36:
279:
189:
663:. Zeaxanthin biosynthesis proceeds from beta-carotene via the action of a single protein, known as a beta-carotene hydroxylase, that is able to add a hydroxyl group (-OH) to carbon 3 and 3′ of the beta-carotene molecule. Zeaxanthin biosynthesis therefore proceeds from beta-carotene to zeaxanthin (a di-hydroxylated product) via beta-cryptoxanthin (the mono hydroxylated intermediate). Although functionally identical, several distinct beta-carotene hydroxylase proteins are known.
711:
enrolled subjects at risk for progression to advanced age-related macular degeneration. Overall, the group getting lutein (10 mg) and zeaxanthin (2 mg) did not reduce the need for cataract surgery. Any benefit is more likely to be apparent in subpopulations of individuals exposed to high oxidative stress, such as heavy smokers, alcoholics or those with low dietary intake of carotenoid-rich foods.
27:
446:
710:
As for cataracts, two meta-analyses confirm a correlation between high serum concentrations of lutein and zeaxanthin and a decrease in the risk of nuclear cataract, but not cortical or subcapsular cataract. The reports did not separate a zeaxanthin effect from a lutein effect. The AREDS2 trial
126:
302:
InChI=1S/C40H56O2/c1-29(17-13-19-31(3)21-23-37-33(5)25-35(41)27-39(37,7)8)15-11-12-16-30(2)18-14-20-32(4)22-24-38-34(6)26-36(42)28-40(38,9)10/h11-24,35-36,41-42H,25-28H2,1-10H3/b12-11+,17-13+,18-14+,23-21+,24-22+,29-15+,30-16+,31-19+,32-20+/t35-,36-/m1/s1
722:
application by
Xangold, citing insufficient evidence supporting the use of a lutein- and zeaxanthin-containing supplement in prevention of AMD. Dietary supplement companies in the U.S. are allowed to sell lutein and lutein plus zeaxanthin products using
312:
InChI=1/C40H56O2/c1-29(17-13-19-31(3)21-23-37-33(5)25-35(41)27-39(37,7)8)15-11-12-16-30(2)18-14-20-32(4)22-24-38-34(6)26-36(42)28-40(38,9)10/h11-24,35-36,41-42H,25-28H2,1-10H3/b12-11+,17-13+,18-14+,23-21+,24-22+,29-15+,30-16+,31-19+,32-20+/t35-,36-/m1/s1
705:
containing zeaxanthin and lutein have little to no influence on the progression of AMD. In general, there remains insufficient evidence to assess the effectiveness of dietary or supplemental zeaxanthin or lutein in treatment or prevention of early
2257:• In their evaluation of the safety of synthetic zeaxanthin as a Novel Food, the EFSA NDA Scientific Panel applied a 200-fold safety factor to this NOAEL to define an ADI of 0.75 mg/kg bw/day, or 53 mg/day for a 70 kg adult.
1577:
SanGiovanni JP, Chew EY, Clemons TE, et al. (September 2007). "The relationship of dietary carotenoid and vitamin A, E, and C intake with age-related macular degeneration in a case-control study: AREDS Report No. 22".
1999:"Scientific Opinion on the substantiation of a health claim related to a combination of lutein and zeaxanthin and improved vision under bright light conditions pursuant to Article 13(5) of Regulation (EC) No 1924/2006"
571:. Zeaxanthin supplements are typically taken on the supposition of supporting eye health. Although there are no reported side effects from taking zeaxanthin supplements, the actual health effects of zeaxanthin and
2261:• Information from human intervention studies also supports that an intake higher than 2 mg/day is safe, and an intake level of 20 mg/day for up to 6 months was without adverse effect.
999:
level for zeaxanthin was proposed as 0.75 mg/kg of body weight/day, or 53 mg/day for a 70 kg adult. In humans, an intake of 20 mg/day for up to six months had no
1650:
Wang X, Jiang C, Zhang Y, et al. (2014). "Role of lutein supplementation in the management of age-related macular degeneration: meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials".
729:, such as "Helps maintain eye health", as long as the FDA disclaimer statement ("These statements have not been evaluated...") is on the label. In Europe, as recently as 2014, the
808:
are rich in lutein but contain little to no zeaxanthin, with the exception of scallions cooked in oil. Orange bell peppers (but not green, red, or yellow) are rich in zeaxanthin.
459:
640:
mainly contains the (3R,3′R)- and meso-zeaxanthin forms, but it also contains much smaller amounts of the third (3S,3′S) form. Evidence exists that a specific zeaxanthin-
1003:. As of 2016, neither the U.S. Food and Drug Administration nor the European Food Safety Authority had set a Tolerable Upper Intake Level (UL) for lutein or zeaxanthin.
1415:
Scaife, Mark A.; Ma, Cynthia A.; Ninlayarn, Thanyanun; et al. (22 May 2012). "Comparative
Analysis of β-Carotene Hydroxylase Genes for Astaxanthin Biosynthesis".
