viruses in the tube. Caesium chloride is often used for these solutions as it is relatively inert but easily self-forms a gradient when centrifuged at high speed in an ultracentrifuge. Buoyant density centrifugation can also be used to purify the components of viruses such as their nucleic acids or proteins. 855: 266:, would produce areas of dead bacteria. He accurately diluted a suspension of these viruses and discovered that the highest dilutions (lowest virus concentrations), rather than killing all the bacteria, formed discrete areas of dead organisms. Counting these areas and multiplying by the dilution factor allowed him to calculate the number of viruses in the original suspension. Phages were heralded as a potential treatment for diseases such as 520: 5420: 5919: 842:, is used. In this method the viruses recovered from differential centrifugation are centrifuged again at very high speed for several hours in dense solutions of sugars or salts that form a density gradient, from low to high, in the tube during the centrifugation. In some cases, preformed gradients are used where solutions of steadily decreasing density are carefully overlaid on each other. Like an object in the 728: 700: 477: 983:– in particular are useful in virology and biology in general. Bacteriophages were some of the first viruses to be discovered, early in the twentieth century, and because they are relatively easy to grow quickly in laboratories, much of our understanding of viruses originated by studying them. Bacteriophages, long known for their positive effects in the environment, are used in 546: 5931: 5334: 33: 1469: 756:) assays, but it can be more expensive in terms of required reagents and equipment. Assay completion time is also dependent on the size of area that the user is counting. A larger area will require more time but can provide a more accurate representation of the sample. Results of the FFA are expressed as focus forming units per milliliter, or FFU/ 905:

of emerging viral infections, molecular epidemiology of viral pathogens, and drug-resistance testing. There are more than 2.3 million unique viral sequences in GenBank. NGS has surpassed traditional Sanger as the most popular approach for generating viral genomes. Viral genome sequencing as become a central method in viral

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As most viruses are too small to be seen by a light microscope, sequencing is one of the main tools in virology to identify and study the virus. Traditional Sanger sequencing and next-generation sequencing (NGS) are used to sequence viruses in basic and clinical research, as well as for the diagnosis

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When an assay for measuring the infective virus particle is done (Plaque assay, Focus assay), viral titre often refers to the concentration of infectious viral particles, which is different from the total viral particles. Viral load assays usually count the number of viral genomes present rather than

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The ICTV developed the current classification system and wrote guidelines that put a greater weight on certain virus properties to maintain family uniformity. A unified taxonomy (a universal system for classifying viruses) has been established. Only a small part of the total diversity of viruses has

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system has come to be used to supplement the more traditional hierarchy. Starting in 2018, the ICTV began to acknowledge deeper evolutionary relationships between viruses that have been discovered over time and adopted a 15-rank classification system ranging from realm to species. Additionally, some

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tests as allowed for most of these tests to be automated, Despite its specificity and sensitivity, PCR has a disadvantage in that it does not differentiate infectious and non-infectious viruses and "tests of cure" have to be delayed for up to 21 days to allow for residual viral nucleic acid to clear

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PCR is a mainstay method for detecting viruses in all species including plants and animals. It works by detecting traces of virus specific RNA or DNA. It is very sensitive and specific, but can be easily compromised by contamination. Most of the tests used in veterinary virology and medical virology

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and these antibodies can be used in laboratories to study viruses. Related viruses often react with each other's antibodies and some viruses can be named based on the antibodies they react with. The use of the antibodies which were once exclusively derived from the serum (blood fluid) of animals is

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Thi Nhu Thao T, Labroussaa F, Ebert N, V'kovski P, Stalder H, Portmann J, Kelly J, Steiner S, Holwerda M, Kratzel A, Gultom M, Schmied K, Laloli L, Hüsser L, Wider M, Pfaender S, Hirt D, Cippà V, Crespo-Pomar S, Schröder S, Muth D, Niemeyer D, Corman VM, Müller MA, Drosten C, Dijkman R, Jores J,

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to help visualise viruses. In this procedure, the viruses are suspended in a solution of metal salts such as uranium acetate. The atoms of metal are opaque to electrons and the viruses are seen as suspended in a dark background of metal atoms. This technique has been in use since the 1950s. Many

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Infectivity assays measure the amount (concentration) of infective viruses in a sample of known volume. For host cells, plants or cultures of bacterial or animal cells are used. Laboratory animals such as mice have also been used particularly in veterinary virology. These are assays are either

142:, which are now the mainstay of virology, did not exist. Now there are many methods for observing the structure and functions of viruses and their component parts. Thousands of different viruses are now known about and virologists often specialize in either the viruses that infect plants, or 632:

was used to quickly confirm viral infections. It is an infectivity assay that is virus species specific because antibodies are used. The antibodies are tagged with a dye that is luminescencent and when using an optical microscope with a modified light source, infected cells glow in the dark.

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to detect infected host cells and infectious virus particles before an actual plaque is formed. The FFA is particularly useful for quantifying classes of viruses that do not lyse the cell membranes, as these viruses would not be amenable to the plaque assay. Like the plaque assay, host cell

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production. Viruses must generate mRNAs from their genomes to produce proteins and replicate themselves, but different mechanisms are used to achieve this in each virus family. Viral genomes may be single-stranded (ss) or double-stranded (ds), RNA or DNA, and may or may not use

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repeated the experiments and became convinced that the filtered solution contained a new form of infectious agent. He observed that the agent multiplied only in cells that were dividing, but as his experiments did not show that it was made of particles, he called it a

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of DNA or RNA molecules, as opposed to the full molecules, are joined during the RNA or DNA replication cycle. Recombination is not as common as reassortment in nature but it is a powerful tool in laboratories for studying the structure and functions of viral genes.

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instead of light, which have a much shorter wavelength and can detect objects that cannot be seen using light microscopes. The highest magnification obtainable by electron microscopes is up to 10,000,000 times whereas for light microscopes it is around 1,500 times.

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is a powerful research method in virology. In this procedure complementary DNA (cDNA) copies of virus genomes called "infectious clones" are used to produce genetically modified viruses that can be then tested for changes in say, virulence or transmissibility.

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Viruses are obligate intracellular parasites and because they only reproduce inside the living cells of a host these cells are needed to grow them in the laboratory. For viruses that infect animals (usually called "animal viruses") cells grown in laboratory

1125:(ICTV) was formed. The system proposed by Lwoff, Horne and Tournier was initially not accepted by the ICTV because the small genome size of viruses and their high rate of mutation made it difficult to determine their ancestry beyond order. As such, the 384:

showed that purified tobacco mosaic virus RNA and its protein coat can assemble by themselves to form functional viruses, suggesting that this simple mechanism was probably the means through which viruses were created within their host cells.

542:, the bacteria growing in test tubes can be used directly. For plant viruses, the natural host plants can be used or, particularly when the infection is not obvious, so-called indicator plants, which show signs of infection more clearly. 831:. In this method the larger and heavier contaminants are removed from a virus mixture by low speed centrifugation. The viruses, which are small and light and are left in suspension, are then concentrated by high speed centrifugation. 803:. Following centrifugation at 100 g a density gradient forms in the CsCl solution and the virus particles separate according to their densities. The tube is 10 cm tall. The viruses are the two "milky" zones close together. 720:. Infective bacteriophages can be counted by seeding them onto "lawns" of bacteria in culture dishes. When at low concentrations, the viruses form holes in the lawn that can be counted. The number of viruses is then expressed as 807:

For further study, viruses grown in the laboratory need purifying to remove contaminants from the host cells. The methods used often have the advantage of concentrating the viruses, which makes it easier to investigate them.

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are used. In the past, fertile hens' eggs were used and the viruses were grown on the membranes surrounding the embryo. This method is still used in the manufacture of some vaccines. For the viruses that infect bacteria, the

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The general taxonomic structure of taxon ranges and the suffixes used in taxonomic names are shown hereafter. As of 2021, the ranks of subrealm, subkingdom, and subclass are unused, whereas all other ranks are in use.

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Barré-Sinoussi F, Chermann JC, Rey F, Nugeyre MT, Chamaret S, Gruest J, et al. (May 1983). "Isolation of a T-lymphotropic retrovirus from a patient at risk for acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS)".

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In laboratories many of the diagnostic test for detecting viruses are nucleic acid amplification methods such as PCR. Some tests detect the viruses or their components as these include electron microscopy and

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virus in fragments of guinea pig corneal tissue. In 1928, H. B. Maitland and M. C. Maitland grew vaccinia virus in suspensions of minced hens' kidneys. Their method was not widely adopted until the 1950s when

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is the switching of genes from different parents and it is particularly useful when studying the genetics of viruses that have segmented genomes (fragmented into two or more nucleic acid molecules) such as

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and quantal assays give a statistical probability such as the volume of the test sample needed to ensure 50% of the hosts cells, plants or animals are infected. This is called the median infectious dose or

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is measured. There are two basic methods: those that count the fully infective virus particles, which are called infectivity assays, and those that count all the particles including the defective ones.

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The second half of the 20th century was the golden age of virus discovery, and most of the documented species of animal, plant, and bacterial viruses were discovered during these years. In 1957

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examined the tobacco mosaic virus and found it was mostly made of protein. A short time later, this virus was separated into protein and RNA parts. The tobacco mosaic virus was the first to be

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cause red blood cells from chickens to firmly attach to the infected cells. This is called "haemadsorption" or "hemadsorption". Some viruses produce localised "lesions" in cell layers called

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produced by bacteria, but he did not pursue the idea. At the time it was thought that all infectious agents could be retained by filters and grown on a nutrient medium—this was part of the

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for reproduction, their interaction with host organism physiology and immunity, the diseases they cause, the techniques to isolate and culture them, and their use in research and therapy.

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Traditional electron microscopy has disadvantages in that viruses are damaged by drying in the high vacuum inside the electron microscope and the electron beam itself is destructive. In

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Virology began when there were no methods for propagating or visualizing viruses or specific laboratory tests for viral infections. The methods for separating viral nucleic acids (

967:(small circular molecules of DNA produced by bacteria). The viral nucleic acid, or a part of it, is inserted in the plasmid, which is the copied many times over by bacteria. This 1085:

but it is based shared or distinguishing properties of viruses. It seeks to describe the diversity of viruses by naming and grouping them on the basis of similarities. In 1962,

150:, or animals. Viruses that infect humans are now studied by medical virologists. Virology is a broad subject covering biology, health, animal welfare, agriculture and ecology. 107:

One main motivation for the study of viruses is because they cause many infectious diseases of plants and animals. The study of the manner in which viruses cause disease is

205:: crushed leaf extracts from infected tobacco plants remained infectious even after filtration to remove bacteria. Ivanovsky suggested the infection might be caused by a 886:

for nucleic acids. In some instances the viral components are rendered radioactive before electrophoresis and are revealed using photographic film in a process known as

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Choo QL, Kuo G, Weiner AJ, Overby LR, Bradley DW, Houghton M (April 1989). "Isolation of a cDNA clone derived from a blood-borne non-A, non-B viral hepatitis genome".

