943:
31:
42:. Purple light is emitted along the electron path, due to the electrons colliding with gas molecules in the bulb. Mass-to-charge ratio of the electron can be measured in this apparatus by comparing the radius of the purple circle, the strength of the magnetic field, and the voltage on the electron gun. The mass and charge
1487:
Fine beam tube method: A heater heats a cathode, which emits electrons. The electrons are accelerated through a known potential, so the velocity of the electrons is known. The beam path can be seen when the electrons are accelerated through a helium (He) gas. The collisions between the electrons
1492:
produces a uniform and measurable magnetic field at right angles to the electron beam. This magnetic field deflects the electron beam in a circular path. By measuring the accelerating potential (volts), the current (amps) to the
Helmholtz coils, and the radius of the electron beam, e/m can be
2286:
1311:
The ratio of electrostatic to gravitational forces between two particles will be proportional to the product of their charge-to-mass ratios. It turns out that gravitational forces are negligible on the subatomic level, due to the extremely small masses of subatomic particles.
846:
of an ion alone neither infers mass nor the number of charges. Additional information, such as the mass spacing between mass isotopomers or the relationship between multiple charge states, is required to assign the charge state and infer the mass of the ion from the
1988:
1483:
The magnetron method: Using a GRD7 Valve (Ferranti valve), electrons are expelled from a hot tungsten-wire filament towards an anode. The electron is then deflected using a solenoid. From the current in the solenoid and the current in the
Ferranti Valve, e/m can be
632:
This differential equation is the classic equation of motion of a charged particle in a vacuum. Together with the particle's initial conditions, it determines the particle's motion in space and time. It immediately reveals that two particles with the same
2438:
863:
is primarily used to report an empirical observation in mass spectrometry. This observation may be used in conjunction with other lines of evidence to subsequently infer the physical attributes of the ion, such as mass and charge. On rare occasions, the
1288:
In some experiments, the charge-to-mass ratio is the only quantity that can be measured directly. Often, the charge can be inferred from theoretical considerations, so the charge-to-mass ratio provides a way to calculate the mass of a particle.
973:
of an object divided by the mass of the same object. This quantity is generally useful only for objects that may be treated as particles. For extended objects, total charge, charge density, total mass, and mass density are often more useful.
628:
467:
259:. The importance of the mass-to-charge ratio, according to classical electrodynamics, is that two particles with the same mass-to-charge ratio move in the same path in a vacuum, when subjected to the same electric and magnetic fields.
2108:
1633:
397:
2101:
535:
This differential equation is the classic equation of motion for charged particles. Together with the particle's initial conditions, it completely determines the particle's motion in space and time in terms of
1897:
1876:
2293:
1126:
1711:
1304:
of the particle, will give the charge-to-mass ratio. One application of this principle is the mass spectrometer. The same principle can be used to extract information in experiments involving the
641:
ratio behave in the same way. This is why the mass-to-charge ratio is an important physical quantity in those scientific fields where charged particles interact with magnetic or electric fields.
1279:
1070:
898:. By doing this, he showed that the electron was in fact a particle with a mass and a charge, and that its mass-to-charge ratio was much smaller than that of the hydrogen ion H. In 1898,
566:
166:
1020:
407:
1199:
2545:
2540:
2477:
1356:
1402:
1161:
1516:
887:. He put an upper limit of 10^10 coul/kg, but even that resulted in much greater value than expected, so little credence was given to his calculations at the time.
344:
2708:
2520:
919:
2041:
1436:
1756:
2281:{\displaystyle hc{\frac {\Delta \lambda }{\lambda ^{2}}}=hc{\frac {\delta D}{2D\Delta D}}={\frac {e\hbar B}{2m}}(m_{j,f}g_{J,f}-m_{j,i}g_{J,i})\,.}
930:
with an instrument he called a parabola spectrograph. Today, an instrument that measures the mass-to-charge ratio of charged particles is called a
2705:
International vocabulary of basic and general terms in metrology =: Vocabulaire international des termes fondamentaux et généraux de métrologie
2716:
2694:
2671:
2598:
2743:
1232:
2613:
1993:
838:
is one equation with two unknowns and could have arisen from other ions, such as an ion of mass 50 Da carrying one charge. Thus, the
2582:
2554:
1030:
1479:
There are two other common ways of measuring the charge-to-mass ratio of an electron, apart from
Thomson and Dunnington's methods.