694:
Three subsequent meta-analyses of dietary lutein and zeaxanthin concluded that these carotenoids lower the risk of progression from early stage AMD to late stage AMD.
1195:
1985:"Letter of Denial - Xangold Lutein Esters, Lutein, or Zeaxanthin and Reduced Risk of Age-related Macular Degeneration or Cataract Formation (Docket No. 2004Q-0180"
1847:
Ma L, Hao ZX, Liu RR, et al. (2014). "A dose-response meta-analysis of dietary lutein and zeaxanthin intake in relation to risk of age-related cataract".
1615:
Liu R, Wang T, Zhang B, et al. (2014). "Lutein and zeaxanthin supplementation and association with visual function in age-related macular degeneration".
328:
1156:"Lutein + zeaxanthin and omega-3 fatty acids for age-related macular degeneration: The Age-Related Eye Disease Study 2 (AREDS2) randomized clinical trial"
541:
agent to deal with triplet chlorophyll (an excited form of chlorophyll) which is overproduced at high light levels during photosynthesis. Zeaxanthin in
1478:"Lutein, Zeaxanthin, and meso-Zeaxanthin: The Basic and Clinical Science Underlying Carotenoid-based Nutritional Interventions against Ocular Disease"
690:(AREDS2). Because foods high in one of these carotenoids tend to be high in the other, research does not separate effects of one from the other.
2290:
1138:
629:
stereoisomers of zeaxanthin are identical. Therefore, zeaxanthin has only three stereoisomeric forms. The (3R,3′S) stereoisomer is called
293:
683:
758:
730:
682:
have provided preliminary evidence for high dietary intake of foods including lutein and zeaxanthin with lower incidence of
1450:
687:
1984:
715:
236:
1695:"Lutein and zeaxanthin intake and the risk of age-related macular degeneration: a systematic review and meta-analysis"
1050:
538:
257:
2259:• Formulated zeaxanthin was not mutagenic or clastogenic in a series of in vitro and in vivo tests for genotoxicity.
466:
2283:
1580:
670:(a carotenoid of significant commercial value) beta-carotene hydroxylase proteins have been studied extensively.
1741:"Antioxidant vitamin and mineral supplements for slowing the progression of age-related macular degeneration"
2660:
996:
698:
184:
2665:
2174:
2081:"Novel carotenoid cleavage dioxygenase catalyzes the first dedicated step in saffron crocin biosynthesis"
2655:
1189:
626:
622:
66:
48:
2629:
2650:
2276:
2092:
1371:
2146:
1453:. US National Eye Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD. 5 May 2013. Archived from
1892:"Lutein/zeaxanthin for the treatment of age-related cataract: AREDS2 randomized trial report no. 4"
679:
274:
92:
2483:
1966:
1872:
1675:
1103:
725:
702:
2619:
35:
2247:
2128:
2110:
2061:
2020:
1958:
1923:
1864:
1829:
1778:
1760:
1716:
1667:
1632:
1597:
1559:
1507:
1432:
1397:
1340:
1291:
1242:
1177:
1134:
1095:
486:
166:
2340:
2237:
2227:
2186:
2118:
2100:
2051:
2010:
1950:
1913:
1903:
1856:
1819:
1809:
1798:"Association between lutein and zeaxanthin status and the risk of cataract: a meta-analysis"
1768:
1752:
1706:
1659:
1624:
1589:
1549:
1541:
1497:
1489:
1424:
1387:
1379:
1330:
1322:
1281:
1273:
1232:
1222:
1167:
1126:
1085:
761:
is also a rich source and can serve as a dietary supplement. Zeaxanthin breaks down to form
637:
403:
351:
336:
CC1=C(C(C(C1)O)(C)C)/C=C/C(=C/C=C/C(=C/C=C/C=C(/C=C/C=C(/C=C/C2=C(C(CC2(C)C)O)C)\C)\C)/C)/C
245:
2175:"Xanthophyll (lutein, zeaxanthin) content in fruits, vegetables and corn and egg products"
1090:
1073:
1000:
793:
652:
641:
630:
518:(common yellow maize corn, in which zeaxanthin provides the primary yellow pigment), plus
102:
2096:
1773:
1740:
1375:
278:
188:
146:
2423:
2413:
2398:
2335:
2330:
2320:
2242:
2215:
2123:
2080:
1918:
1891:
1824:
1797:
1554:
1529:
1502:
1477:
1451:"NIH study provides clarity on supplements for protection against blinding eye disease"
1392:
1359:
1335:
1310:
1286:
1262:"Macular xanthophylls, lipoprotein-related genes, and age-related macular degeneration"
1261:
1237:
1210:
805:
789:
773:
576:
437:
1941:
Fernandez MM, Afshari NA (January 2008). "Nutrition and the prevention of cataracts".
2644:
2561:
2526:
2506:
2493:
2418:
2408:
2345:
2325:
1908:
1493:
1107:
1020:
785:
587:
392:
177:
1970:
1876:
733:
reviewed and rejected claims that lutein or lutein plus zeaxanthin improved vision.