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In 1887, Buist visualised one of the largest, Vaccinia virus, by optical microscopy after staining it. Vaccinia was not known to be a virus at that time. (Buist J.B.

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Gauger PC, Vincent AL (2014). "Serum Virus Neutralization Assay for Detection and Quantitation of Serum-Neutralizing Antibodies to Influenza a Virus in Swine".

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grew poliovirus in cultured cells from aborted human embryonic tissue, the first virus to be grown without using solid animal tissue or eggs. This work enabled

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Gorbalenya AE, Lauber C. Phylogeny of Viruses. Reference Module in Biomedical Sciences. 2017;B978-0-12-801238-3.95723-4. doi:10.1016/B978-0-12-801238-3.95723-4

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When purified viruses or viral components are needed for diagnostic tests or vaccines, cloning can be used instead of growing the viruses. At the start of the

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RNA sequence enabled tests to be manufactured quickly. There are several proven methods for cloning viruses and their components. Small pieces of DNA called

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The focus forming assay (FFA) is a variation of the plaque assay, but instead of relying on cell lysis in order to detect plaque formation, the FFA employs

508:. This allows the determination of biomolecular structures at near-atomic resolution, and has attracted wide attention to the approach as an alternative to 1870:

Goodpasture EW, Woodruff AM, Buddingh GJ (October 1931). "The cultivation of vaccine and other viruses in the chorioallantoic membrane of chick embryos".

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Counting viruses (quantitation) has always had an important role in virology and has become central to the control of some infections of humans where the

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have all proven useful in virology. Their small sizes and relatively simple structures make viruses an ideal candidate for study by these techniques.

5409: 5376: 197:(or Pasteur-Chamberland filter) with pores small enough to remove all bacteria from a solution passed through it. In 1892, the Russian biologist 5585: 3233:

Burrell CJ, Howard CR, Murphy FA (2017-01-01), Burrell CJ, Howard CR, Murphy FA (eds.), "Chapter 10 - Laboratory Diagnosis of Virus Diseases",

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viruses were discovered using this technique and negative staining electron microscopy is still a valuable weapon in a virologist's arsenal.

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Nichols BE, Girdwood SJ, Crompton T, Stewart-Isherwood L, Berrie L, Chimhamhiwa D, Moyo C, Kuehnle J, Stevens W, Rosen S (September 2019).

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Dimitrova K, Mendoza EJ, Mueller N, Wood H (2020). "A Plaque Reduction Neutralization Test for the Detection of ZIKV-Specific Antibodies".

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quantitative where the results are on a continuous scale or quantal, where an event either occurs or it does not. Quantitative assays give

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Novella IS, Presloid JB, Taylor RT (December 2014). "RNA replication errors and the evolution of virus pathogenicity and virulence".

6090: 5277: 4804: 2218: 289:, their ability to pass filters, and their requirement for living hosts. Viruses had been grown only in plants and animals. In 1906 5962: 3915:

Su Q, Sena-Esteves M, Gao G (May 2019). "Purification of the Recombinant Adenovirus by Cesium Chloride Gradient Centrifugation".

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Zainol Rashid Z, Othman SN, Abdul Samat MN, Ali UK, Wong KK (April 2020). "Diagnostic performance of COVID-19 serology assays".

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Viruses that have grown in cell cultures can be indirectly detected by the detrimental effect they have on the host cell. These

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pictures of the crystallised virus were obtained by Bernal and Fankuchen in 1941. Based on her X-ray crystallographic pictures,

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Stanley WM, Loring HS (January 1936). "The Isolation of Crystalline Tobacco Mosaic Virus Protein From Diseased Tomato Plants".

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The viruses that reproduce in bacteria, archaea and fungi are informally called "phages", and the ones that infect bacteria –

775:. Viral load tests are an important in the control of infections by HIV. This versatile method can be used for plant viruses. 5899: 1748:"On an invisible microbe antagonistic toward dysenteric bacilli: brief note by Mr. F. D'Herelle, presented by Mr. Roux. 1917" 839: 2914:

Swack NS, Gahan TF, Hausler WJ (August 1992). "The present status of the complement fixation test in viral serodiagnosis".

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Viruses were seen for the first time in the 1930s when electron microscopes were invented. These microscopes use beams of

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that focuses on their detection, structure, classification and evolution, their methods of infection and exploitation of

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Domingo-Calap P, Georgel P, Bahram S (March 2016). "Back to the future: bacteriophages as promising therapeutic tools".

605:. Once an antibody–reaction has taken place in a test, other methods are needed to confirm this. Older methods included 464:

There are several approaches to detecting viruses and these include the detection of virus particles (virions) or their

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Khan MK, Alam MM (July 2021). "Norovirus Gastroenteritis Outbreaks, Genomic Diversity and Evolution: An Overview".

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Creager AN, Morgan GJ (June 2008). "After the double helix: Rosalind Franklin's research on Tobacco mosaic virus".

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Yokota I, Hattori T, Shane PY, Konno S, Nagasaka A, Takeyabu K, Fujisawa S, Nishida M, Teshima T (February 2021).

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Moon K, Cho JC (March 2021). "Metaviromics coupled with phage-host identification to open the viral "black box"".

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Brenner S, Horne RW (July 1959). "A negative staining method for high resolution electron microscopy of viruses".

724:. For the bacteriophages that reproduce in bacteria that cannot be grown in cultures, viral load assays are used. 5404: 2340: 1360: 1090: 921:

Data from the sequencing of viral genomes can be used to determine evolutionary relationships and this is called

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Following differential centrifugation, virus suspensions often remain contaminated with debris that has the same

772: 625: 163: 96:, but something completely different. Beijerinck used the word "virus" to describe the mysterious agent in his ' 5935: 5760: 5439: 5399: 5078:"HIV types, groups, subtypes and recombinant forms: errors in replication, selection pressure and quasispecies" 3958:

Klepárník K, Boček P (March 2010). "Electrophoresis today and tomorrow: Helping biologists' dreams come true".

2699:"The Potential of Molecular Indicators of Plant Virus Infection: Are Plants Able to Tell Us They Are Infected?" 1344: 1322: 1126: 879: 783:

Molecular virology is the study of viruses at the level of nucleic acids and proteins. The methods invented by

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Often confused with reassortment, recombination is also the mixing of genes but the mechanism differs in that

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been studied. As of 2021, 6 realms, 10 kingdoms, 17 phyla, 2 subphyla, 39 classes, 65 orders, 8 suborders,

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Growing Pathogens in Tissue Cultures: Fifty Years in Academic Tropical Medicine, Pediatrics, and Virology

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Ibrahim B, McMahon DP, Hufsky F, Beer M, Deng L, Mercier PL, Palmarini M, Thiel V, Marz M (June 2018).

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Beards GM (August 1982). "A method for the purification of rotaviruses and adenoviruses from faeces".

456: 6477: 6287: 6237: 5853: 5716: 5580: 5530: 5338: 4176: 3633: 3396: 3375:"The Effects of Statistical Multiplicity of Infection on Virus Quantification and Infectivity Assays" 2517: 2295: 2252: 2059: 2016: 1980: 1879: 1148: 1078: 1072: 910: 721: 681: 574: 558: 326: 322: 318: 202: 2308: 6392: 6262: 6004: 5738: 5721: 5701: 5681: 3489:

Cutler TD, Wang C, Hoff SJ, Kittawornrat A, Zimmerman JJ (August 2011). "Median infectious dose (ID

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Stanley WM, Lauffer MA (April 1939). "Disintegration of Tobacco Mosaic Virus in Urea Solutions".

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Viruses growing in cell cultures are used to measure their susceptibility to validated and novel

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Cytopathic effect of herpes simplex virus. The infected cells have become round and balloon-like.

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Liu JZ, Richerson K, Nelson RS (August 2009). "Growth conditions for plant virus-host studies".

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techniques for screening proteins DNA sequences. They are a powerful tool in molecular biology.

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with a top speed of around 100,000 rpm, are and this difference is used in a method called

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that retroviruses use to make DNA copies of their RNA, was first described in 1970 by Temin and

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Harada LK, Silva EC, Campos WF, Del Fiol FS, Vila M, Dąbrowska K, Krylov VN, Balcão VM (2018).

3493:) of porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus isolate MN-184 via aerosol exposure". 1327: 819:

are often used to purify viruses. Low speed centrifuges, i.e. those with a top speed of 10,000

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Mahony JB, Petrich A, Smieja M (2011). "Molecular diagnosis of respiratory virus infections".

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Payne S. Methods to Study Viruses. Viruses. 2017;37-52. doi:10.1016/B978-0-12-803109-4.00004-0

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and are not removed by the procedure. In these cases a modification of centrifugation, called

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Electron micrographs of viruses. A, rotavirus; B, adenovirus; C, norovirus; and D, astrovirus.

433: 373: 369: 330: 101: 44: 1914: 301:, and in 1913 E. Steinhardt, C. Israeli, and R.A. Lambert used this method to grow 186:

and speculated about a pathogen too small to be detected by microscopes. In 1884, the French

6589: 6217: 5803: 5770: 5525: 5227: 5219: 5146: 5138: 5089: 5021: 5013: 4972: 4962: 4923: 4859: 4851: 4810: 4792: 4751: 4710: 4702: 4653: 4620: 4612: 4571: 4563: 4469: 4428: 4418: 4377: 4367: 4315: 4305: 4241: 4233: 4184: 4134: 4126: 4076: 4068: 4027: 4017: 3967: 3924: 3887: 3877: 3866:"Purification Methods and the Presence of RNA in Virus Particles and Extracellular Vesicles" 3838: 3798: 3788: 3747: 3739: 3698: 3690: 3649: 3641: 3592: 3584: 3537: 3502: 3461: 3453: 3412: 3404: 3345: 3337: 3296: 3288: 3256: 3238: 3205: 3197: 3156: 3146: 3105: 3097: 3056: 3046: 2999: 2962: 2954: 2859: 2851: 2794: 2753: 2720: 2710: 2659: 2627: 2590: 2582: 2541: 2525: 2476: 2468: 2429: 2352: 2313: 2260: 2206: 2154: 2102: 2067: 2024: 1949: 1887: 1843: 1796: 1759: 1647: 1610: 1592: 1553: 1516: 1508: 1248: 1197: 1163: 1110: 1093:, and Paul Tournier were the first to develop a means of virus classification, based on the 1052: 883: 854: 665: 513: 334: 198: 124: 26: 2396: 6502: 6467: 5636: 5631: 5621: 2694: 1340: 1231: 1214: 1106: 1102: 1020: 968: 887: 867: 824: 519: 425: 405: 381: 251: 232: 231:. Beijerinck maintained that viruses were liquid in nature, a theory later discredited by 120: 5002:"The New Scope of Virus Taxonomy: Partitioning the Virosphere Into 15 Hierarchical Ranks" 703:

Plaques in cells caused herpes simplex virus. The cells have been fixed and stained blue.

