404:
525:
still led by the governor. The bureau overturned 116 zemstvo enactments during the 1891 to 1892 year with 51 of these enactments from the
Vladimir Provincial Assembly alone. This reform also gave zemstvos the power to issue binding regulation on the conduct of all citizens outside of townships in a wide variety of issues. In return, citizens gained the right to appeal the zemstvo's enactments to the Senate. In the 15 years that followed, the Senate heard 226 of these appeals, which primarily involved tax disputes. The reforms changed the legal status of men serving on the zemstvo from private citizen to government official. Zemstvo officials could enforce these regulation by bringing violators before criminal courts. Prior to 1890, zemstvo sessions were often cut short due to assemblies not meeting the quorum. This was in part because officials were not allowed to receive a salary or other compensation for their position.
434:. These positions represented the gap between the ideal medical care the zemstvo system sought and the practical limitations of what could be provided. Restrictions were placed on feldshers such that much of their day to day job became technically illegal, but there was no one else to provide medical care. This was widely known and tolerated by all, but the increasing criminality of the feldsher work symbolized what the zemstvo medical system still needed to achieve. One reason for the zemstvos' opposition to feldshers was they blurred the lines between the traditional spiritual medicine and modern medicine. Rather than fading away, the feldsher practice was opened to women in 1871 to meet growing needs. Alongside growing numbers of feldshers was an increasing professionalism through more formal training as physicians assistants.
31:
427:
until 1885. One of the goals this national system would achieve is uniform medical records to support analyzing cases from other provinces. Practitioners also demanded changing from the circuit system in which they spent most of the their time traveling to each remote village to see patients to a stationary system in which they held regular hours at a medical center. Zemstvos opposed the stationary system throughout the 1870s on the grounds that remote villagers which paid taxes towards the medical service would not receive equal access. In the 1880s the stationary system became more popular as the number of practitioners grew.
250:
not allowed to give instructions for how candidates should perform once elected. The governor could object to the proceedings and suspend electoral decisions. Election reform in 1890 resulted in separate electoral bodies for the noble and ignoble voters. At this time, the clergy, Jews, and non-landowning peasants were deprived of the right to vote in zemstvo elections. Part of the motivation for the election reform was a decline in land ownership of the nobles which resulted in too few nobles to fill the deputy and assembly roles. These election reforms decreased the size of assemblies and number of deputies 20-30%.
276:
187:
267:
assembly and deliberate on adjustments to the enactment that would allow it to pass. If compromise could not be found, the Senate would hear the case. The governor was expected to act as a plaintiff and prove that the zemstvo's enactment was unjust. The governor could also revoke their approval and begin this process after a enactment had taken effect. After 1890 with expanded oversight powers, the
Ministry of Interior began to consistently obstruct the work of provincial zemstvos.
419:
zemstvos promoted policies that limited the direct costs of medical care and aimed to compensate providers through tax funds. The medical experts supported by the zemstvos put significant focus on hygiene education and preventative medicine. The zemstvo officials and practitioners appreciated the difficulty of not only making illiterate, god fearing peasants trust a largely secular medical system based on rational analysis, but making them understand this distinction at all.
367:
special privileges such as school inspections, sole authority to open new schools, and chair positions on school boards in the 1874 primary school legislation, but these privileges did not have a large effect on schools because most zemstvos never ceded financial control over the schools to the school boards and many of the supposed inspections simply never occurred. Peasants mostly supported zemstvo schools over existing schools created by the crown or clergy. The number of
395:
zemstvos. In 1910, the
Ministry of Education created a national pension fund which all teachers could participate in. Additional administrative action in 1913 caused the existing zemstvo schools to become more under the influence of the Ministry of Education than the zemstvos themselves. In 1914, zemstvos lost the power to direct school teachers and the ministry gained the power to fire any school teachers they deemed as unfit.
375:
as blackboards. The shift from these schools being funded by peasant communities to zemstvo budgets took several decades. The zemstvo did not even reach budget parity with the local peasant communities until 1889. Afterwards, zemstvos budgets rapidly expanded, and education became the largest share of the budget. In 1893 the total zemstvo expenditure on education was 9 million rubles, by 1913 it was nearly 90 million rubles.
131:(governorates) of old Russia were concerned, in the elective district and provincial assemblies (zemstvo). The goal of the zemstvo reform was the creation of local organs of self-government on an elected basis, possessing sufficient authority and independence to resolve local economic problems. Assemblies could appoint deputies to carry out orders and objectives in response to issues the zemstvo considered.
349:
457:. In 1864, the first law on Zemstvos was enacted by the Emperor which outlined the powers of the zemstvos. These powers were administrative and focused on local issues which were mostly not addressed by existing institutions. In 1865, zemstvos were opened in nineteen provinces, and between 1866 and 1876 another sixteen were established. Twelve provinces had no zemstvos, the three
555:. During this time, period sections of the government more closely connected to the central bureaucracy such as the governors' offices, the ministers of finance, the ministers of interior, and special police investigations became more and more involved in zemstvo affairs. This was unpopular with zemstvo officials many of which were contributing to a liberal
263:. These zemstvos typically created a small number of delegations for handling decisions the assembly came to. One such typical delegation was an executive board which worked year around. It was not uncommon for one individual to serve as the Marshal of the Nobility and chairman of the executive for a number of years.