225:
2609:
2589:
2511:
2473:
2463:
2443:
2428:
2355:
1756:
1679:
648:
614:
580:
546:
556:
Animals derive zeaxanthin from a plant diet. Zeaxanthin is one of the two primary
1954:
1545:
2604:
2468:
2448:
2433:
2403:
2385:
2375:
2365:
1593:
1454:
1211:"Do Nutritional Supplements Have a Role in Age Macular Degeneration Prevention?"
801:
762:
667:
618:
557:
523:
428:
2190:
2079:
Frusciante, Sarah; Diretto, Gianfranco; Bruno, Mark; et al. (2014-08-19).
489:. Synthesized in plants and some micro-organisms, it is the pigment that gives
2614:
2599:
2594:
2458:
2438:
2299:
2056:
2039:
1860:
1711:
1694:
1130:
797:
757:, and many other plants their characteristic colors of red, orange or yellow.
560:
542:
482:
374:
157:
2114:
2024:
2015:
1998:
1764:
2624:
2584:
2536:
2105:
1277:
754:
568:
2251:
2232:
2132:
2065:
1962:
1927:
1868:
1833:
1782:
1720:
1671:
1636:
1601:
1563:
1511:
1436:
1401:
1344:
1295:
1246:
1181:
1172:
1155:
1099:
812:
Lutein and zeaxanthin concentrations in fruits and vegetables (μg / 100 g)
1628:
1227:
1074:"Dissipation of Light Energy Absorbed in Excess: The Molecular Mechanisms"
2576:
2521:
2370:
2360:
2350:
2307:
2149:. Conde Nast for the USDA National Nutrient Database, release SR-21. 2014
766:
644:
recruits circulating zeaxanthin and lutein for uptake within the macula.
595:
591:
514:
204:
196:
1326:
575:
are not proven, and, as of 2018, there is no regulatory approval in the
26:
2566:
2556:
1383:
781:
750:
742:
498:
490:
212:
2216:"Zeaxanthin: Review of Toxicological Data and Acceptable Daily Intake"
1814:
1663:
1428:
2531:
2453:
701:
review of 26 studies from several countries, however, concluded that
636:
The principal natural form of zeaxanthin is (3R,3′R)-zeaxanthin. The
610:
606:
572:
564:
534:
530:
529:
Xanthophylls such as zeaxanthin are found in highest quantity in the
424:
436:
Except where otherwise noted, data are given for materials in their
1053:. Linus Pauling Institute, Oregon State University, Corvallis. 2014
2516:
2040:"Spirulina is an effective dietary source of zeaxanthin to humans"
1209:
Pinazo-Durán, M. D.; Gómez-Ulla, F; Arias, L; et al. (2014).
746:
550:
505:), and many other plants and microbes their characteristic color.
494:
137:
125:
115:
537:, where they act to modulate light energy and perhaps serve as a
777:
502:
2272:
2173:
Alisa Perry; Helen
Rasmussen; Elizabeth J. Johnson (Feb 2009).
2268:
1530:"Nutritional supplements for age-related macular degeneration"
1121:
Kochhar, S. L.; Gujral, Sukhbir Kaur (2020). "Transpiration".
1476:
Bernstein, P. S.; Li, B; Vachali, P. P.; et al. (2015).
625:
centers whereas zeaxanthin has two. Because of symmetry, the
617:. The only difference between them is in the location of the
769:, which are responsible for the taste and aroma of saffron.
655:
and non-natural (heterologous) systems such as the bacteria
621:
in one of the end rings. This difference gives lutein three
262:
1125:(2 ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 75–99.
1890:
Chew EY, SanGiovanni JP, Ferris FL, et al. (2013).
1309:
Nolan, J. M.; Meagher, K; Kashani, S; Beatty, S (2013).
609:
and zeaxanthin have identical chemical formulas and are
1311:"What is meso-zeaxanthin, and where does it come from?"
1154:
Age-Related Eye
Disease Study 2 Research Group (2013).
454:
1739:
Evans, Jennifer R.; Lawrenson, John G. (2023-09-13).
197:
2038:
Yu, B.; Wang, J.; Suter, P. M.; et al. (2012).
1987:. US FDA, Qualified Health Claims. 19 December 2005.
2575:
2545:
2492:
2384:
2306:
2147:"Foods highest in lutein-zeaxanthin per 100 grams"
647:Due to the commercial value of carotenoids, their
1523:
1521:
1260:Koo, E; Neuringer, M; Sangiovanni, J. P. (2014).
224:
2209:
2207:
2085:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
1051:"Lutein + Zeaxanthin Content of Selected Foods"
101:
2284:
1528:Krishnadev N, Meleth AD, Chew EY (May 2010).
666:Due to the nature of zeaxanthin, relative to
79:)-4,4′-bis(3,5,5-trimethylcyclohex-3-en-1-ol)
8:
2168:
2166:
2164:
1364:Photochemical & Photobiological Sciences
1358:Li, B; Vachali, P; Bernstein, P. S. (2010).
397:215.5 °C (419.9 °F; 488.6 K)
1745:The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews
1194:: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (
2291:
2277:
2269:
1796:Liu XH, Yu RB, Liu R, et al. (2014).