4180: 3637: 3400: 2521: 2299: 2256: 2063: 2020: 1984: 1883: 933:. This analysis is also used in studying the spread of viral infections in communities ( 476: 6357: 6167: 5808: 5785: 5691: 5686: 5626: 5611: 5575: 5460: 5232: 5151: 5126: 5026: 5001: 4977: 4950: 4864: 4839: 4815: 4796: 4715: 4690: 4625: 4600: 4576: 4551: 4433: 4406: 4382: 4355: 4246: 4221: 4139: 4114: 4081: 4056: 4032: 4005: 3892: 3865: 3803: 3776: 3752: 3727: 3703: 3678: 3654: 3621: 3597: 3572: 3466: 3441: 3417: 3374: 3350: 3325: 3301: 3276: 3261: 3242: 3210: 3185: 3161: 3134: 3110: 3085: 3061: 3034: 2967: 2942: 2864: 2839: 2725: 2698: 2595: 2570: 2546: 2505: 2481: 2456: 1615: 1580: 1521: 1496: 1474: 1454: 1443: 1432: 1086: 980: 960: 946: 899: 740: 709: 581: 539: 505: 429: 294: 255: 187: 116: 59: 56: 5947: 5419: 3033:

AbuSalah MA, Gan SH, Al-Hatamleh MA, Irekeola AA, Shueb RH, Yean Yean C (March 2020).

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Rosen FS (October 2004). "Isolation of poliovirus--John Enders and the Nobel Prize".

1082: 1004: 984: 573:, which are useful in quantitation assays and in identifying the species of virus by 342: 179: 147: 4489: 4457: 4337: 3987: 3019: 2679: 2174: 2122: 1816: 1003:. All the techniques used in molecular biology, such as cloning, creating mutations 727: 6482: 6462: 6427: 6422: 6412: 6407: 6387: 6367: 6277: 6247: 6207: 6187: 6177: 6157: 6152: 6147: 6142: 6062: 6040: 5999: 5982: 5858: 5843: 5755: 5696: 5595: 5565: 5474: 5111: 4691:"Development and application of reverse genetic technology for the influenza virus" 4473: 4222:"New tools for recombinant protein production in Escherichia coli: A 5-year update" 3743: 1458: 1417: 1015: 934: 906: 647: 570: 534: 409: 82: 52: 4006:"The effect of variant interference on de novo assembly for viral deep sequencing" 3341: 2341:"The long and winding road leading to the identification of the hepatitis C virus" 2197:

Temin HM, Baltimore D (1972). "RNA-directed DNA synthesis and RNA tumor viruses".

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can then be used to produce viral components without the need for native viruses.

699: 4951:"International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses and the 3,142 unassigned species" 4927: 4310: 4297: 3506: 3135:"Microfluidics-based strategies for molecular diagnostics of infectious diseases" 3003: 2958: 2757: 1764: 1747: 1557: 1512: 6532: 6527: 6497: 6452: 6397: 6337: 6322: 6317: 6282: 6242: 6132: 6122: 6117: 5848: 5838: 5833: 4657: 2798: 2071: 1891: 1436: 1413: 1398: 1387: 1376: 1368: 566: 445: 401: 389: 353: 286: 240: 5000:

International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses Executive Committee (May 2020).

4756: 4739: 4706: 4022: 3645: 3457: 3201: 3151: 2855: 2586: 2357: 2028: 1597: 6517: 6512: 6457: 6442: 6382: 6347: 6342: 6312: 6272: 6252: 6182: 6162: 5775: 5728: 5651: 5560: 5017: 4855: 4522: 4189: 4164: 4130: 4072: 3728:"Absolute quantification of cassava brown streak virus mRNA by real-time qPCR" 3541: 3408: 2632: 2529: 2158: 1847: 1464: 1447: 1391: 1372: 816: 765: 744: 687: 597: 562: 413: 397: 338: 321:

grew influenza and several other viruses in fertilised chicken eggs. In 1949,

307: 275: 263: 36:

Gamma phage, an example of virus particles (visualised by electron microscopy)

4407:"Phage Display Technology as a Powerful Platform for Antibody Drug Discovery" 3051: 2537: 1606: 504:

the structure of viruses is preserved by embedding them in an environment of

6432: 6417: 6402: 6352: 6327: 6050: 5978: 4567: 3793: 3726:

Shirima RR, Maeda DG, Kanju E, Ceasar G, Tibazarwa FI, Legg JP (July 2017).

2317: 2264: 1421: 1363:(+) or antisense (−). This classification places viruses into seven groups: 1024: 859: 800: 732: 357: 112: 93: 86: 5241: 5160: 5103: 5062: 5035: 4986: 4967: 4935: 4900: 4873: 4824: 4765: 4724: 4675: 4634: 4585: 4481: 4442: 4391: 4329: 4282: 4255: 4198: 4148: 4090: 4041: 3979: 3971: 3936: 3928: 3901: 3812: 3761: 3712: 3663: 3606: 3549: 3514: 3475: 3426: 3359: 3310: 3219: 3170: 3119: 3070: 3011: 2976: 2900: 2873: 2816: 2775: 2734: 2715: 2671: 2604: 2555: 2490: 2441: 2366: 2166: 2114: 2079: 2036: 1961: 1899: 1808: 1773: 1659: 1624: 1565: 1530: 5333: 5223: 3850: 3101: 2943:"Structural studies on antibody recognition and neutralization of viruses" 2927: 2325: 2272: 2228: 545: 6447: 6377: 6307: 6302: 6127: 6045: 5991: 5780: 3588: 3084:

Zhu H, Zhang H, Xu Y, Laššáková S, Korabečná M, Neužil P (October 2020).

2472: 1579:

Sales RK, Oraño J, Estanislao RD, Ballesteros AJ, Gomez MI (2021-04-29).

1497:"Common origins and host-dependent diversity of plant and animal viromes" 1402: 1380: 1064:

For how viruses are classified with relation to other living things, see

1028: 1000: 964: 843: 602: 593: 485: 465: 302: 143: 70: 4165:"Rapid reconstruction of SARS-CoV-2 using a synthetic genomics platform" 3326:"Quantifying SARS-CoV-2 viral load: current status and future prospects" 3292: 1953: 1331:

The Baltimore Classification of viruses is based on the method of viral

637:

Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and other nucleic acid detection methods

32: 6537: 6267: 6137: 6033: 5818: 5711: 5489: 5484: 4616: 3694: 1282: 1118: 871: 748: 672:. These are also used in agriculture, food and environmental sciences. 368:

and its structure could, therefore, be elucidated in detail. The first

365: 285:

By the end of the 19th century, viruses were defined in terms of their

271: 267: 139: 6075: 5094: 5077: 4423: 4372: 4320: 3882: 3573:"Single-Particle Detection of Transcription following Rotavirus Entry" 1800: 1468: 376:

discovered the full structure of the virus in 1955. In the same year,

6202: 5863: 5455: 4237: 3186:"Current methods for diagnosis of human coronaviruses: pros and cons" 1350:

The Baltimore classification of viruses is based on the mechanism of

1098: 926: 866:

The separation of molecules based on their electric charge is called

421: 183: 90: 5142: 1831: 561:

produce a characteristic "ballooning" of the cells, typically human

4889:

Comptes Rendus Hebdomadaires des Séances de l'Académie des Sciences

4298:"Biotechnological applications of bacteriophages: State of the art" 3391: 3133:

Wang X, Hong XZ, Li YW, Li Y, Wang J, Chen P, Liu BF (March 2022).

2844:

European Journal of Clinical Microbiology & Infectious Diseases

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in France, first isolated the retrovirus now called HIV. In 1989

104:

proposed the full structure of the tobacco mosaic virus in 1955.

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are often used and the most common ones are laboratory modified

799:

Caesium chloride (CsCl) solution and two morphological types of

348:

The first images of viruses were obtained upon the invention of

313:

Another breakthrough came in 1931 when the American pathologist

6079: 5951: 5358: 5177: 3446:

The Veterinary Clinics of North America. Exotic Animal Practice

282:

has renewed interest in the therapeutic use of bacteriophages.

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are often characteristic of the type of virus. For instance,

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official beginning of the field of virology as a discipline

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McDonald SM, Nelson MI, Turner PE, Patton JT (July 2016).

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1097:

hierarchical system. This system based classification on

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In the early 20th century, the English bacteriologist

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of the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses

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Vol. 1 (Ninth ed.). 5212:Microbiology and Molecular Biology Reviews 4535:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher ( 2693:Valmonte-Cortes GR, Lilly ST, Pearson MN, 1680: 1678: 1155:of viruses have been defined by the ICTV. 6564:Timeline of biology and organic chemistry 5287:Dimmock NJ, Easton AJ, Leppard K (2007). 5231: 5150: 5093: 5025: 4976: 4966: 4863: 4814: 4755: 4714: 4624: 4575: 4432: 4422: 4381: 4371: 4319: 4309: 4245: 4188: 4138: 4080: 4031: 4021: 3891: 3881: 3802: 3792: 3775:Rubio L, Galipienso L, Ferriol I (2020). 3751: 3702: 3683:Journal of the International AIDS Society 3653: 3596: 3465: 3416: 3390: 3349: 3300: 3260: 3209: 3160: 3150: 3109: 3060: 3050: 2966: 2863: 2724: 2714: 2631: 2594: 2545: 2506:"An Improved Cryogen for Plunge Freezing" 2480: 2356: 2307: 1763: 1614: 1596: 1520: 468:or nucleic acids and infectivity assays. 182:was unable to find a causative agent for 5410:Competitions and prizes in biotechnology 5291:(Sixth ed.). Blackwell Publishing. 2455:Goldsmith CS, Miller SE (October 2009). 2382: 2380: 2378: 2376: 668:, which detect the virus using a tagged 77:(1898) is now acknowledged as being the 4838:Simmonds P, Aiewsakun P (August 2018). 1487: 743:techniques using fluorescently labeled 85:. He realized the source was neither a 4949:Fauquet CM, Fargette D (August 2005). 4528: 3530:Journal of Microbiology (Seoul, Korea) 3330:Expert Review of Molecular Diagnostics 3190:Analytical and Bioanalytical Chemistry 1919:. Boston Medical Library. p. 57. 858:Polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis of 791:Purifying viruses and their components 731:Immunoflourescence: Cells infected by 523:Cryoelectron micrograph of a rotavirus 6559:Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 4601:"Engineering influenza viral vectors" 4405:Nagano K, Tsutsumi Y (January 2021). 3999: 3997: 1975:Frängsmyr T, Ekspång G, eds. (1993). 1714:Desk Encyclopedia of General Virology 1495:Dolja VV, Koonin EV (November 2011). 7: 5930: 3275:Koczula KM, Gallotta A (June 2016). 862:proteins stained with Coomassie blue 644:transcription mediated amplification 4458:"A new era of virus bioinformatics" 1942:The New England Journal of Medicine 735:(top) and uninfected cells (bottom) 280:bacterial resistance to antibiotics 115:. These fields of study are called 4797:10.1016/B978-0-444-53488-0.00002-X 4115:"A platform for RNA virus cloning" 4055:Cui J, Li F, Shi ZL (March 2019). 3243:10.1016/b978-0-12-375156-0.00010-2 2889:The Malaysian Journal of Pathology 1836:The Journal of Infectious Diseases 1585:Health Research Policy and Systems 1431:(− strand or antisense) RNA (e.g. 1339:The Nobel Prize-winning biologist 216:In 1898, the Dutch microbiologist 14: 5310:. Jones and Bartlett Publishers. 4599:Li J, Arévalo MT, Zeng M (2013). 2656:Current Protocols in Microbiology 1977:Nobel Lectures, Physics 1981–1990 5929: 5918: 5917: 5418: 5332: 4738:Hull R, Rima B (November 2020). 4503:Bamford D, Zuckerman MA (2021). 2697:, MacDiarmid RM (January 2022). 2664:10.1002/9780471729259.mc16a01s14 1467: 1390:(+ strand or "sense") DNA (e.g. 651:from the site of the infection. 352:in 1931 by the German engineers 100:' ('contagious living fluid'). 5895:Index of biotechnology articles 5289:Introduction to Modern Virology 1031:can be identified in this way. 400:) were discovered. In 1963 the 5900:List of biotechnology articles 5178:"Virus Taxonomy: 2021 Release" 4474:10.1016/j.virusres.2018.05.009 3831:Journal of Virological Methods 3744:10.1016/j.jviromet.2017.03.003 3732:Journal of Virological Methods 3086:"PCR past, present and future" 1746:D'Herelle F (September 2007). 1412:(+ strand or sense) RNA (e.g. 1077:A major branch of virology is 840:buoyant density centrifugation 596:that induce the production of 1: 5744:Genetically modified organism 5511:Biotechnology industrial park 3342:10.1080/14737159.2021.1962709 2916:Infectious Agents and Disease 2461:Clinical Microbiology Reviews 2422:Biochimica et Biophysica Acta 2211:10.1016/S0065-3527(08)60749-6 1913:Thomas Huckle Weller (2004). 1652:10.1016/S1286-4579(03)00075-3 1145:233 families, 168 subfamilies 502:cryogenic electron microscopy 247:), through a similar filter. 5076:Eberle J, Gürtler L (2012). 4928:10.1101/sqb.1962.027.001.008 4556:Nature Reviews. Microbiology 4311:10.1016/j.micres.2018.04.007 4061:Nature Reviews. Microbiology 3917:Cold Spring Harbor Protocols 3843:10.1016/0166-0934(82)90059-3 3507:10.1016/j.vetmic.2011.03.003 3004:10.3109/10408363.2011.640976 2959:10.1016/j.coviro.2011.05.020 2758:10.1007/978-1-4939-0758-8_26 2510:Microscopy and Microanalysis 2434:10.1016/0006-3002(59)90237-9 2339:Houghton M (November 2009). 1765:10.1016/j.resmic.2007.07.005 1558:10.1016/j.coviro.2014.09.017 1513:10.1016/j.coviro.2011.09.007 1007:are used in viral genetics. 676:Quantitation and viral loads 5734:Environmental biotechnology 5131:Reviews in Medical Virology 4658:10.1007/978-1-4939-0758-8_4 2947:Current Opinion in Virology 2799:10.1007/978-1-0716-0581-3_5 2618:Stoddart C (1 March 2022). 2072:10.1126/science.89.2311.345 1892:10.1126/science.74.1919.371 1546:Current Opinion in Virology 1501:Current Opinion in Virology 894:Sequencing of viral genomes 829:differential centrifugation 611:hemagglutination inhibition 6608: 5051:Mymensingh Medical Journal 4757:10.1007/s00705-020-04748-7 4707:10.1007/s11262-020-01822-9 4023:10.1186/s12864-020-06801-w 3781:Frontiers in Plant Science 3646:10.1038/s41598-021-84059-2 3458:10.1016/j.cvex.2004.09.004 3202:10.1007/s00216-020-03046-0 3152:10.1186/s40779-022-00374-3 2856:10.1007/s10096-020-03840-9 2587:10.1016/j.cell.2015.03.050 2358:10.1016/j.jhep.2009.08.004 2199:Advances in Virus Research 2029:10.1126/science.83.2143.85 1598:10.1186/s12961-021-00723-z 1320: 1149:2,606 genera, 84 subgenera 1070: 1063: 944: 897: 763: 679: 315:Ernest William Goodpasture 157: 20: 6113: 5913: 5416: 5405:Timeline of biotechnology 5018:10.1038/s41564-020-0709-x 4856:10.1007/s00705-018-3938-z 4190:10.1038/s41586-020-2294-9 4131:10.1038/s41576-020-0246-8 4073:10.1038/s41579-018-0118-9 3542:10.1007/s12275-021-1016-9 3409:10.1016/j.bpj.2018.05.005 3139:Military Medical Research 2658:. Chapter 16: Unit16A.1. 2633:10.1146/knowable-022822-1 2530:10.1017/S1431927608080781 2159:10.1007/s00705-008-0088-8 836:sedimentation coefficient 607:complement fixation tests 175:in his laboratory in 1921 164:Social history of viruses 5761:Microbial biodegradation 5440:Industrial biotechnology 5400:History of biotechnology 4505:Encyclopedia of virology 4302:Microbiological Research 4119:Nature Reviews. Genetics 3052:10.3390/pathogens9030226 2941:Smith TJ (August 2011). 1752:Research in Microbiology 1345:Baltimore classification 1323:Baltimore classification 1317:Baltimore classification 1127:Baltimore classification 999:which are studied using 955:the availability of the 565:. Some viruses, such as 362:Wendell Meredith Stanley 5435:Colors of biotechnology 4568:10.1038/nrmicro.2016.46 3794:10.3389/fpls.2020.01092 3495:Veterinary Microbiology 3442:"Small mammal virology" 3324:Lee MJ (October 2021). 2838:Lampejo T (July 2020). 2318:10.1126/science.2523562 2265:10.1126/science.6189183 1848:10.1093/infdis/13.2.294 575:plaque reduction assays 428:independently. In 1983 341:, to make an effective 291:Ross Granville Harrison 224:contagium vivum fluidum 98:contagium vivum fluidum 6173:Biological engineering 5829:Biomedical engineering 5536:Pharmaceutical company 5516:Biotechnology products 4968:10.1186/1743-422X-2-64 4650:Animal Influenza Virus 3972:10.1002/bies.200900152 3929:10.1101/pdb.prot095547 3281:Essays in Biochemistry 2750:Animal Influenza Virus 2716:10.3390/plants11020188 1640:Microbes and Infection 1336: 1066:Tree of life (biology) 863: 821:revolutions per minute 804: 736: 704: 559:herpes simplex viruses 550: 524: 492:Virologists often use 481: 461: 460:An electron microscope 394:bovine virus diarrhoea 293:invented a method for 245:foot-and-mouth disease 211:germ theory of disease 176: 67:tobacco mosaic disease 51:. It is a subfield of 37: 21:For the journals, see 6258:Developmental biology 6233:Computational biology 6213:Cellular microbiology 5308:Understanding Viruses 5224:10.1128/MMBR.00053-21 4163:Thiel V (June 2020). 