444:
was a contemporaneously known issue during the zemstvo period because nearly one in two peasant children did not reach adulthood. This is a notable area in which the zemstvos failed. At the peak of midwifery during the zemstvo system, only 2% of births were attended. The primary cause of this failure
418:
specializing in magical chants and remedies for their medical care. The zemstvos viewed raising support for medical systems as their first most important task. Therefore, the zemstvo medical system became as much a popular movement for supporting an ideal as an actual service. To accomplish this, the
394:
created a fund to establish a school for every village in Russia. These funds were dispensed through the zemstvos to existing school or were given to school curators which often resulted in the construction of new schools. Herein arose a new class of "state schools" which were not affiliated with the
374:
The zemstvo school system was built from the existing peasant education system. Prior to 1870, peasant communities were required to provide the facilities, and the zemstvos did not reliably pay teachers. In the 1870s, zemstvos shifted to reliable salaries and began providing additional materials such
422:
Growth of the medical system was slow and depended on growth of the third element. The first zemstvo bureaucracies for managing the various salaried positions connected with the zemstvo did not emerge until the 1870s. Growing numbers of salaried workers inevitably lead to growing budgets. At several
266:
Enactments from the zemstvos generally needed approval from the governor or
Minister of the Interior. These approvals could be withheld on the grounds that an enactment was either illegal or against state interests. In the case that enactments were not approved, governors were expected to notify the
382:
Zemstvo teachers mostly came from the middle class. There was a mix of male and female teachers which leaned towards the females. Teachers were united by low pay, isolation in communities unfamiliar to them, and being unmarried. Only 17% of female teachers were married and 47% of male teachers were
249:
Prior to each election, lists of eligible voters for a given zemstvo were published for public comment. Voters could be stricken by the zemstvo or added to the roster based on public comment. Voters had to be present to vote in person on candidates who were self nominated. The electoral bodies were
515:
As time went on, additional gubernatorial oversight was placed on zemstvos. In 1867, the zemstvos were prevented from publishing minutes or debates unless given specific permission by the governor. In 1879, the governors were given the power to dismiss any zemstvo employee at their discretion. The
480:
Zemstvos were originally restricted from making binding rules on every citizen within their jurisdiction. In 1873, zemstvos were permitted to make binding regulation on every citizen strictly for the purpose of preventing fires. These powers were expanded in 1879 to allow regulation to prevent the
699:
The dissatisfaction of the rural population with the introduction of the zemstvo was evident almost everywhere in the province shortly after the distribution of the tax lists. The peasants, being insufficiently informed about the taxes and the sphere of activity of zemtsvo institutions which were
671:
electoral law resulted in 30% of the legislators of the third and fourth Duma coming from zemstvo backgrounds. In the period leading up the 1905 Revolution and throughout
Stolypin's governance, the style of debate among zemstvo gentry changed; what began as consensus building and doing favors for
437:
Sanitary councils began meeting in the 1870s, but were not effective until after 1879 when zemstvos gained the power to issue sanitary legislation binding on all citizens. Moscow was a particular leader in the development of sanitary councils and then full time bureau of sanitation professionals.
426:
Practitioners suffered from a lack of trust on the zemstvos' part. Recommendations such as funding for hospital improvements would be weighed against ideas from the assembly. Practitioners made several attempts to form a national organization for the advancement of medicine, but this was delayed
297:
accounted for between 3 and 90 percent of a zemstvo's revenue depending on the zemstvo and year. In many districts, police were supposed to collect harvest taxes on behalf of the zemstvo. However, there was significant difficultly in actually collecting because the zemstvo had no control over the
237:
The nobles received more weight in voting for a zemstvo even though nobles were a tiny minority of the population. District zemstvos were required to have 40% of their assembly elected by the peasants, but provincial assemblies were elected from the district without such a quota. This resulted in
528:
The 1890 reforms also expanded the nobility's representation in the zemstvos from 55% in 1886 to 72% by 1903. Some historians represent the equality in terms of the amount of land one member of the zemstvo represented. In 1877, each peasant assembly member represented 1.76 times the land a noble
524:
12 June] 1890). The 1890 law instituted the Bureau of
Zemstvo Affairs as additional oversight of the zemstvos. Bureau officials were appointed by the emperor and from local governments officials such as Marshall of the Nobility, district prosecutor, and district courts. Procedures were
318:
and statisticians were common third element professions. These professionals profited from the employment, but they also donated their time as civic service. The third element was a source of significant distrust of the zemstvos by the central government. Unlike the zemstvo administrators (first
301:
In the beginning of the zemstvo system, natural obligations such as road work and like kind taxes such as wheat, were of greater concern to the peasants than monetary taxation. These taxes were unpopular and formed large part of the zemstvo's resources. Overtime, these were mostly converted into
258:
Zemstvo assemblies met at least once a year for not more than twenty days. Extraordinary meetings of a zemstvo required permission from the
Minister of the Interior and could only consider the specific issues on which the Minister permitted them. Provincial meetings were opened and closed by the
366:
Beginning in 1886 and continuing throughout the existence of zemstvos, the central bureaucracy sought and found additional control over primary education. This started with special school inspections which could result in the closing of unsatisfactory schools. The
Marshall of Nobility was given
532:
Zemstvo expenditure grew from 89.1 million rubles in 1900 to 290.5 million rubles in 1913. Of the latter sum, 90.1 million rubles were spent on education, 71.4 million on medical assistance, 22.2 million on improvements in agriculture, and 8 million on veterinary measures. The chief sources of
292:
The 10th objective, distribution of state funds assigned to zemstvos was one of the main objectives. About 20% of Russia's annual state revenue was assigned to the zemstvos in the early years. Zemstvos were able to draw taxes from a variety of other sources and for a variety of purposes. It is
241:
Persons under 25 years of age, under criminal investigation, convicted criminals, and foreigners were not permitted to be in the zemstvos. Women who owned sufficient property to gain a seat on a zemstvo could appoint a male proxy to vote for them. By 1913, 20-40% of the eligible voters in
547:
The first formal curriculum for zemstvo schooling was created by the
Ministry of Education in 1897. This program prescribed a weekly study of six hours in the Word of God, three hours of Slavonic Church, eight hours of Russian Language, two hours of writing, and five hours of arithmetic.