1360:"Human ocular carotenoid-binding proteins"
810:
277:
187:
165:
18:
2241:
2231:
2122:
2104:
2055:
2014:
1917:
1907:
1823:
1813:
1772:
1710:
1693:Ma L, Dou HL, Wu YQ, et al. (2012).
1553:
1501:
1391:
1334:
1285:
1236:
1226:
1171:
1123:Plant Physiology: Theory and Applications
1089:
244:
2179:Journal of Food Composition and Analysis
1072:Bassi, Roberto; Dall'Osto, Luca (2021).
583:about products that contain zeaxanthin.
1011:
333:
298:
273:
1266:American Journal of Clinical Nutrition
1187:
178:
1734:
1732:
1730:
1091:10.1146/annurev-arplant-071720-015522
1045:
1043:
1041:
1039:
1037:
741:Zeaxanthin is the pigment that gives
674:Relationship with diseases of the eye
651:has been studied extensively in both
305:Key: JKQXZKUSFCKOGQ-QAYBQHTQSA-N
145:
7:
1482:Progress in Retinal and Eye Research
1849:Graefes Arch. Clin. Exp. Ophthalmol
522:, the Greek word for "yellow" (see
315:Key: JKQXZKUSFCKOGQ-QAYBQHTQBL
215:
14:
1943:Current Opinion in Ophthalmology
1909:10.1001/jamaophthalmol.2013.4412
1534:Current Opinion in Ophthalmology
1494:10.1016/j.preteyeres.2015.10.003
684:age-related macular degeneration
444:
34:
25:
440:(at 25 °C , 100 kPa).
1757:10.1002/14651858.CD000254.pub5
1078:Annual Review of Plant Biology
731:European Food Safety Authority
485:in nature, and is used in the
1:
688:Age-Related Eye Disease Study
2044:British Journal of Nutrition
1955:10.1097/ICU.0b013e3282f2d7b6
1617:Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci
1546:10.1097/ICU.0b013e32833866ee
716:Food and Drug Administration
1594:10.1001/archopht.125.9.1225
1417:Journal of Natural Products
1272:(Supplement 1): 336S–346S.
539:non-photochemical quenching
2682:
2191:10.1016/j.jfca.2008.07.006
602:Isomers and macular uptake
493:(made from bell peppers),
481:is one of the most common
379:568.88 g/mol
2057:10.1017/S0007114511005885
1861:10.1007/s00417-013-2492-3
1712:10.1017/S0007114511004260
1581:Archives of Ophthalmology
1131:10.1017/9781108486392.006
579:or the United States for
434:
413:
344:
324:
289:
85:
65:
47:
42:
33:
24:
2220:Journal of Ophthalmology
2016:10.2903/j.efsa.2014.3753
1215:Journal of Ophthalmology
967:Corn, cooked from frozen
880:Scallions, cooked in oil
686:(AMD), most notably the
661:Saccharomyces cerevisiae
60:)-β,β-Carotene-3,3′-diol
2106:10.1073/pnas.1404629111
1278:10.3945/ajcn.113.071563
997:acceptable daily intake
720:Qualified Health Claims
2546:Vitamin A retinoids (C
1173:10.1001/jama.2013.4997
1629:10.1167/iovs.14-15553
680:observational studies
627:(3R,3′S) and (3S,3′R)
563:contained within the
545:acts as a blue light
508:The name (pronounced
67:Systematic IUPAC name
2233:10.1155/2016/3690140
2214:Edwards JA (2016).
2097:2014PNAS..11112246F
2091:(33): 12246–12251.
1376:2010PhPhS...9.1418L
1327:10.1038/eye.2013.98
1228:10.1155/2014/901686
934:Bell pepper, yellow
912:Bell pepper, orange
813:
703:dietary supplements
613:, but they are not
549:which mediates the
404:Solubility in water
21:
1384:10.1039/c0pp00126k
1019:Encyclopedia.com.
901:Bell pepper, green
811:
755:wolfberries (goji)
737:Natural occurrence
726:dietary supplement
590:, zeaxanthin is a
512:) is derived from
467:Infobox references
414:Related compounds
19:
2638:
2637:
2630:Zuretinol acetate
2009:(7): 3753. 2014.
1815:10.3390/nu6010452
1664:10.1159/000363327
1457:on 15 August 2019
1429:10.1021/np300136t
1140:978-1-108-48639-2
988:
987:
697:A 2023 (updated)
487:xanthophyll cycle
475:Chemical compound
473:
472:
420:Related compounds
258:CompTox Dashboard
127:Interactive image
16:Chemical compound
2673:
2293:
2286:
2279:
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2235:
2211:
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2201:
2199:
2197:
2170:
2159:
2158:
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2143:
2137:
2136:
2126:
2108:
2076:
2070:
2069:
2059:
2035:
2029:
2028:
2018:
1995:
1989:
1988:
1981:
1975:
1974:
1938:
1932:
1931:
1921:
1911:
1887:
1881:
1880:
1844:
1838:
1837:
1827:
1817:
1793:
1787:
1786:
1776:
1736:
1725:
1724:
1714:
1690:
1684:
1683:
1647:
1641:
1640:
1612:
1606:
1605:
1588:(9): 1225–1232.