3923:(5): pdb.prot095547. 3277:"Lateral flow assays" 3102:10.2144/btn-2020-0057 2345:Journal of Hepatology 1357:reverse transcriptase 1330: 923:phylogenetic analysis 917:Phylogenetic analysis 857: 798: 747:specific for a viral 730: 702: 548: 522: 510:X-ray crystallography 479: 459: 418:Reverse transcriptase 378:Heinz Fraenkel-Conrat 278:. The development of 171: 35: 6478:Reproductive biology 6363:Mathematical biology 6288:Evolutionary biology 6238:Conservation biology 5854:Chemical engineering 5717:Reproductive cloning 5581:Hybridoma technology 5531:Human Genome Project 5341:at Wikimedia Commons 5127:"Viral metagenomics" 4844:Archives of Virology 4744:Archives of Virology 4113:Koch L (July 2020). 3589:10.1128/JVI.00651-17 2473:10.1128/CMR.00027-09 2147:Archives of Virology 1079:virus classification 1073:Virus classification 1060:Virus classification 925:. Software, such as 911:viral classification 785:molecular biologists 722:plaque forming units 682:Virus quantification 624:In the years before 617:. Newer methods use 615:virus neutralisation 412:described the first 323:John Franklin Enders 319:Alice Miles Woodruff 203:tobacco mosaic virus 6263:Ecological genetics 6107:Branches of biology 5739:Genetic engineering 5722:Therapeutic cloning 5702:Bionic architecture 5682:Animal cell culture 5449:Biological concepts 5182:talk.ictvonline.org 5125:Delwart EL (2007). 4271:Rivista di Biologia 4181:2020Natur.582..561T 3638:2021NatSR..11.4500Y 3577:Journal of Virology 3401:2018BpJ...114.2974M 3379:Biophysical Journal 3293:10.1042/EBC20150012 2522:2008MiMic..14..375T 2300:1989Sci...244..359C 2257:1983Sci...220..868B 2064:1939Sci....89..345S 2021:1936Sci....83...85S 1985:1993nlp..book.....F 1954:10.1056/NEJMp048202 1884:1931Sci....74..371G 1138:ICTV classification 882:, for proteins, or 876:polyacrylamide gels 670:monoclonal antibody 662:enzyme-immunoassays 619:enzyme immunoassays 472:Electron microscopy 350:electron microscopy 218:Martinus Beijerinck 191:Charles Chamberland 173:Martinus Beijerinck 160:History of virology 75:Martinus Beijerinck 6554:History of biology 6488:Structural biology 6473:Relational biology 6298:Generative biology 6293:Freshwater biology 5979:Infectious disease 5795:Interdisciplinary 5749:Molecular genetics 5495:Selective breeding 4617:10.4161/bioe.21950 4304:. 212–213: 38–58. 3695:10.1002/jia2.25337 3626:Scientific Reports 1995:Churchill, London) 1337: 931:phylogenetic trees 929:, is used to draw 864: 805: 737: 705: 695:Infectivity assays 666:lateral flow tests 630:immunofluorescence 555:cytopathic effects 551: 528:Growth in cultures 525: 482: 462: 442:Chiron Corporation 404:was discovered by 390:equine arterivirus 237:Friedrich Loeffler 195:Chamberland filter 177: 109:viral pathogenesis 38: 23:Virology (journal) 6572: 6571: 6493:Synthetic biology 6373:Molecular biology 6228:Cognitive biology 6073: 6072: 5945: 5944: 5874:Nanobiotechnology 5869:Molecular biology 5670: 5669: 5521:Biotechnology law 5337:Media related to 5317:978-1-284-02592-7 5298:978-1-4051-3645-7 5095:10.1159/000331993 4750:(11): 2733–2736. 4667:978-1-4939-0757-1 4514:978-0-12-814516-6 4424:10.3390/v13020178 4373:10.3390/v11060567 4175:(7813): 561–565. 3883:10.3390/v12090917 3385:(12): 2974–2985. 3336:(10): 1017–1023. 3252:978-0-12-375156-0 2808:978-1-0716-0580-6 2767:978-1-4939-0757-1 2624:Knowable Magazine 1926:978-0-88135-380-8 1801:10.1111/tan.12742 1723:978-0-12-375146-1 1672:Shors pp. 74, 827 1021:influenza viruses 995:All viruses have 953:COVID-19 pandemic 779:Molecular biology 760:Viral load assays 494:negative staining 452:Detecting viruses 434:Pasteur Institute 402:hepatitis B virus 392:and the cause of 374:Rosalind Franklin 370:X-ray diffraction 331:Frederick Robbins 102:Rosalind Franklin 69:(TMV) as a novel 6597: 6218:Chemical biology 6100: 6093: 6086: 6077: 5990:Disciplines and 5972: 5965: 5958: 5949: 5933: 5932: 5921: 5920: 5771:Pharmacogenomics 5551: 5545:Basic techniques 5526:Green Revolution 5504:General concepts 5422: 5379: 5372: 5365: 5356: 5350: 5349: 5347:Official website 5336: 5321: 5306:Shors T (2017). 5302: 5283: 5254: 5253: 5235: 5209: 5200: 5194: 5193: 5191: 5189: 5174: 5165: 5164: 5154: 5122: 5116: 5115: 5097: 5073: 5067: 5066: 5046: 5040: 5039: 5029: 4997: 4991: 4990: 4980: 4970: 4955:Virology Journal 4946: 4940: 4939: 4911: 4905: 4904: 4884: 4878: 4877: 4867: 4850:(8): 2037–2046. 4835: 4829: 4828: 4818: 4784: 4778: 4777: 4759: 4735: 4729: 4728: 4718: 4686: 4680: 4679: 4645: 4639: 4638: 4628: 4596: 4590: 4589: 4579: 4547: 4541: 4540: 4534: 4526: 4500: 4494: 4493: 4453: 4447: 4446: 4436: 4426: 4402: 4396: 4395: 4385: 4375: 4351: 4342: 4341: 4323: 4313: 4293: 4287: 4286: 4266: 4260: 4259: 4249: 4238:10.1002/pro.3668 4232:(8): 1412–1422. 4217: 4211: 4210: 4192: 4159: 4153: 4152: 4142: 4110: 4104: 4101: 4095: 4094: 4084: 4052: 4046: 4045: 4035: 4025: 4001: 3992: 3991: 3955: 3949: 3948: 3912: 3906: 3905: 3895: 3885: 3861: 3855: 3854: 3826: 3817: 3816: 3806: 3796: 3772: 3766: 3765: 3755: 3723: 3717: 3716: 3706: 3674: 3668: 3667: 3657: 3617: 3611: 3610: 3600: 3568: 3562: 3561: 3525: 3519: 3518: 3486: 3480: 3479: 3469: 3437: 3431: 3430: 3420: 3394: 3370: 3364: 3363: 3353: 3321: 3315: 3314: 3304: 3272: 3266: 3265: 3264: 3230: 3224: 3223: 3213: 3196:(9): 2311–2330. 3181: 3175: 3174: 3164: 3154: 3130: 3124: 3123: 3113: 3081: 3075: 3074: 3064: 3054: 3030: 3024: 3023: 2987: 2981: 2980: 2970: 2938: 2932: 2931: 2911: 2905: 2904: 2884: 2878: 2877: 2867: 2850:(7): 1201–1208. 2835: 2829: 2828: 2786: 2780: 2779: 2745: 2739: 2738: 2728: 2718: 2690: 2684: 2683: 2651: 2645: 2644: 2642: 2640: 2635: 2615: 2609: 2608: 2598: 2566: 2560: 2559: 2549: 2501: 2495: 2494: 2484: 2452: 2446: 2445: 2417: 2411: 2410: 2408: 2407: 2393: 2387: 2384: 2371: 2370: 2360: 2336: 2330: 2329: 2311: 2294:(4902): 359–62. 2283: 2277: 2276: 2251:(4599): 868–71. 2239: 2233: 2232: 2194: 2188: 2185: 2179: 2178: 2142: 2136: 2133: 2127: 2126: 2090: 2084: 2083: 2058:(2311): 345–47. 2047: 2041: 2040: 2004: 1998: 1988: 1972: 1966: 1965: 1937: 1931: 1930: 1910: 1904: 1903: 1878:(1919): 371–72. 1867: 1861: 1858: 1852: 1851: 1827: 1821: 1820: 1784: 1778: 1777: 1767: 1743: 1737: 1734: 1728: 1727: 1709: 1703: 1700: 1694: 1691: 1685: 1682: 1673: 1670: 1664: 1663: 1635: 1629: 1628: 1618: 1600: 1576: 1570: 1569: 1541: 1535: 1534: 1524: 1492: 1477: 1472: 1471: 1455:dsDNA-RT viruses 1444:ssRNA-RT viruses 1433:Orthomyxoviruses 1429:(−)ssRNA viruses 1410:(+)ssRNA viruses 1053:Reverse genetics 1048:Reverse genetics 884:ethidium bromide 825:ultracentrifuges 655:Diagnostic tests 514:NMR spectroscopy 438:Michael Houghton 335:Hilary Koprowski 199:Dmitri Ivanovsky 125:medical virology 45:scientific study 27:Virology Journal 16:Study of viruses 6607: 6606: 6600: 6599: 6598: 6596: 6595: 6594: 6575: 6574: 6573: 6568: 6542: 6503:Systems biology 6468:Quantum biology 6109: 6104: 6074: 6069: 5985: 5976: 5946: 5941: 5909: 5883: 5824:Biopharmacology 5796: 5790: 5666: 5637:Electrophoresis 5632:Kidney dialysis 5622:Crystallization 5600: 5546: 5540: 5499: 5444: 5423: 5414: 5388: 5383: 5345: 5344: 5329: 5324: 5318: 5305: 5299: 5286: 5280: 5267: 5263: 5258: 5257: 5218:(3): e0005321. 