500:
From 1866 to 1905, zemstvo officials were largely prevented from contracting each other on the ground that these were local organizations. Occasional exemptions were made for fire reinsurance contracts or large agricultural machinery sales. In 1902, zemstvo leaders petitioned
694:
refused to pay taxes and boycotted schools, medical centers, and all other services after the zemstvo was first introduced there. Rising tensions resulted in three protesters being killed by the police and the zemstvo remaining in power. Their governor reported:
378:
Students of zemstvo schools could be subjected to year-end examinations at the zemstvos discretion. Pass rates for these exams were used to evaluate teacher performance and male students that passed were required to do less military service.
403:
621:, the zemstvos turned sharply conservative. Georgy Lvov was voted off the zemstvo for being a 'dangerous liberal'. The zemstvo assemblies, still dominated by nobility, were frightened by the violence of 1905. Many members joined the
571:. The goal of Plehve's reforms was to bring tighter control of the zemstvos through gubernatorial oversight. These reforms faced significant opposition from the zemstvos, the ministers of finance, and several governors. In
496:
was appointed by the local nobility but the zemstvo was required to pay his salary. This was unpopular with the zemstvo. The assembly tried to lower the salary which became the subject of several lawsuits in the Senate.
712:. The zemstvo elections were boycotted because the people considered the soviets as the authority. Much of the third element stopped showing up to their zemstvo appointed positions and worked for the soviets instead.
386:
Choir was a popular way to boost scholastic engagement. Nearly every other form of education received criticism, but teaching students to read the lyrics and memorize the tones of church songs was encouraging to all.
632:
of 1906 and are sufficiently indicated by the account of this given below. The zemstvos were originally given large powers in relation to the incidence of taxation and such questions as education, medical relief,
319:
element) and deputies (second element), the third element often came from the peasant class. For this, they were suspected of being liberal radicals (and some were) which resulted in persecution of the police.
359:
Literacy rose from 10% to 68% during the existence of the zemstvo system. The zemstvo education system was built on top of the existing peasant and clerical education systems. From 1907 to 1917, the
134:
Alexander II instituted these bodies, one for each district and another for each province or government, in 1864. The law creating the zemstvo outlined 14 objectives for each zemstvo to accomplish.
340:
The governor of Samara subsequently lead an investigation which discovered that over half of the current zemstvo employees had never been submitted to the governor for approval as required by law.
536:
From 1897 to 1899, the issue of eliminating the district zemstvos and centralizing all functionality within the provincial zemstvo was seriously debated. This debate was especially significant in
586:
largely overlapped with zemstvo participants. In the 1905-6 year 66 districts boycotted taxes in protest of the taxes being too high. Discontent was most severe where the zemstvo's tax on
423:
points in the early zemstvo period budget concerned lead to push back and laying off practitioners. By 1910, nearly all districts had a physician-patient ratio worse than 1 to 10,000.
330:
The zemstvo board has no choice but to rely exclusively on the third element, since there is no participation in the assembly at all. In this regard, the upcoming session terrifies me.
667:
gave zemstvos the budget and authority needed to carry out many of the projects in his agrarian reforms. His administration expanded the number of the zemstvos from 34 to 43. The new
30:
1819:
792:
Volvenko, Aleksei (2007). "The
Zemstvo Reform, the Cossacks, and Administrative Policy on the Don, 1864ā1882". In Burbank, Jane; Von Hagen, Mark; Remnev, A.V. (eds.).
715:
After the October Revolution, the uniform system of zemstvos broke apart. In some places such as Ukraine the institutions remained and took on more nationalist forms.
1834:
660:. Absenteeism increased dramatically during this period and many zemstvos were considered to be in good attendance if half their members showed up to the meetings.
360:
618:
505:
for the voice of the zemstvo to reach the throne. The Emperor considered this a senseless dream. The Minister of Interior expressly forbade zemstvo officials from
762:
By the law of 12 (25) June 1890 the peasant members of the zemstvos were to be nominated by the governor of the government or province from a list elected by the
302:
monetary taxes. This policy was also not popular as the zemstvos were often seen by contemporary peasants as worthless institutions that raised a lot of taxes.
454:
310:
The zemstvo executive boards were highly involved in the administration of the staff working for the zemstvo. These staff were professional experts from the
1824:
579:, which he formerly lead, to oust many zemstvo members. Several prominent zemstvo figures, including Shipov, were formally reprimanded by the Tsar.
551:
From 1902-1905, there were widespread reports of a total loss of independence of the peasant members of the zemstvos. Authority was ceded to the
567:
in his 1903 manifesto on provincial administration. This manifesto served as public support for the reforms led by Minister of Interior
1829:
246:
were women depending on the election. Women were de facto denied the right to serve as deputies with this confirmed de jure in 1903.