1574:
1568:
1567:
1557:
1525:
1516:
1515:
1505:
1473:
1467:
1466:
1464:
1462:
1447:
1441:
1440:
1412:
1406:
1405:
1395:
1355:
1349:
1348:
1338:
1306:
1300:
1299:
1289:
1257:
1251:
1250:
1240:
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1206:
1200:
1199:
1193:
1185:
1175:
1151:
1145:
1144:
1118:
1112:
1111:
1093:
1069:
1063:
1062:
1060:
1058:
1047:
1032:
1031:
1029:
1027:
1016:
945:Cornmeal, yellow
923:Bell pepper, red
814:
714:In 2005, the US
657:Escherichia coli
653:natural products
510:zee-uh-zan'-thin
457:
451:
448:
447:
352:Chemical formula
282:
281:
266:
264:
248:
228:
217:
199:
191:
180:
169:
149:
129:
105:
38:
29:
22:
2681:
2680:
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2675:
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2641:
2640:
2639:
2634:
2571:
2549:
2541:
2499:
2488:
2391:
2380:
2313:
2302:
2297:
2267:
2260:
2258:
2256:
2213:
2212:
2205:
2195:
2193:
2172:
2171:
2162:
2152:
2150:
2145:
2144:
2140:
2078:
2077:
2073:
2037:
2036:
2032:
1997:
1996:
1992:
1983:
1982:
1978:
1940:
1939:
1935:
1896:JAMA Ophthalmol
1889:
1888:
1884:
1846:
1845:
1841:
1795:
1794:
1790:
1751:(9): CD000254.
1738:
1737:
1728:
1692:
1691:
1687:
1649:
1648:
1644:
1614:
1613:
1609:
1576:
1575:
1571:
1527:
1526:
1519:
1475:
1474:
1470:
1460:
1458:
1449:
1448:
1444:
1414:
1413:
1409:
1370:(11): 1418–25.
1357:
1356:
1352:
1308:
1307:
1303:
1259:
1258:
1254:
1208:
1207:
1203:
1186:
1166:(19): 2005–15.
1153:
1152:
1148:
1141:
1120:
1119:
1115:
1071:
1070:
1066:
1056:
1054:
1049:
1048:
1035:
1025:
1023:
1018:
1017:
1013:
1009:
1001:adverse effects
993:
956:Cornmeal, white
836:Spinach, cooked
794:romaine lettuce
774:leaf vegetables
739:
676:
642:binding protein
631:meso-zeaxanthin
604:
476:
469:
464:
463:
462: ?)
453:
449:
445:
441:
427:
421:
406:
368:
364:
360:
354:
340:
337:
332:
331:
320:
317:
316:
313:
307:
306:
303:
297:
296:
285:
267:
260:
251:
231:
218:
172:
152:
132:
119:
108:
95:
81:
80:
61:
17:
12:
11:
5:
2679:
2677:
2669:
2668:
2663:
2661:Food colorings
2658:
2653:
2643:
2642:
2636:
2635:
2633:
2632:
2627:
2622:
2617:
2612:
2607:
2602:
2597:
2592:
2587:
2581:
2579:
2577:Retinoid drugs
2573:
2572:
2570:
2569:
2564:
2559:
2553:
2551:
2547:
2543:
2542:
2540:
2539:
2534:
2529:
2524:
2519:
2514:
2509:
2503:
2501:
2497:
2494:Apocarotenoids
2490:
2489:
2487:
2486:
2481:
2476:
2471:
2466:
2461:
2456:
2451:
2446:
2441:
2436:
2431:
2426:
2424:Diadinoxanthin
2421:
2416:
2414:Citranaxanthin
2411:
2406:
2401:
2399:Antheraxanthin
2395:
2393:
2389:
2382:
2381:
2379:
2378:
2373:
2368:
2363:
2358:
2353:
2348:
2343:
2338:
2333:
2328:
2323:
2317:
2315:
2311:
2304:
2303:
2298:
2296:
2295:
2288:
2281:
2273:
2266:
2265:
2203:
2160:
2138:
2071:
2050:(4): 611–619.
2030:
1990:
1976:
1933:
1882:
1839:
1788:
1726:
1685:
1658:(4): 198–205.
1652:Ophthalmic Res
1642:
1607:
1569:
1517:
1468:
1442:
1423:(6): 1117–24.
1407:
1350:
1321:(8): 899–905.