5207: 5202: 5201: 5197: 5187: 5185: 5176: 5175: 5168: 5143:10.1002/rmv.532 5124: 5123: 5119: 5075: 5074: 5070: 5048: 5047: 5043: 4999: 4998: 4994: 4948: 4947: 4943: 4913: 4912: 4908: 4886: 4885: 4881: 4837: 4836: 4832: 4807: 4786: 4785: 4781: 4737: 4736: 4732: 4688: 4687: 4683: 4668: 4647: 4646: 4642: 4598: 4597: 4593: 4549: 4548: 4544: 4527: 4515: 4502: 4501: 4497: 4455: 4454: 4450: 4404: 4403: 4399: 4353: 4352: 4345: 4295: 4294: 4290: 4268: 4267: 4263: 4226:Protein Science 4219: 4218: 4214: 4161: 4160: 4156: 4112: 4111: 4107: 4102: 4098: 4054: 4053: 4049: 4003: 4002: 3995: 3957: 3956: 3952: 3914: 3913: 3909: 3863: 3862: 3858: 3828: 3827: 3820: 3774: 3773: 3769: 3725: 3724: 3720: 3676: 3675: 3671: 3619: 3618: 3614: 3570: 3569: 3565: 3527: 3526: 3522: 3501:(3–4): 229–37. 3492: 3488: 3487: 3483: 3439: 3438: 3434: 3372: 3371: 3367: 3323: 3322: 3318: 3274: 3273: 3269: 3253: 3232: 3231: 3227: 3183: 3182: 3178: 3132: 3131: 3127: 3083: 3082: 3078: 3032: 3031: 3027: 2998:(5–6): 217–49. 2989: 2988: 2984: 2940: 2939: 2935: 2913: 2912: 2908: 2886: 2885: 2881: 2837: 2836: 2832: 2809: 2788: 2787: 2783: 2768: 2747: 2746: 2742: 2692: 2691: 2687: 2653: 2652: 2648: 2638: 2636: 2617: 2616: 2612: 2568: 2567: 2563: 2503: 2502: 2498: 2454: 2453: 2449: 2419: 2418: 2414: 2405: 2403: 2395: 2394: 2390: 2385: 2374: 2338: 2337: 2333: 2309:10.1.1.469.3592 2285: 2284: 2280: 2241: 2240: 2236: 2221: 2196: 2195: 2191: 2186: 2182: 2144: 2143: 2139: 2134: 2130: 2092: 2091: 2087: 2049: 2048: 2044: 2006: 2005: 2001: 1974: 1973: 1969: 1948:(15): 1481–83. 1939: 1938: 1934: 1927: 1912: 1911: 1907: 1869: 1868: 1864: 1859: 1855: 1829: 1828: 1824: 1786: 1785: 1781: 1745: 1744: 1740: 1735: 1731: 1724: 1711: 1710: 1706: 1702:Dimmock pp. 4–5 1701: 1697: 1692: 1688: 1683: 1676: 1671: 1667: 1637: 1636: 1632: 1578: 1577: 1573: 1543: 1542: 1538: 1494: 1493: 1489: 1484: 1473: 1466: 1341:David Baltimore 1325: 1319: 1140: 1075: 1069: 1062: 1050: 1037: 1013: 993: 977: 969:recombinant DNA 961:cloning vectors 949: 943: 919: 902: 896: 888:autoradiography 868:electrophoresis 852: 850:Electrophoresis 814: 793: 781: 768: 762: 755: 718: 710:absolute values 697: 684: 678: 657: 639: 590: 582:antiviral drugs 530: 474: 454: 432:'s team at the 426:David Baltimore 406:Baruch Blumberg 382:Robley Williams 260:Félix d'Herelle 252:Frederick Twort 233:Wendell Stanley 166: 158:Main articles: 156: 121:animal virology 30: 17: 12: 11: 5: 6605: 6604: 6601: 6593: 6592: 6587: 6577: 6576: 6570: 6569: 6567: 6566: 6561: 6556: 6550: 6548: 6544: 6543: 6541: 6540: 6535: 6530: 6525: 6520: 6515: 6510: 6505: 6500: 6495: 6490: 6485: 6480: 6475: 6470: 6465: 6460: 6455: 6450: 6445: 6440: 6435: 6430: 6425: 6420: 6415: 6410: 6405: 6400: 6395: 6390: 6385: 6380: 6375: 6370: 6365: 6360: 6358:Marine biology 6355: 6350: 6345: 6340: 6335: 6330: 6325: 6320: 6315: 6310: 6305: 6300: 6295: 6290: 6285: 6280: 6275: 6270: 6265: 6260: 6255: 6250: 6245: 6240: 6235: 6230: 6225: 6220: 6215: 6210: 6205: 6200: 6195: 6190: 6185: 6180: 6175: 6170: 6168:Bioinformatics 6165: 6160: 6155: 6150: 6145: 6140: 6135: 6130: 6125: 6120: 6114: 6111: 6110: 6105: 6103: 6102: 6095: 6088: 6080: 6071: 6070: 6068: 6067: 6066: 6065: 6055: 6054: 6053: 6048: 6038: 6037: 6036: 6026: 6025: 6024: 6019: 6009: 6008: 6007: 5996: 5994: 5987: 5986: 5977: 5975: 5974: 5967: 5960: 5952: 5943: 5942: 5940: 5939: 5927: 5914: 5911: 5910: 5908: 5907: 5902: 5897: 5891: 5889: 5885: 5884: 5882: 5881: 5876: 5871: 5866: 5861: 5856: 5851: 5846: 5841: 5836: 5831: 5826: 5821: 5816: 5814:Bioengineering 5811: 5809:Bioelectronics 5806: 5800: 5798: 5792: 5791: 5789: 5788: 5786:Tissue culture 5783: 5778: 5773: 5768: 5763: 5758: 5753: 5752: 5751: 5746: 5736: 5731: 5726: 5725: 5724: 5719: 5709: 5704: 5699: 5694: 5692:Bioinformatics 5689: 5687:Biofabrication 5684: 5678: 5676: 5672: 5671: 5668: 5667: 5665: 5664: 5659: 5654: 5649: 5644: 5639: 5634: 5629: 5627:Chromatography 5624: 5619: 5614: 5612:Centrifugation 5608: 5606: 5605:Chemical field 5602: 5601: 5599: 5598: 5593: 5588: 5583: 5578: 5576:Flow cytometry 5573: 5568: 5563: 5557: 5555: 5548: 5542: 5541: 5539: 5538: 5533: 5528: 5523: 5518: 5513: 5507: 5505: 5501: 5500: 5498: 5497: 5492: 5487: 5482: 5477: 5472: 5463: 5458: 5452: 5450: 5446: 5445: 5443: 5442: 5437: 5431: 5429: 5425: 5424: 5417: 5415: 5413: 5412: 5407: 5402: 5396: 5394: 5390: 5389: 5384: 5382: 5381: 5374: 5367: 5359: 5353: 5352: 5342: 5328: 5327:External links 5325: 5323: 5322: 5316: 5303: 5297: 5284: 5278: 5264: 5262: 5259: 5256: 5255: 5195: 5166: 5117: 5068: 5057:(3): 863–873. 5041: 5012:(5): 668–674. 4992: 4941: 4906: 4879: 4830: 4805: 4779: 4730: 4701:(2): 151–163. 4681: 4666: 4640: 4591: 4542: 4513: 4495: 4462:Virus Research 4448: 4397: 4343: 4288: 4261: 4212: 4154: 4105: 4096: 4067:(3): 181–192. 4047: 3993: 3966:(3): 218–226. 3950: 3907: 3856: 3818: 3767: 3718: 3669: 3612: 3563: 3536:(3): 311–323. 3520: 3490: 3481: 3432: 3365: 3316: 3267: 3251: 3225: 3176: 3125: 3096:(4): 317–325. 3076: 3025: 2982: 2933: 2906: 2879: 2830: 2807: 2781: 2766: 2740: 2685: 2646: 2610: 2581:(3): 438–449. 2561: 2516:(5): 375–379. 2496: 2447: 2412: 2388: 2372: 2331: 2278: 2234: 2219: 2189: 2187:Collier p. 745 2180: 2153:(6): 1109–23. 2137: 2128: 2107:10.1086/588626 2085: 2042: 1999: 1997: 1996: 1967: 1932: 1925: 1905: 1862: 1853: 1842:(2): 294–300. 1822: 1779: 1738: 1729: 1722: 1704: 1695: 1686: 1674: 1665: 1630: 1571: 1536: 1486: 1485: 1483: 1480: 1479: 1478: 1475:Viruses portal 1463: 1462: 1459:Hepadnaviruses 1451: 1440: 1425: 1418:Picornaviruses 1406: 1395: 1384: 1321:Main article: 1318: 1315: 1314: 1313: 1312: 1311: 1310: 1309: 1308: 1307: 1306: 1305: 1304: 1303: 1302: 1301: 1300: 1299: 1298: 1297: 1296: 1295: 1294: 1293: 1292: 1291: 1290: 1289: 1288: 1287: 1286: 1285: 1153:10,434 species 1139: 1136: 1071:Main article: 1061: 1058: 1049: 1046: 1036: 1033: 1012: 1009: 992: 989: 981:bacteriophages 976: 975:Phage virology 973: 947:Cloning vector 945:Main article: 942: 939: 918: 915: 900:DNA sequencing 898:Main article: 895: 892: 851: 848: 813: 812:Centrifugation 810: 792: 789: 780: 777: 764:Main article: 761: 758: 753: 741:immunostaining 716: 696: 693: 680:Main article: 677: 674: 656: 653: 638: 635: 589: 586: 540:bacteriophages 529: 526: 506:vitreous water 473: 470: 453: 450: 430:Luc Montagnier 408:, and in 1965 295:growing tissue 256:bacteriophages 243:(the agent of 188:microbiologist 155: 152: 148:microorganisms 117:plant virology 81:distinct from 47:of biological 15: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 6603: 6602: 6591: 6588: 6586: 6583: 6582: 6580: 6565: 6562: 6560: 6557: 6555: 6552: 6551: 6549: 6545: 6539: 6536: 6534: 6531: 6529: 6526: 6524: 6521: 6519: 6516: 6514: 6511: 6509: 6506: 6504: 6501: 6499: 6496: 6494: 6491: 6489: 6486: 6484: 6481: 6479: 6476: 6474: 6471: 6469: 6466: 6464: 6461: 6459: 6456: 6454: 6451: 6449: 6446: 6444: 6441: 6439: 6438:Phylogenetics 6436: 6434: 6431: 6429: 6426: 6424: 6421: 6419: 6416: 6414: 6411: 6409: 6406: 6404: 6401: 6399: 6396: 6394: 6391: 6389: 6386: 6384: 6381: 6379: 6376: 6374: 6371: 6369: 6366: 6364: 6361: 6359: 6356: 6354: 6351: 6349: 6346: 6344: 6341: 6339: 6336: 6334: 6333:Human biology 6331: 6329: 6326: 6324: 6321: 6319: 6316: 6314: 6311: 6309: 6306: 6304: 6301: 6299: 6296: 6294: 6291: 6289: 6286: 6284: 6281: 6279: 6276: 6274: 6271: 6269: 6266: 6264: 6261: 6259: 6256: 6254: 6251: 6249: 6246: 6244: 6241: 6239: 6236: 6234: 6231: 6229: 6226: 6224: 6223:Chronobiology 6221: 6219: 6216: 6214: 6211: 6209: 6206: 6204: 6201: 6199: 6198:Biotechnology 6196: 6194: 6193:Biostatistics 6191: 6189: 6186: 6184: 6181: 6179: 6176: 6174: 6171: 6169: 6166: 6164: 6161: 6159: 6156: 6154: 6151: 6149: 6146: 6144: 6141: 6139: 6136: 6134: 6131: 6129: 6126: 6124: 6121: 6119: 6116: 6115: 6112: 6108: 6101: 6096: 6094: 6089: 6087: 6082: 6081: 6078: 6064: 6063:ectoparasites 6061: 6060: 6059: 6056: 6052: 6049: 6047: 6044: 6043: 6042: 6039: 6035: 6032: 6031: 6030: 6027: 6023: 6020: 6018: 6015: 6014: 6013: 6010: 6006: 6003: 6002: 6001: 5998: 5997: 5995: 5993: 5988: 5984: 5980: 5973: 5968: 5966: 5961: 5959: 5954: 5953: 5950: 5938: 5937: 5928: 5926: 5925: 5916: 5915: 5912: 5906: 5903: 5901: 5898: 5896: 5893: 5892: 5890: 5886: 5880: 5877: 5875: 5872: 5870: 5867: 5865: 5862: 5860: 5857: 5855: 5852: 5850: 5847: 5845: 5842: 5840: 