1743:
1633:
964:
Kulikov, Vladimir V. (3 July 2014). "Local Self-Government and Administrative Oversight: The Historical Experience of the Zemstvo".
801:
563:
contributed to increased tensions on all sides. Rising distrust between the central bureaucracy and the zemstvos was recognized by
590:
was taxed much higher than privately owned land. Notable participants in the 1905 revolution affiliated with the zemstvos include
1839:
1724:
1778:
Fallows, Thomas S. "The Russian Fronde and the Zemstvo Movement: Economic Agitation and Gentry Politics in the Mid-1890s."
642:
625:
and the zemstvos became more focused on protecting the interests of the nobility than addressing the grievances of 1905.
552:
521:
1760:
Darrow, David W. "The Politics of Numbers: Zemstvo Land Assessment and the Conceptualization of Russia's Rural Economy."
1689:
322:
The term 'third element' was coined by Vice Governor Vladimir Kondoidi in 1900, to refer to radical zemstvo employees in
629:
260:
576:
529:
member represented. By 1905, each peasant assembly member represented 6.47 times the land a noble member represented.
72:
575:, Plehve was able to force the governor to resign over his opposition to the reforms. Plehve worked closely with the
1772:
583:
676:
408:
275:
638:
517:
657:
80:
533:
zemstvo revenue were rates on lands, forests, country dwellings, factories, mines and other real estate.
672:
friends and family turned into partisan parliamentary politics more typical of 20th century governance.
568:
564:
650:
326:. He charged that the third element had largely taken control of the actual operations of the zemstvo.
186:
35:
1788:
Porter, Thomas, and William Gleason. "The 'Zemstvo' and Public Initiative in Late Imperial Russia."
607:
485:
466:
458:
285:
87:
elaborated the idea of the zemstvo, and the first zemstvo laws went into effect in 1864. After the
649:, met them with hostility, believing that the reforms were too minor. Still, in his 1901 article "
1803:
705:
595:
560:
430:
As the circuit system faded away, the zemstvos engaged in heated debate over what to do with the
88:
1739:
1720:
797:
646:
556:
298:
police, and the assemblies were forbidden from awarding police including even thanking them.
280:
973:
709:
603:
572:
544:, chairman of the provincial zemstvo, resigned in protest to bring attention to the debate.
210:
large landed proprietors (nobles owning 590 acres (2.4 km) and over), who sat in person
100:
96:
84:
68:
59:
47:
653:", Lenin advocated for a short-term alliance with the zemstvos against Tsarist oppression.
708:, the zemstvos lost all authority and the only real authority remaining in Russia was the
684:
622:
474:
194:
zemstvo building shows the architecture, seating, and wall art commissioned by the zemstvo
112:
76:
700:
only in their first year of existence, noticed the exceptional increase in local taxes.
664:
634:
353:
311:
116:
1813:
591:
541:
1458:
RUSSIA, U.S.S.R. A Complete Handbook. 1933. Edited by P. Malevsky-Malevich. p. 500.
679:
was set up in August 1914 to provide a common voice for all the zemstvos. It was a
512:
In 1866, the Senate ruled that zemstvos were not allowed to tax industrial output.
415:
120:
977:
293:
difficult to summarize what a typical zemstvo's taxation looks like. For example,
614:: a clandestine organization for liberals to discuss the issues of the zemstvo.
1800:
The Zemstvo and the emergence of civil society in late imperial Russia 1864-1917
599:
502:
314:
known as 'the third element'. Aside from the medical and educational staff, the
243:
348:
680:
92:
156:
Economic participation of public education, public health, and prison systems
691:
656:
In 1906, each zemstvo was able to elect one deputy to represent them in the
628:
The rules governing elections to the zemstvos were taken as a model for the
587:
441:
214:
128:
206:) nominated by the former. The board consisted of five classes of members:
147:
Management of philanthropy, public welfare, and church building maintenance
431:
315:
294:
259:
local governor while the district meetings were opened and closed by the
227:
1793:
17:
470:
414:
Prior to the zemstvo medical system, Russian peasants mostly relied on
191:
1783:
763:
611:
537:
462:
323:
231:
124:
509:
from contacting other provinces on any issue of national politics.
445:
was peasant women did not want strangers involved in their labor.
402:
368:
347:
274:
185:
371:
administrated schools fell from 24,000 in 1886 to 4,000 by 1880.
171:
Notify the public of local welfare opportunities and civil rights
668:
506:
391:
159:
Cooperation on the prevention of bovine disease and crop plagues
683:
organisation which after 1915 operated in conjunction with the
217:, including the clergy in their capacity of landed proprietors
1769:
The Zemstvo in Russia: An Experiment in Local Self-Government
1717:
The Zemstvo in Russia: an experiment in local self-government
637:, food supply, and road maintenance in their localities, but
559:
political movement. Financial and practical burdens from the
477:
collapsed and were abolished after six years of operation.
238:
much lower peasant representation at the provincial level.
1719:. Cambridge ; New York: Cambridge University Press.