1301:
1252:
1201:
1146:
1139:
1113:
1064:
1033:
1010:
1008:
1005:
992:
989:
986:
985:
982:
979:
978:Tortilla, corn
975:
974:
971:
968:
964:
963:
960:
957:
953:
952:
949:
946:
942:
941:
938:
935:
931:
930:
927:
924:
920:
919:
916:
913:
909:
908:
905:
902:
898:
897:
894:
891:
890:Scallions, raw
887:
886:
883:
881:
877:
876:
873:
870:
866:
865:
862:
859:
855:
854:
851:
848:
844:
843:
840:
837:
833:
832:
825:
818:
806:mustard greens
790:collard greens
738:
735:
708:
707:
695:
675:
672:
603:
600:
577:European Union
533:of most green
474:
471:
470:
465:
443:
442:
438:standard state
435:
432:
431:
422:
419:
416:
415:
411:
410:
407:
402:
399:
398:
395:
389:
388:
385:
381:
380:
377:
371:
370:
366:
362:
358:
355:
350:
347:
346:
342:
341:
339:
338:
335:
327:
326:
325:
322:
321:
319:
318:
314:
311:
310:
308:
304:
301:
300:
292:
291:
290:
287:
286:
284:
283:
270:
268:
256:
253:
252:
250:
249:
241:
239:
233:
232:
230:
229:
221:
219:
211:
208:
207:
201:
193:
192:
182:
174:
173:
171:
170:
162:
160:
154:
153:
151:
150:
142:
140:
134:
133:
131:
130:
122:
120:
113:
110:
109:
107:
106:
98:
96:
91:
88:
87:
83:
82:
70:
69:
63:
62:
51:
45:
44:
40:
39:
31:
30:
15:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2678:
2667:
2666:Tetraterpenes
2664:
2662:
2659:
2657:
2654:
2652:
2649:
2648:
2646:
2631:
2628:
2626:
2623:
2621:
2618:
2616:
2613:
2611:
2608:
2606:
2603:
2601:
2598:
2596:
2593:
2591:
2588:
2586:
2583:
2582:
2580:
2578:
2574:
2568:
2565:
2563:
2562:Retinoic acid
2560:
2558:
2555:
2554:
2552:
2544:
2538:
2535:
2533:
2530:
2528:
2527:Food orange 7
2525:
2523:
2520:
2518:
2515:
2513:
2510:
2508:
2507:Abscisic acid
2505:
2504:
2502:
2495:
2491:
2485:
2482:
2480:
2477:
2475:
2472:
2470:
2467:
2465:
2462:
2460:
2457:
2455:
2452:
2450:
2447:
2445:
2442:
2440:
2437:
2435:
2432:
2430:
2427:
2425:
2422:
2420:
2419:Cryptoxanthin
2417:
2415:
2412:
2410:
2409:Canthaxanthin
2407:
2405:
2402:
2400:
2397:
2396:
2394:
2387:
2383:
2377:
2374:
2372:
2369:
2367:
2364:
2362:
2359:
2357:
2354:
2352:
2349:
2347:
2344:
2342:
2339:
2337:
2334:
2332:
2329:
2327:
2324:
2322:
2319:
2318:
2316:
2309:
2305:
2301:
2294:
2289:
2287:
2282:
2280:
2275:
2274:
2271:
2262:
2253:
2249:
2244:
2239:
2234:
2229:
2225:
2221:
2217:
2210:
2208:
2204:
2192:
2188:
2184:
2180:
2176:
2169:
2167:
2165:
2161:
2148:
2142:
2139:
2134:
2130:
2125:
2120:
2116:
2112:
2107:
2102:
2098:
2094:
2090:
2086:
2082:
2075:
2072:
2067:
2063:
2058:
2053:
2049:
2045:
2041:
2034:
2031:
2026:
2022:
2017:
2012:
2008:
2004:
2000:
1994:
1991:
1986:
1980:
1977:
1972:
1968:
1964:
1960:
1956:
1952:
1948:
1944:
1937:
1934:
1929:
1925:
1920:
1915:
1910:
1905:
1902:(7): 843–50.
1901:
1897:
1893:
1886:
1883:
1878:
1874:
1870:
1866:
1862:
1858:
1854:
1850:
1843:
1840:
1835:
1831:
1826:
1821:
1816:
1811:
1808:(1): 452–65.