5837: 5835: 5832: 5830: 5827: 5825: 5822: 5820: 5817: 5815: 5812: 5810: 5807: 5805: 5802: 5801: 5799: 5793: 5787: 5784: 5782: 5779: 5777: 5774: 5772: 5769: 5767: 5764: 5762: 5759: 5757: 5754: 5750: 5747: 5745: 5742: 5741: 5740: 5737: 5735: 5732: 5730: 5727: 5723: 5720: 5718: 5715: 5714: 5713: 5710: 5708: 5707:Cell immunity 5705: 5703: 5700: 5698: 5695: 5693: 5690: 5688: 5685: 5683: 5680: 5679: 5677: 5673: 5663: 5662:Sedimentation 5660: 5658: 5655: 5653: 5650: 5648: 5645: 5643: 5640: 5638: 5635: 5633: 5630: 5628: 5625: 5623: 5620: 5618: 5615: 5613: 5610: 5609: 5607: 5603: 5597: 5594: 5592: 5589: 5587: 5584: 5582: 5579: 5577: 5574: 5572: 5571:Cultured meat 5569: 5567: 5564: 5562: 5559: 5558: 5556: 5554:Biology field 5552: 5549: 5543: 5537: 5534: 5532: 5529: 5527: 5524: 5522: 5519: 5517: 5514: 5512: 5509: 5508: 5506: 5502: 5496: 5493: 5491: 5488: 5486: 5483: 5481: 5478: 5476: 5473: 5471: 5467: 5464: 5462: 5459: 5457: 5454: 5453: 5451: 5447: 5441: 5438: 5436: 5433: 5432: 5430: 5426: 5421: 5411: 5408: 5406: 5403: 5401: 5398: 5397: 5395: 5391: 5387: 5386:Biotechnology 5380: 5375: 5373: 5368: 5366: 5361: 5360: 5357: 5348: 5343: 5340: 5335: 5331: 5330: 5326: 5319: 5313: 5309: 5304: 5300: 5294: 5290: 5285: 5281: 5279:0-340-66316-2 5275: 5271: 5266: 5265: 5260: 5251: 5247: 5243: 5239: 5234: 5229: 5225: 5221: 5217: 5213: 5206: 5199: 5196: 5183: 5179: 5173: 5171: 5167: 5162: 5158: 5153: 5148: 5144: 5140: 5137:(2): 115–31. 5136: 5132: 5128: 5121: 5118: 5113: 5109: 5105: 5101: 5096: 5091: 5087: 5083: 5082:Intervirology 5079: 5072: 5069: 5064: 5060: 5056: 5052: 5045: 5042: 5037: 5033: 5028: 5023: 5019: 5015: 5011: 5007: 5006:Nat Microbiol 5003: 4996: 4993: 4988: 4984: 4979: 4974: 4969: 4964: 4960: 4956: 4952: 4945: 4942: 4937: 4933: 4929: 4925: 4921: 4917: 4910: 4907: 4902: 4898: 4894: 4891:(in French). 4890: 4883: 4880: 4875: 4871: 4866: 4861: 4857: 4853: 4849: 4845: 4841: 4834: 4831: 4826: 4822: 4817: 4812: 4808: 4806:9780444534880 4802: 4798: 4794: 4790: 4789:Neurovirology 4783: 4780: 4775: 4771: 4767: 4763: 4758: 4753: 4749: 4745: 4741: 4734: 4731: 4726: 4722: 4717: 4712: 4708: 4704: 4700: 4696: 4692: 4685: 4682: 4677: 4673: 4669: 4663: 4659: 4655: 4651: 4644: 4641: 4636: 4632: 4627: 4622: 4618: 4614: 4610: 4606: 4605:Bioengineered 4602: 4595: 4592: 4587: 4583: 4578: 4573: 4569: 4565: 4562:(7): 448–60. 4561: 4557: 4553: 4546: 4543: 4538: 4532: 4524: 4520: 4516: 4510: 4507:. Amsterdam. 4506: 4499: 4496: 4491: 4487: 4483: 4479: 4475: 4471: 4467: 4463: 4459: 4452: 4449: 4444: 4440: 4435: 4430: 4425: 4420: 4416: 4412: 4408: 4401: 4398: 4393: 4389: 4384: 4379: 4374: 4369: 4365: 4361: 4357: 4350: 4348: 4344: 4339: 4335: 4331: 4327: 4322: 4317: 4312: 4307: 4303: 4299: 4292: 4289: 4284: 4280: 4277:(1): 103–29. 4276: 4272: 4265: 4262: 4257: 4253: 4248: 4243: 4239: 4235: 4231: 4227: 4223: 4216: 4213: 4208: 4204: 4200: 4196: 4191: 4186: 4182: 4178: 4174: 4170: 4166: 4158: 4155: 4150: 4146: 4141: 4136: 4132: 4128: 4124: 4120: 4116: 4109: 4106: 4100: 4097: 4092: 4088: 4083: 4078: 4074: 4070: 4066: 4062: 4058: 4051: 4048: 4043: 4039: 4034: 4029: 4024: 4019: 4015: 4011: 4007: 4000: 3998: 3994: 3989: 3985: 3981: 3977: 3973: 3969: 3965: 3961: 3954: 3951: 3946: 3942: 3938: 3934: 3930: 3926: 3922: 3918: 3911: 3908: 3903: 3899: 3894: 3889: 3884: 3879: 3875: 3871: 3867: 3860: 3857: 3852: 3848: 3844: 3840: 3837:(6): 343–52. 3836: 3832: 3825: 3823: 3819: 3814: 3810: 3805: 3800: 3795: 3790: 3786: 3782: 3778: 3771: 3768: 3763: 3759: 3754: 3749: 3745: 3741: 3737: 3733: 3729: 3722: 3719: 3714: 3710: 3705: 3700: 3696: 3692: 3689:(9): e25337. 3688: 3684: 3680: 3673: 3670: 3665: 3661: 3656: 3651: 3647: 3643: 3639: 3635: 3631: 3627: 3623: 3616: 3613: 3608: 3604: 3599: 3594: 3590: 3586: 3582: 3578: 3574: 3567: 3564: 3559: 3555: 3551: 3547: 3543: 3539: 3535: 3531: 3524: 3521: 3516: 3512: 3508: 3504: 3500: 3496: 3485: 3482: 3477: 3473: 3468: 3463: 3459: 3455: 3452:(1): 107–22. 3451: 3447: 3443: 3436: 3433: 3428: 3424: 3419: 3414: 3410: 3406: 3402: 3398: 3393: 3388: 3384: 3380: 3376: 3369: 3366: 3361: 3357: 3352: 3347: 3343: 3339: 3335: 3331: 3327: 3320: 3317: 3312: 3308: 3303: 3298: 3294: 3290: 3287:(1): 111–20. 3286: 3282: 3278: 3271: 3268: 3263: 3258: 3254: 3248: 3244: 3240: 3236: 3229: 3226: 3221: 3217: 3212: 3207: 3203: 3199: 3195: 3191: 3187: 3180: 3177: 3172: 3168: 3163: 3158: 3153: 3148: 3144: 3140: 3136: 3129: 3126: 3121: 3117: 3112: 3107: 3103: 3099: 3095: 3091: 3090:BioTechniques 3087: 3080: 3077: 3072: 3068: 3063: 3058: 3053: 3048: 3044: 3040: 3036: 3029: 3026: 3021: 3017: 3013: 3009: 3005: 3001: 2997: 2993: 2986: 2983: 2978: 2974: 2969: 2964: 2960: 2956: 2952: 2948: 2944: 2937: 2934: 2929: 2925: 2922:(4): 219–24. 2921: 2917: 2910: 2907: 2902: 2898: 2894: 2890: 2883: 2880: 2875: 2871: 2866: 2861: 2857: 2853: 2849: 2845: 2841: 2834: 2831: 2826: 2822: 2818: 2814: 2810: 2804: 2800: 2796: 2792: 2785: 2782: 2777: 2773: 2769: 2763: 2759: 2755: 2751: 2744: 2741: 2736: 2732: 2727: 2722: 2717: 2712: 2708: 2704: 2700: 2696: 2689: 2686: 2681: 2677: 2673: 2669: 2665: 2661: 2657: 2650: 2647: 2634: 2629: 2625: 2621: 2614: 2611: 2606: 2602: 2597: 2592: 2588: 2584: 2580: 2576: 2572: 2565: 2562: 2557: 2553: 2548: 2543: 2539: 2535: 2531: 2527: 2523: 2519: 2515: 2511: 2507: 2500: 2497: 2492: 2488: 2483: 2478: 2474: 2470: 2467:(4): 552–63. 2466: 2462: 2458: 2451: 2448: 2443: 2439: 2435: 2431: 2427: 2423: 2416: 2413: 2402: 2398: 2392: 2389: 2383: 2381: 2379: 2377: 2373: 2368: 2364: 2359: 2354: 2351:(5): 939–48. 2350: 2346: 2342: 2335: 2332: 2327: 2323: 2319: 2315: 2310: 2305: 2301: 2297: 2293: 2289: 2282: 2279: 2274: 2270: 2266: 2262: 2258: 2254: 2250: 2246: 2238: 2235: 2230: 2226: 2222: 2220:9780120398171 2216: 2212: 2208: 2204: 2200: 2193: 2190: 2184: 2181: 2176: 2172: 2168: 2164: 2160: 2156: 2152: 2148: 2141: 2138: 2135:Dimmock p. 12 2132: 2129: 2124: 2120: 2116: 2112: 2108: 2104: 2101:(2): 239–72. 2100: 2096: 2089: 2086: 2081: 2077: 2073: 2069: 2065: 2061: 2057: 2053: 2046: 2043: 2038: 2034: 2030: 2026: 2022: 2018: 2014: 2010: 2003: 2000: 1994: 1990: 1989: 1986: 1982: 1978: 1971: 1968: 1963: 1959: 1955: 1951: 1947: 1943: 1936: 1933: 1928: 1922: 1918: 1917: 1909: 1906: 1901: 1897: 1893: 1889: 1885: 1881: 1877: 1873: 1866: 1863: 1857: 1854: 1849: 1845: 1841: 1837: 1833: 1826: 1823: 1818: 1814: 1810: 1806: 1802: 1798: 1795:(3): 133–40. 1794: 1790: 1783: 1780: 1775: 1771: 1766: 1761: 1758:(7): 553–54. 1757: 1753: 1749: 1742: 1739: 1733: 1730: 1725: 1719: 1715: 1708: 1705: 1699: 1696: 1690: 1687: 1681: 1679: 1675: 1669: 1666: 1661: 1657: 1653: 1649: 1646:(6): 553–60. 1645: 1641: 1634: 1631: 1626: 1622: 1617: 1612: 1608: 1604: 1599: 1594: 1590: 1586: 1582: 1575: 1572: 1567: 1563: 1559: 1555: 1551: 1547: 1540: 1537: 1532: 1528: 1523: 1518: 1514: 1510: 1507:(5): 322–31. 1506: 1502: 1498: 1491: 1488: 1481: 1476: 1470: 1465: 1460: 1456: 1452: 1449: 1445: 1441: 1438: 1437:Rhabdoviruses 1434: 1430: 1426: 1423: 1419: 1415: 1414:Coronaviruses 1411: 1407: 1404: 1400: 1399:dsRNA viruses 1396: 1393: 1389: 1388:ssDNA viruses 1385: 1382: 1378: 1377:Herpesviruses 1374: 1370: 1369:dsDNA viruses 1366: 1365: 1364: 1362: 1358: 1353: 1348: 1346: 1342: 1334: 1329: 1324: 1316: 1284: 1281: 1280: 1278: 1274: 1273: 1271: 1267: 1264: 1263: 1261: 1257: 1256: 1254: 1250: 1247: 1246: 1244: 1240: 1239: 1237: 1233: 1230: 1229: 1227: 1223: 1222: 1220: 1216: 1213: 1212: 1210: 1206: 1205: 1203: 1199: 1196: 1195: 1193: 1189: 1188: 1186: 1182: 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5983:microbiology 5934: 5922: 5878: 5859:Microbiology 5844:Biochemicals 5756:Gene therapy 5697:Biosynthesis 5675:Applications 5596:Spectroscopy 5566:Cell culture 5475:Fermentation 5307: 5288: 5269: 5261:Bibliography 5215: 5211: 5198: 5186:. Retrieved 5181: 5134: 5130: 5120: 5088:(2): 79–83. 