516:
largest single change in the zemstvos powers came from
165:
Distribution of state tax funds assigned to the zemstvo
288:. 1872. It depicts the poorer, peasant part of zemstvo
352:
The building of the former zemstvo primary school in
27:
Institution of local government in the Russian Empire
1736:
A People's Tragedy: The Russian Revolution 1891ā1924
610:. Several of these men overlap with the members of
162:Fulfillment of civil, military, and postal demands
794:Russian Empire: Space, People, Power, 1700-1930
469:. Created in 1875 after much consultation with
328:
168:Setting, collecting, and allocating local taxes
138:Self management of zemstvo property and revenue
1658:
1602:
1590:
1578:
1548:
1536:
1524:
1512:
1491:
1479:
1467:
1446:
1434:
1422:
1410:
1398:
1386:
1374:
1362:
1350:
1338:
1326:
1314:
1302:
1290:
1278:
1266:
1254:
1242:
1230:
1218:
1206:
1194:
1182:
1170:
1158:
1146:
1134:
1122:
1110:
1098:
1086:
1056:
1044:
1023:
1011:
999:
948:
936:
924:
912:
900:
888:
867:
828:
816:
461:and the nine western governments annexed from
67: Š·ŠµŠ¼ŃŃŠ²Š°, zemstva) was an institution of
1767:Emmons, Terence, and Wayne S. Vucinich, eds.
732:
481:spread of epidemics and zoological diseases.
363:developed control over the education system.
8:
453:Zemstvos were created as part of the larger
198:They consisted of a representative council (
738:
119:was represented at the lowest level by the
959:
957:
846:The Russian Revolution: A Beginner's Guide
1820:1864 establishments in the Russian Empire
1715:Vucinich, Wayne; Emmons, Terence (1982).
1696:. Canadian Institute of Ukrainian Studies
1640:. Canadian Institute of Ukrainian Studies
796:. Indiana University Press. p. 348.
223:proxies of the less wealthy urban classes
153:Oversee development of trade and industry
97:system of workers' and peasants' councils
839:
837:
787:
785:
783:
484:From 1864 to 1889, zemstvos elected the
91:the zemstvo system was shut down by the
29:
779:
724:
619:Russian Peasants' uprising of 1905ā1906
1835:Local government in the Russian Empire
111:The system of elected bodies of local
335:Dmitrii Shipov, private letter (1902)
58:
7:
141:Self maintenance of zemstvo property
127:and was continued, so far as the 34
848:. Oneworld Publications. p. 3.
64:
25:
220:proxies of the wealthier townsmen
1825:1917 disestablishments in Russia
1634:"Unions of zemstvos and cities"
473:officials, the zemstvos of the
190:This early 1900s sketch of the
95:and replaced with a multilevel
34:A provincial zemstvo assembly.
1:
978:10.1080/10611983.2014.1020228
643:Socialist Revolutionary Party
588:land allotted to the peasants
202:) and of an executive board (
488:. Following this period the
1775:, 1982) essays by scholars.
1738:. London: The Bodley Head.
1659:Vucinich & Emmons (1982
1603:Vucinich & Emmons (1982
1591:Vucinich & Emmons (1982
1579:Vucinich & Emmons (1982
1549:Vucinich & Emmons (1982
1537:Vucinich & Emmons (1982
1525:Vucinich & Emmons (1982
1513:Vucinich & Emmons (1982
1492:Vucinich & Emmons (1982
1480:Vucinich & Emmons (1982
1468:Vucinich & Emmons (1982
1447:Vucinich & Emmons (1982
1435:Vucinich & Emmons (1982
1423:Vucinich & Emmons (1982
1411:Vucinich & Emmons (1982
1399:Vucinich & Emmons (1982
1387:Vucinich & Emmons (1982
1375:Vucinich & Emmons (1982
1363:Vucinich & Emmons (1982
1351:Vucinich & Emmons (1982
1339:Vucinich & Emmons (1982
1327:Vucinich & Emmons (1982
1315:Vucinich & Emmons (1982
1303:Vucinich & Emmons (1982
1291:Vucinich & Emmons (1982
1279:Vucinich & Emmons (1982
1267:Vucinich & Emmons (1982
1255:Vucinich & Emmons (1982
1243:Vucinich & Emmons (1982
1231:Vucinich & Emmons (1982
1219:Vucinich & Emmons (1982
1207:Vucinich & Emmons (1982
1195:Vucinich & Emmons (1982
1183:Vucinich & Emmons (1982
1171:Vucinich & Emmons (1982
1159:Vucinich & Emmons (1982
1147:Vucinich & Emmons (1982
1135:Vucinich & Emmons (1982
1123:Vucinich & Emmons (1982
1111:Vucinich & Emmons (1982
1099:Vucinich & Emmons (1982
1087:Vucinich & Emmons (1982
1057:Vucinich & Emmons (1982
1045:Vucinich & Emmons (1982
1024:Vucinich & Emmons (1982
1012:Vucinich & Emmons (1982
1000:Vucinich & Emmons (1982
949:Vucinich & Emmons (1982
937:Vucinich & Emmons (1982
925:Vucinich & Emmons (1982
913:Vucinich & Emmons (1982
901:Vucinich & Emmons (1982
889:Vucinich & Emmons (1982
868:Vucinich & Emmons (1982
829:Vucinich & Emmons (1982
817:Vucinich & Emmons (1982
690:In 1917 rural societies in
577:Police Department of Russia
73:emancipation reform of 1861
1856:
1773:Cambridge University Press
966:Russian Studies in History
584:Russian Revolution of 1905
520:(law of 25 June [
492:position was created. The
1830:Forms of local government
733:
677:All-Russian Zemstvo Union
409:Brusyliv, Zhytomyr Oblast
150:Mutual property insurance
51:
844:Ascher, Abraham (2014).