1807:
1803:
1799:
1792:
1789:
1784:
1780:
1775:
1770:
1766:
1762:
1758:
1754:
1750:
1746:
1742:
1735:
1733:
1731:
1727:
1722:
1718:
1713:
1708:
1704:
1700:
1696:
1689:
1686:
1681:
1677:
1673:
1669:
1665:
1661:
1657:
1653:
1646:
1643:
1638:
1634:
1630:
1626:
1622:
1618:
1611:
1608:
1603:
1599:
1595:
1591:
1587:
1583:
1582:
1573:
1570:
1565:
1561:
1556:
1551:
1547:
1543:
1539:
1535:
1531:
1524:
1522:
1518:
1513:
1509:
1504:
1499:
1495:
1491:
1487:
1483:
1479:
1472:
1469:
1456:
1452:
1446:
1443:
1438:
1434:
1430:
1426:
1422:
1418:
1411:
1408:
1403:
1399:
1394:
1389:
1385:
1381:
1377:
1373:
1369:
1365:
1361:
1354:
1351:
1346:
1342:
1337:
1332:
1328:
1324:
1320:
1316:
1312:
1305:
1302:
1297:
1293:
1288:
1283:
1279:
1275:
1271:
1267:
1263:
1256:
1253:
1248:
1244:
1239:
1234:
1229:
1224:
1220:
1216:
1212:
1205:
1202:
1197:
1191:
1183:
1179:
1174:
1169:
1165:
1161:
1157:
1150:
1147:
1142:
1136:
1132:
1128:
1124:
1117:
1114:
1109:
1105:
1101:
1097:
1092:
1087:
1083:
1079:
1075:
1068:
1065:
1052:
1046:
1044:
1042:
1040:
1038:
1034:
1022:
1021:"Carotenoids"
1015:
1012:
1006:
1004:
1002:
998:
990:
983:
980:
977:
976:
972:
969:
966:
965:
961:
958:
955:
954:
950:
947:
944:
943:
939:
936:
933:
932:
928:
925:
922:
921:
917:
914:
911:
910:
906:
903:
900:
899:
895:
892:
889:
888:
884:
882:
879:
878:
874:
871:
868:
867:
863:
860:
857:
856:
852:
849:
846:
845:
841:
838:
835:
834:
830:
826:
823:
819:
816:
815:
809:
807:
803:
799:
795:
791:
787:
786:turnip greens
783:
779:
775:
770:
768:
764:
760:
756:
752:
748:
744:
736:
734:
732:
728:
727:
721:
717:
712:
704:
700:
696:
693:
692:
691:
689:
685:
681:
673:
671:
669:
664:
662:
658:
654:
650:
645:
643:
639:
634:
632:
628:
624:
620:
616:
615:stereoisomers
612:
608:
601:
599:
597:
593:
589:
588:food additive
584:
582:
581:health claims
578:
574:
570:
566:
562:
559:
554:
552:
548:
547:photoreceptor
544:
540:
536:
532:
527:
525:
521:
517:
516:
511:
506:
504:
500:
496:
492:
488:
484:
480:
468:
461:
456:
439:
433:
430:
426:
423:
418:
417:
412:
408:
405:
401:
400:
396:
394:
393:Melting point
391:
390:
386:
383:
382:
378:
376:
373:
372:
356:
353:
349:
348:
343:
334:
330:
323:
309:
299:
295:
288:
280:
276:
275:DTXSID5046807
272:
271:
269:
259:
255:
254:
247:
243:
242:
240:
238:
235:
234:
227:
223:
222:
220:
214:
210:
209:
206:
202:
200:
195:
194:
190:
186:
183:
181:
179:ECHA InfoCard
176:
175:
168:
164:
163:
161:
159:
156:
155:
148:
144:
143:
141:
139:
136:
135:
128:
124:
123:
121:
117:
112:
111:
104:
100:
99:
97:
94:
90:
89:
84:
78:
74:
68:
64:
59:
55:
50:
46:
41:
37:
32:
28:
23:
2656:Cyclohexenes
2610:Isotretinoin
2590:Alitretinoin
2512:Apocarotenal
2484:Zeinoxanthin
2478:
2474:Violaxanthin
2464:Rhodoxanthin
2444:Flavoxanthin
2429:Diatoxanthin
2386:Xanthophylls
2356:Neurosporene
2255:
2223:
2219:
2194:. Retrieved
2182:
2178:
2151:. Retrieved
2141:
2088:
2084:
2074:
2047:
2043:
2033:
2006:
2003:EFSA Journal
2002:
1993:
1979:
1949:(1): 66–70.
1946:
1942:
1936:
1899:
1895:
1885:
1855:(1): 63–70.
1852:
1848:
1842:
1805:
1801:
1791:
1748:
1744:
1705:(3): 350–9.
1702:
1698:
1688:
1655:
1651:
1645:
1623:(1): 252–8.
1620:
1616:
1610:
1585:
1579:
1572:
1540:(3): 184–9.
1537:
1533:
1485:
1481:
1471:
1459:. Retrieved
1455:the original
1445:
1420:
1416:
1410:
1367:
1363:
1353:
1318:
1314:
1304:
1269:
1265:
1255:
1218:
1214:
1204:
1190:cite journal
1163:
1159:
1149:
1122:
1116:
1081:
1077:
1067:
1055:. Retrieved
1024:. Retrieved
1014:
994:
858:Kale, cooked
847:Spinach, raw
828:
821:
817:Food (100 g)
771:
740:
724:
719:
713:
709:
677:
665:
660:
656:
649:biosynthesis
646:
635:
605:
585:
555:
528:
519:
513:
509:
507:
478:
477:
86:Identifiers
76:
72:
57:
53:
2651:Carotenoids
2605:Fenretinide
2469:Rubixanthin
2449:Fucoxanthin
2434:Dinoxanthin
2404:Astaxanthin
2376:Lycopersene
2366:Phytofluene
2300:Carotenoids
2185:(1): 9–15.