5085: 5081: 5071: 5054: 5050: 5044: 5009: 5005: 4995: 4958: 4954: 4944: 4919: 4915: 4909: 4892: 4888: 4882: 4847: 4843: 4833: 4788: 4782: 4747: 4743: 4733: 4698: 4694: 4684: 4649: 4643: 4608: 4604: 4594: 4559: 4555: 4545: 4504: 4498: 4465: 4461: 4451: 4414: 4410: 4400: 4363: 4359: 4301: 4291: 4274: 4270: 4264: 4229: 4225: 4215: 4172: 4168: 4157: 4122: 4118: 4108: 4099: 4064: 4060: 4050: 4013: 4010:BMC Genomics 4009: 3963: 3959: 3953: 3920: 3916: 3910: 3873: 3869: 3859: 3834: 3830: 3784: 3780: 3770: 3735: 3731: 3721: 3686: 3682: 3672: 3629: 3625: 3615: 3580: 3576: 3566: 3533: 3529: 3523: 3498: 3494: 3484: 3449: 3445: 3435: 3382: 3378: 3368: 3333: 3329: 3319: 3284: 3280: 3270: 3234: 3228: 3193: 3189: 3179: 3142: 3138: 3128: 3093: 3089: 3079: 3042: 3038: 3028: 2995: 2991: 2985: 2953:(2): 150–6. 2950: 2946: 2936: 2919: 2915: 2909: 2895:(1): 13–21. 2892: 2888: 2882: 2847: 2843: 2833: 2790: 2784: 2749: 2743: 2706: 2702: 2688: 2655: 2649: 2637:. 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Retrieved 2401:BBC Bitesize 2400: 2391: 2348: 2344: 2334: 2291: 2287: 2281: 2248: 2244: 2237: 2202: 2198: 2192: 2183: 2150: 2146: 2140: 2131: 2098: 2094: 2088: 2055: 2051: 2045: 2015:(2143): 85. 2012: 2008: 2002: 1992: 1976: 1970: 1945: 1941: 1935: 1915: 1908: 1875: 1871: 1865: 1860:Collier p. 4 1856: 1839: 1835: 1825: 1792: 1788: 1782: 1755: 1751: 1741: 1736:Shors p. 827 1732: 1713: 1707: 1698: 1693:Dimmock p. 4 1689: 1684:Collier p. 3 1668: 1643: 1639: 1633: 1588: 1584: 1574: 1549: 1545: 1539: 1504: 1500: 1490: 1448:Retroviruses 1392:Parvoviruses 1373:Adenoviruses 1349: 1343:devised the 1338: 1276: 1269: 1259: 1252: 1242: 1235: 1226:-viricetidae 1225: 1218: 1208: 1201: 1191: 1190:Subkingdom ( 1184: 1174: 1167: 1157: 1141: 1131: 1091:Robert Horne 1076: 1051: 1040: 1038: 1016:Reassortment 1014: 1011:Reassortment 994: 978: 950: 935:epidemiology 920: 907:epidemiology 903: 865: 833: 815: 806: 782: 769: 738: 706: 685: 658: 648:microfluidic 640: 623: 592:Viruses are 591: 579: 552: 531: 499: 491: 483: 463: 410:Howard Temin 387: 366:crystallised 347: 312: 284: 249: 228: 222: 215: 178: 129: 106: 83:bacteriology 64: 53:microbiology 40: 39: 18: 6533:Xenobiology 6528:Virophysics 6498:Systematics 6453:Primatology 6398:Ornithology 6338:Ichthyology 6323:Herpetology 6318:Gerontology 6283:Epigenetics 6243:Cryobiology 6133:Agrostology 6123:Aerobiology 6118:Abiogenesis 5849:Biorobotics 5839:Biomimetics 5834:Biomedicine 4895:: 4225–27. 4695:Virus Genes 4611:(1): 9–14. 3632:(1): 4500. 1422:Togaviruses 1258:Subfamily ( 1209:-viricotina 1207:Subphylum ( 1087:André Lwoff 1025:rotaviruses 817:Centrifuges 567:mumps virus 563:fibroblasts 446:hepatitis C 444:discovered 440:'s team at 354:Ernst Ruska 337:, and then 287:infectivity 241:aphthovirus 6579:Categories 6518:Toxicology 6513:Teratology 6458:Proteomics 6443:Physiology 6383:Neontology 6348:Lipidology 6343:Immunology 6313:Geobiology 6273:Embryology 6253:Dendrology 6183:Biophysics 6163:Biogeology 6058:Entomology 5804:Bioeconomy 5776:Stem cells 5729:Embryology 5652:Filtration 5642:Extraction 5561:Bioreactor 4523:1240584737 4417:(2): 178. 4366:(6): 567. 4321:1822/54758 4125:(7): 388. 4016:(1): 421. 3876:(9): 917. 3392:1805.02810 3045:(3): 226. 2791:Zika Virus 2709:(2): 188. 2695:Higgins CM 2428:: 103–10. 2406:2023-01-02 2205:: 129–86. 1482:References 1403:Reoviruses 1381:Poxviruses 1335:synthesis. 1275:Subgenus ( 1241:Suborder ( 1224:Subclass ( 1219:-viricetes 1173:Subrealm ( 766:Viral load 745:antibodies 688:viral load 598:antibodies 414:retrovirus 398:pestivirus 339:Jonas Salk 308:poliovirus 276:penicillin 264:agar plate 146:and other 6433:Phycology 6418:Pathology 6403:Osteology 6393:Nutrition 6353:Mammalogy 6328:Histology 6051:helminths 5992:pathogens 5647:Fed Batch 5547:and tools 5250:235821748 4922:: 51–55. 4774:220907379 4531:cite book 4468:: 86–90. 4207:213516085 3960:BioEssays 3945:143423942 3558:232023531 3145:(1): 11. 3039:Pathogens 2825:218504421 2538:1431-9276 2304:CiteSeerX 1607:1478-4505 1591:(1): 70. 1552:: 143–7. 1243:-virineae 1202:-viricota 1132:genogroup 1041:stretches 860:rotavirus 801:rotavirus 733:rotavirus 486:electrons 358:Max Knoll 113:virulence 94:infection 87:bacterial 6585:Virology 6547:See also 6523:Virology 6508:Taxonomy 6448:Pomology 6378:Mycology 6308:Genomics 6303:Genetics 6128:Agronomy 6046:protozoa 6029:Mycology 6012:Virology 6005:bacteria 5924:Category 5879:Virology 5781:Telomere 5428:Branches 5339:Virology 5242:34259570 5161:17295196 5104:22286874 5063:34226482 5036:32341570 4987:16105179 4936:13931895 4901:14467544 4874:30039318 4825:25015480 4766:32740831 4725:33528730 4676:24899418 4635:22922205 4586:27211789 4490:21736957 4482:29751021 4443:33504115 4392:31216787 4338:46921731 4330:29853167 4283:16791793 4256:31219641 4199:32365353 4149:32404960 4091:30531947 4042:32571214 3988:41587013 3980:20127703 3937:31043560 3902:32825599 3813:32765569 3787:: 1092. 3762:28315718 3738:: 5–13. 3713:31515967 3664:33627730 3607:28701394 3550:33624268 3515:21474258 3476:15585191 3427:29925033 3360:34369836 3311:27365041 3220:33219449 3171:35300739 3120:32815744 3071:32197545 3020:24960083 3012:22185616 2977:21887208 2901:32342927 2874:32056049 2817:32367358 2776:24899440 2735:35050076 2680:41236532 2672:19653216 2639:25 March 2605:25910204 2556:18793481 2491:19822888 2442:13804200 2367:19781804 2175:10595263 2167:18446425 2123:25741967 2115:18702397 2080:17788438 2037:17756690 1962:15470207 1900:17810781 1817:29223662 1809:26891965 1774:17855060 1660:12758285 1625:33926472 1566:25462446 1531:22408703 1347:system. 1260:-virinae 1253:-viridae 1236:-virales 1192:-virites 1095:Linnaean 1029:serotype 1001:genetics 991:Genetics 965:plasmids 844:Dead Sea 603:serology 594:antigens 588:Serology 466:antigens 303:vaccinia 144:bacteria 140:proteins 71:pathogen 41:Virology 6590:Viruses 6538:Zoology 6268:Ecology 6138:Anatomy 6017:viruses 5936:Commons 5819:Biology 5712:Cloning 5490:Protein 5485:Plasmid 5393:History 5233:8483701 5188:4 April 5152:7169062 5112:5642060 5027:7186216 4978:1208960 4865:6096723 4816:7152233 4716:7851324 4626:3566024 4577:5119462 4434:7912188 4411:Viruses 4383:6630733 4360:Viruses 4247:6635841 4177:Bibcode 4140:7220607 4082:7097006 4033:7306937 3893:7552034 3870:Viruses 3851:6290520 3804:7380168 3753:5429390 3704:6742838 3655:7904914 3634:Bibcode 3598:5571246 3467:7110861 3418:6026352 3397:Bibcode 3351:8425446 3302:4986465 3262:7149825 3211:7679240 3162:8930194 3111:7439763 3062:7157745 2968:3163491 2928:1365549 2865:7223162 2726:8777591 2596:4409659 2547:3058946 2518:Bibcode 2482:2772359 2326:2523562 2296:Bibcode 2288:Science 2273:6189183 2253:Bibcode 2245:Science 2229:4348509 2060:Bibcode 2052:Science 2017:Bibcode 2009:Science 1981:Bibcode 1880:Bibcode 1872:Science 1616:8082216 1522:3293486 1283:Species 1181:Kingdom 1119:species 941:Cloning 872:agarose 749:antigen 621:(EIA). 601:called 571:plaques 272:cholera 268:typhoid 154:History 49:viruses 43:is the 6203:Botany 6022:prions 5864:Mining 5797:fields 5456:Allele 5314: 5295: 5276: 5248: 5240: 5230: 5159: 5149: 5110: 5102: 5061: 5034: 5024: 4985: 4975: 4961:: 64. 4934: 4899: 4872: 4862: 4823: 4813: 4803: 4772: 4764: 4723: 4713: 4674: 4664: 4633: 4623: 4584: 4574: 4521: 4511: 4488: 4480: 4441: 4431: 4390: 4380: 4336: 4328: 4281: 4254: 4244: 4205: 4197: 4169:Nature 4147: 4137: 4089: 4079: 4040: 4030: 3986: 3978: 3943: 3935: 3900: 3890: 3849: 3811: 3801: 3760: 3750: 3711: 3701: 3662: 3652: 3605: 3595: 3583:(18). 3556: 3548: 3513: 3474: 3464: 3425: 3415: 3358: 3348: 3309: 3299: 3259: 3249: 3218: 3208: 3169: 3159: 3118: 3108: 3069: 3059: 3018: 3010: 2975: 2965: 2926: 2899: 2872: 2862: 2823: 2815: 2805: 2774: 2764: 2733: 2723: 2703:Plants 2678: 2670: 2603: 2593: 2554: 2544: 2536: 2489: 2479: 2440: 2365: 2324: 2306: 2271: 2227: 2217: 2173: 2165: 2121: 2113: 2078: 2035: 1960: 1923: 1898: 1815: 1807: 1772: 1720: 1658: 1623: 1613: 1605: 1564: 1529: 1519: 1401:(e.g. 1371:(e.g. 1277:-virus 1270:-virus 1249:Family 1198:Phylum 1185:-virae 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