1694:Encyclopedia of Ukraine
1638:Encyclopedia of Ukraine
261:Marshal of the Nobility
1840:Alexander II of Russia
1792:21.4 (1994): 419-437.
1782:44.2 (1985): 119-138.
731:The word derives from
702:
411:
407:A zemstvo hospital in
356:
338:
289:
195:
81:Alexander II of Russia
39:
1798:Porter, Thomas Earl.
697:
569:Vyacheslav von Plehve
486:justices of the peace
406:
361:Ministry of Education
351:
278:
213:proxies of the small
189:
33:
748:land, country, state
582:The participants of
144:Public food security
107:The Zemstvo Assembly
36:Konstantin Trutovsky
1764:59.1 (2000): 52-75.
1605:, pp. 155ā161)
1593:, pp. 118ā119)
1551:, pp. 145ā146)
1515:, pp. 221ā227)
1413:, pp. 181ā184)
1329:, pp. 193ā195)
1257:, pp. 300ā301)
1245:, pp. 292ā294)
1233:, pp. 286ā291)
1209:, pp. 286ā291)
1185:, pp. 279ā284)
1173:, pp. 266ā268)
1149:, pp. 260ā262)
1137:, pp. 259ā260)
1125:, pp. 253ā264)
1113:, pp. 247ā252)
663:As Prime Minister,
617:In response to the
286:Grigoriy Myasoyedov
60:[ĖzŹ²ÉmstvÉ]
1804:Edwin Mellen Press
1780:The Russian Review
1762:The Russian Review
1002:, pp. 97ā104)
706:Russian Revolution
651:What is to be done
596:Dmitry Shakhovskoy
561:Russo-Japanese War
412:
357:
290:
196:
89:October Revolution
71:set up during the
40:
1449:, pp. 85ā89)
1425:, pp. 47ā50)
951:, pp. 57ā58)
939:, pp. 40ā56)
927:, pp. 40ā43)
915:, pp. 94ā95)
870:, pp. 84ā85)
557:constitutionalist
494:zemskii nachalnik
490:zemskii nachalnik
383:married in 1911.
306:The Third Element
281:The Zemstvo Dines
230:, elected by the
200:zemskoye sobranye
16:(Redirected from
1847:
1749:
1734:Figes, Orlando.
1730:
1706:
1705:
1703:
1701:
1686:
1680:
1677:
1671:
1668:
1662:
1656:
1650:
1649:
1647:
1645:
1630:
1624:
1621:
1615:
1612:
1606:
1600:
1594:
1588:
1582:
1576:
1570:
1567:
1561:
1558:
1552:
1546:
1540:
1534:
1528:
1522:
1516:
1510:
1504:
1501:
1495:
1489:
1483:
1477:
1471:
1465:
1459:
1456:
1450:
1444:
1438:
1432:
1426:
1420:
1414:
1408:
1402:
1396:
1390:
1384:
1378:
1372:
1366:
1360:
1354:
1348:
1342:
1336:
1330:
1324:
1318:
1312:
1306:
1300:
1294:
1288:
1282:
1276:
1270:
1264:
1258:
1252:
1246:
1240:
1234:
1228:
1222:
1216:
1210:
1204:
1198:
1192:
1186:
1180:
1174:
1168:
1162:
1156:
1150:
1144:
1138:
1132:
1126:
1120:
1114:
1108:
1102:
1096:
1090:
1084:
1078:
1075:
1069:
1066:
1060:
1054:
1048:
1042:
1036:
1033:
1027:
1021:
1015:
1009:
1003:
997:
991:
988:
982:
981:
961:
952:
946:
940:
934:
928:
922:
916:
910:
904:
898:
892:
886:
880:
877:
871:
865:
859:
856:
850:
849:
841:
832:
826:
820:
814:
808:
807:
789:
767:
760:
754:
752:
749:
746:
743:
740:
736:
735:
729:
604:Pavel Dolgorukov
573:Saint Petersburg
565:Tsar Nicholas II
459:Baltic provinces
336:
177:Special charters
85:Nikolay Milyutin
69:local government
66:
62:
57:
53:
21:
1855:
1854:
1850:
1849:
1848:
1846:
1845:
1844:
1810:
1809:
1790:Russian History
1757:
1755:Further reading
1752:
1746:
1733:
1727:
1714:
1710:
1709:
1699:
1697:
1688:
1687:
1683:
1678:
1674:
1669:
1665:
1657:
1653:
1643:
1641:
1632:
1631:
1627:
1622:
1618:
1613:
1609:
1601:
1597:
1589:
1585:
1577:
1573:
1568:
1564:
1559:
1555:
1547:
1543:
1535:
1531:
1523:
1519:
1511:
1507:
1502:
1498:
1490:
1486:
1478:
1474:
1466:
1462:
1457:
1453:
1445:
1441:
1433:
1429:
1421:
1417:
1409:
1405:
1397:
1393:
1385:
1381:
1373:
1369:
1361:
1357:
1349:
1345:
1337:
1333:
1325:
1321:
1313:
1309:
1301:
1297:
1289:
1285:
1277:
1273:
1265:
1261:
1253:
1249:
1241:
1237:
1229:
1225:
1217:
1213:
1205:
1201:
1193:
1189:
1181:
1177:
1169:
1165:
1157:
1153:
1145:
1141:
1133:
1129:
1121:
1117:
1109:
1105:
1097:
1093:
1085:
1081:
1077:Figes, p. 52-53
1076:
1072:
1067:
1063:
1055:
1051:
1043:
1039:
1034:
1030:
1022:
1018:
1010:
1006:
998:
994:
989:
985:
963:
962:
955:
947:
943:
935:
931:
923:
919:
911:
907:
899:
895:
887:
883:
878:
874:
866:
862:
857:
853:
843:
842:
835:
827:
823:
815:
811:
804:
791:
790:
781:
776:
771:
770:
761:
757:
750:
747:
744:
741:
730:
726:
721:
685:Union of Cities
623:United Nobility
475:Don Host Oblast
451:
401:
346:
337:
334:
308:
273:
256:
226:proxies of the
204:zemskaya uprava
184:
113:self-government
109:
77:Imperial Russia
75:carried out in
55:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
1853:
1851:
1843:
1842:
1837:
1832:
1827:
1822:
1812:
1811:
1808:
1807:
1796:
1786:
1776:
1765:
1756:
1753:
1751:
1750:
1744:
1731:
1725:
1711:
1708:
1707:
1681:
1672:
1663:
1661:, p. 109)
1651:
1625:
1616:
1607:
1595:
1583:
1571:
1562:
1553:
1541:
1539:, p. 108)
1529:
1527:, p. 440)
1517:
1505:
1496:
1494:, p. 118)
1484:
1482:, p. 260)
1472:
1470:, p. 195)
1460:
1451:
1439:
1427:
1415:
1403:
1391:
1379:
1377:, p. 206)
1367:
1365:, p. 205)
1355:
1353:, p. 140)
1343:
1331:
1319:
1307:
1295:
1283:
1271:
1269:, p. 302)
1259:
1247:
1235:
1223:
1221:, p. 306)
1211:
1199:
1197:, p. 294)
1187:
1175:
1163:
1161:, p. 263)
1151:
1139:
1127:
1115:
1103:
1101:, p. 243)
1091:
1079:
1070:
1061:
1059:, p. 120)
1049:
1037:
1028:
1026:, p. 111)
1016:
1004:
992:
983:
953:
941:
929:
917:
905:
893:
881:
872:
860:
851:
833:
821:
809:
802:
778:
777:
775:
772:
769:
768:
755:
723:
722:
720:
717:
665:Pyotr Stolypin
641:, such as the
635:public welfare
608:Fedor Redichev
450:
447:
400:
397:
354:Krasno, Russia
345:
342:
332:
312:Intelligentsia
307:
304:
272:
269:
255:
252:
235:
234:
224:
221:
218:
211:
183:
180:
179:
178:
175:
174:Hold elections
172:
169:
166:
163:
160:
157:
154:
151:
148:
145:
142:
139:
117:Russian Empire
108:
105:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
1852:
1841:
1838:
1836:
1833:
1831:
1828:
1826:
1823:
1821:
1818:
1817:
1815:
1805:
1801:
1797:
1795:
1791:
1787:
1785:
1781:
1777:
1774:
1770:
1766:
1763:
1759:
1758:
1754:
1747:
1745:9781847922915
1741:
1737:
1732:
1728:
1722:
1718:
1713:
1712:
1695:
1691:
1685:
1682:
1679:Figes, p. 359
1676:
1673:
1670:Figes, p. 359
1667:
1664:
1660:
1655:
1652:
1639:
1635:
1629:
1626:
1623:Figes, p. 354
1620:
1617:
1611:
1608:
1604:
1599:
1596:
1592:
1587:
1584:
1581:, p. 48)
1580:
1575:
1572:
1569:Figes, p. 207
1566:
1563:
1560:Figes, p. 165
1557:
1554:
1550:
1545:
1542:
1538:
1533:
1530:
1526:
1521:
1518:
1514:
1509:
1506:
1500:
1497:
1493:
1488:
1485:
1481:
1476:
1473:
1469:
1464:
1461:
1455:
1452:
1448:
1443:
1440:
1437:, p. 54)
1436:
1431:
1428:
1424:
1419:
1416:
1412:
1407:
1404:
1401:, p. 58)
1400:
1395:
1392:
1389:, p. 58)
1388:
1383:
1380:
1376:
1371:
1368:
1364:
1359:
1356:
1352:
1347:
1344:
1341:, p. 48)
1340:
1335:
1332:
1328:
1323:
1320:
1317:, p. 48)
1316:
1311:
1308:
1305:, p. 47)
1304:
1299:
1296:
1293:, p. 34)
1292:
1287:
1284:
1281:, p. 35)
1280:
1275:
1272:
1268:
1263:
1260:
1256:
1251:
1248:
1244:
1239:
1236:
1232:
1227:
1224:
1220:
1215:
1212:
1208:
1203:
1200:
1196:
1191:
1188:
1184:
1179:
1176:
1172:
1167:
1164:
1160:
1155:
1152:
1148:
1143:
1140:
1136:
1131:
1128:
1124:
1119:
1116:
1112:
1107:
1104:
1100:
1095:
1092:
1089:, p. 93)
1088:
1083:
1080:
1074:
1071:
1065:
1062:
1058:
1053:
1050:
1047:, p. 53)
1046:
1041:
1038:
1032:
1029:
1025:
1020:
1017:
1014:, p. 98)
1013:
1008:
1005:
1001:
996:
993:
987:
984:
979:
975:
971:
967:
960:
958:
954:
950:
945:
942:
938:
933:
930:
926:
921:
918:
914:
909:
906:
903:, p. 83)
902:
897:
894:
891:, p. 38)
890:
885:
882:
876:
873:
869:
864:
861:
855:
852:
847:
840:
838:
834:
831:, p. 45)
830:
825:
822:
819:, p. 44)
818:
813:
810:
805:
803:9780253219114
799:
795:
788:
786:
784:
780:
773:
765:
759:
756:
728:
725:
718:
716:
713:
711:
707:
701:
696:
693:
688:
686:
682:
678:
673:
670:
666:
661:
659:
658:State Council
654:
652:
648:
644:
640:
636:
631:
630:electoral law
626:
624:
620:
615:
613:
609:
605:
601:
597:
593:
592:Dmitry Shipov
589:
585:
580:
578:
574:
570:
566:
562:
558:
554:
553:land captains
549:
545:
543:
542:Dmitry Shipov
539:
534:
530:
526:
523:
519:
518:Alexander III
513:
510:
508:
504:
498:
495:
491:
487:
482:
478:
476:
472:
468:
464:
460:
456:
455:Great Reforms
448:
446:
443:
439:
435:
433:
428:
424:
420:
417:
416:faith healers
410:
405:
398:
396:
393:
390:In 1907, the
388:
384:
380:
376:
372:
370:
364:
362:
355:
350:
343:
341:
331:
327:
325:
320:
317:
313:
305:
303:
299:
296:
287:
283:
282:
277:
270:
268:
264:
262:
253:
251:
247:
245:
239:
233:
229:
225:
222:
219:
216:
212:
209:
208:
207:
205:
201:
193:
188:
181:
176:
173:
170:
167:
164:
161:
158:
155:
152:
149:
146:
143:
140:
137:
136:
135:
132:
130:
126:
122:
118:
114:
106:
104:
102:
98:
94:
90:
86:
82:
78:
74:
70:
61:
49:
45:
37:
32:
19:
1799:
1789:
1779:
1768:
1761:
1735:
1716:
1698:. Retrieved
1693:
1684:
1675:
1666:
1654:
1642:. Retrieved
1637:
1628:
1619:
1614:Figes, p. 50
1610:
1598:
1586:
1574:
1565:
1556:
1544:
1532:
1520:
1508:
1503:Figes, p. 53
1499:
1487:
1475:
1463:
1454:
1442:
1430:
1418:
1406:
1394:
1382:
1370:
1358:
1346:
1334:
1322:
1310:
1298:
1286:
1274:
1262:
1250:
1238:
1226:
1214:
1202:
1190:
1178:
1166:
1154:
1142:
1130:
1118:
1106:
1094:
1082:
1073:
1068:Figes, p. 52
1064:
1052:
1040:
1035:Figes, p. 52
1031:
1019:
1007:
995:
990:Figes, p. 53
986:
972:(3): 56ā69.
969:
965:
944:
932:
920:
908:
896:
884:
879:Figes, p. 47
875:
863:
858:Figes, p. 47
854:
845:
824:
812:
793:
758:
727:
714:
703:
698:
689:
674:
662:
655:
627:
616:
581:
550:
546:
535:
531:
527:
514:
511:
499:
493:
489:
483:
479:
467:Catherine II
452:
440:
436:
429:
425:
421:
413:
389:
385:
381:
377:
373:
365:
358:
339:
329:
321:
309:
300:
291:
279:
265:
257:
248:
240:
236:
203:
199:
197:
133:
110:
43:
41:
704:During the
600:Georgy Lvov
503:Nicholas II
316:agronomists
244:Tula Oblast
79:by Emperor
1814:Categories
1726:0521234166
1644:8 February
774:References
737:(zemlyĆ”),
215:landowners
129:Guberniyas
93:Bolsheviks
1690:"Zemstvo"
692:Stavropol
647:nihilists
442:Midwifery
432:feldshers
344:Education
254:Procedure
182:Elections
1806:, 1991).
1700:30 April
645:and the
639:radicals
399:Medicine
333:ā
295:land tax
271:Taxation
228:peasants
123:and the
18:Zemstvos
764:volosts
742:
710:soviets
681:liberal
471:Cossack
449:History
232:volosts
192:Poltava
115:in the
101:soviets
52:Š·ŠµŠ¼ŃŃŠ²Š¾
48:Russian
44:zemstvo
1794:online
1784:online
1742:
1723:
800:
612:Beseda
606:, and
540:where
538:Moscow
463:Poland
324:Samara
125:volost
38:, 1868
734:Š·ŠµŠ¼Š»Ń
719:Notes
369:Synod
1740:ISBN
1721:ISBN
1702:2024
1646:2016
798:ISBN
739:lit.
675:The
669:Duma
522:O.S.
507:Tver
392:Duma
103:").
56:IPA:
974:doi
465:by
284:by
121:mir
65:pl.
1816::
1692:.
1636:.
970:53
968:.
956:^
836:^
782:^
687:.
602:,
598:,
594:,
99:("
83:.
63:,
54:,
50::
42:A
1802:(
1771:(
1748:.
1729:.
1704:.
1648:.
980:.
976::
806:.
766:.
753:.
751:'
745:'
46:(
20:)
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