2153:23 December
1699:Br. J. Nutr
827:Zeaxanthin
802:Swiss chard
772:Dark green
763:picrocrocin
718:rejected a
668:astaxanthin
619:double bond
561:carotenoids
558:xanthophyll
543:guard cells
524:xanthophyll
503:wolfberries
483:carotenoids
429:xanthophyll
387:orange-red
384:Appearance
345:Properties
185:100.005.125
147:CHEBI:27547
20:Zeaxanthin
2645:Categories
2620:Temarotene
2615:Tazarotene
2600:Etretinate
2595:Bexarotene
2479:Zeaxanthin
2459:Neoxanthin
2439:Echinenone
2346:ζ-Carotene
2341:ε-Carotene
2336:δ-Carotene
2331:γ-Carotene
2326:β-Carotene
2321:α-Carotene
2196:4 February
1007:References
798:watercress
776:, such as
659:and yeast
479:Zeaxanthin
375:Molar mass
246:CV0IB81ORO
158:ChemSpider
114:3D model (
93:CAS Number
49:IUPAC name
2625:Tretinoin
2585:Acitretin
2537:Peridinin
2308:Carotenes
2115:0027-8424
2025:1831-4732
1802:Nutrients
1765:1469-493X
1488:: 34–66.
1461:10 August
1108:235480018
1084:: 47–76.
759:Spirulina
553:opening.
205:(colours)
2522:Crocetin
2371:Torulene
2361:Phytoene
2351:Lycopene
2252:26885380
2226:: 1–15.
2133:25097262
2066:22313576
1971:25735519
1963:18090901
1928:23645227
1877:13634941
1869:24150707
1834:24451312
1783:37702300
1774:10498493
1721:21899805
1672:25358528
1637:25515572
1602:17846363
1564:20216418
1512:26541886
1437:22616944
1402:20820671
1345:23703634
1296:24829491
1247:24672708
1221:: 1–15.
1182:23644932
1100:34143647
869:Cilantro
767:safranal
699:Cochrane
678:Several
596:E number
592:food dye
551:stomatal
515:Zea mays
501:, goji (
198:E number
103:144-68-3
2567:Retinol
2557:Retinal
2532:Ionones
2243:4738691
2124:4143034
2093:Bibcode
1919:6774801
1825:3916871
1680:5055854
1555:2909501
1503:4698241
1393:3938892
1372:Bibcode
1336:3740325
1287:4144106
1238:3941929
820:Lutein
782:spinach
751:saffron
743:paprika
611:isomers
598:E161h.
567:of the
520:xanthos
499:saffron
491:paprika
460:what is
458: (
409:insol.
369:
226:5280899
213:PubChem
167:4444421
2498:<40
2454:Lutein
2250:
2240:
2131:
2121:
2113:
2064:
2023:
1969:
1961:
1926:
1916:
1875:
1867:
1832:
1822:
1781:
1771:
1763:
1719:
1678:
1670:
1635:
1600:
1562:
1552:
1510:
1500:
1435:
1400:
1390:
1343:
1333:
1294:
1284:
1245:
1235:
1180:
1137:
1106:
1098:
1057:20 May
991:Safety
918:1,665
885:2,488
839:12,640
638:macula
623:chiral
607:Lutein
573:lutein
565:retina
535:plants
531:leaves
455:verify
452:
425:lutein
329:SMILES
203:E161h
43:Names
2517:Bixin
1967:S2CID
1873:S2CID
1676:S2CID
1104:S2CID
1026:6 May
872:7,703
861:8,884
850:6,603
831:(μg)
829:trans
822:trans
594:with
586:As a
294:InChI
138:ChEBI
116:JSmol
2248:PMID
2224:2016
2198:2024
2155:2015
2129:PMID
2111:ISSN
2062:PMID
2021:ISSN
1959:PMID
1924:PMID
1865:PMID
1830:PMID
1779:PMID
1761:ISSN
1749:2023
1717:PMID
1668:PMID
1633:PMID
1598:PMID
1560:PMID
1508:PMID
1463:2017
1433:PMID
1398:PMID
1341:PMID
1292:PMID
1243:PMID
1219:2014
1196:link
1178:PMID
1160:JAMA
1135:ISBN
1096:PMID
1059:2014
1028:2012
984:255
973:202
951:531
824:(μg)
804:and
778:kale
765:and
747:corn
706:AMD.
495:corn
237:UNII
2238:PMC
2228:doi
2187:doi
2119:PMC
2101:doi
2089:111
2052:doi
2048:108
2011:doi
1951:doi
1914:PMC
1904:doi
1900:131
1857:doi
1853:252
1820:PMC
1810:doi
1769:PMC
1753:doi
1707:doi
1703:107
1660:doi
1625:doi
1590:doi
1586:125
1550:PMC
1542:doi
1498:PMC
1490:doi
1425:doi
1388:PMC
1380:doi
1331:PMC
1323:doi
1315:Eye
1282:PMC
1274:doi
1270:100
1233:PMC
1223:doi
1168:doi
1164:309
1127:doi
1086:doi
995:An
981:276
970:202
962:13
940:18
937:139
929:22
915:208
904:173
893:782
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