2725:
IUPAP Red Book SUNAMCO 87-1 "Symbols, Units, Nomenclature and
Fundamental Constants in Physics" (does not have an online version)
2738:
1091:
1678:
1983:{\displaystyle \Delta E=h\Delta \nu =hc\Delta \left({\frac {1}{\lambda }}\right)=hc{\frac {\Delta \lambda }{\lambda ^{2}}}}
2759:
2749:
980:
654:
2774:
1171:
911:
248:
906:) according to their mass-to-charge ratio with an ion optical device with superimposed electric and magnetic fields (
2779:
1996:, with light from a source (placed in a magnetic field) being passed between two mirrors of the interferometer. If
1292:
Often, the charge-to-mass ratio can be determined by observing the deflection of a charged particle in an external
923:
2433:{\displaystyle {\frac {e}{m}}={\frac {4\pi c}{B(m_{j,f}g_{J,f}-m_{j,i}g_{J,i})}}{\frac {\delta D}{D\Delta D}}\,.}
1733:
1358:, is a quantity that may be measured in experimental physics. It bears significance because the electron mass
560:, which denotes the dimensionless quantity formed by dividing the mass number of the ion by its charge number.
121:
1131:
2648:
PASCO scientific, Instruction Manual and
Experimental guide for the PASCO scientific Model SE-9638, pg. 1.
1663:
697:(C) is the SI unit of charge; however, other units can be used, such as expressing charge in terms of the
401:
275:
2728:
Symbols Units and
Nomenclature in Physics IUPAP-25, E.R. Cohen & P. Giacomo, Physics 146A (1987) 1–68
529:
738:
The units and notation above are used when dealing with the physics of mass spectrometry; however, the
876:
In the 19th century, the mass-to-charge ratios of some ions were measured by electrochemical methods.
915:
623:{\displaystyle \left({\frac {m}{Q}}\right)\mathbf {a} =\mathbf {E} +\mathbf {v} \times \mathbf {B} .}
114:
2614:
https://edisciplinas.usp.br/pluginfile.php/7740105/mod_resource/content/1/projectphysicsun00fjam.pdf
2558:
1365:
is difficult to measure directly, and is instead derived from measurements of the elementary charge
240:
232:
2784:
2448:
1666:
252:
942:
2712:
2690:
2667:
2594:
2550:
1750:
1323:
931:
698:
650:
545:
256:
221:
186:
1372:
462:{\displaystyle \mathbf {F} =m\mathbf {a} =m{\frac {\mathrm {d} \mathbf {v} }{\mathrm {d} t}}}
2586:
2491:
1417:
883:
particles, assuming them to be ions, was made in 1884-1890 by German-born
British physicist
236:
685:
for charge is also very common. Charge is a scalar property, meaning that it can be either
2789:
970:
884:
690:
686:
501:
334:
When charged particles move in electric and magnetic fields the following two laws apply:
244:
217:
200:
2686:
2453:
1721:
1507:
1489:
1421:
1301:
865:
509:
39:
750:. This notation eases data interpretation since it is numerically more related to the
2768:
1503:
1413:
1305:
895:
787:
763:
751:
747:
733:
549:
521:
338:
205:
2487:
2290:
Rearranging, it is possible to solve for the charge-to-mass ratio of an electron as
2753:
899:
493:
92:
35:
2624:
2512:
548:
could be thought of as "mass-to-charge spectrometers". When presenting data in a
2482:
1425:
926:
increase in modern terms. In 1913, Thomson measured the mass-to-charge ratio of
907:
880:
779:
30:
1888:
1659:
1628:{\displaystyle \Delta E={\frac {e\hbar B}{2m}}(m_{j,f}g_{J,f}-m_{j,i}g_{J,i})}
225:
2486:, 2nd ed. (the "Gold Book") (1997). Online corrected version: (2006–) "
392:{\displaystyle \mathbf {F} =Q(\mathbf {E} +\mathbf {v} \times \mathbf {B} ),}
2636:
2590:
2495:
1881:
1297:
903:
209:
2096:{\displaystyle \Delta \lambda =\lambda ^{2}{\frac {\delta D}{2D\Delta D}}.}
855:. This additional information is often but not always available. Thus, the
1429:
1293:
891:
525:
283:
99:
2574:
802:
is dimensionless by definition. An ion with a mass of 100 Da (daltons) (
762:
is numerically equivalent to the molecular or atomic mass of the ion in
2579:
IUPAC. Compendium of
Chemical Terminology, 2nd ed. (the –"––Gold Book")
706:
694:
213:
84:
78:
1502:
The charge-to-mass ratio of an electron may also be measured with the
279:
107:
103:
17:
477:
189:
29:
1992:
Measurements of the Zeeman effect commonly involve the use of a
1416:
in 1897—and more successfully by
Dunnington, which involves the
485:
194:
1871:{\displaystyle g_{J}=1+{\frac {j(j+1)+s(s+1)-l(l+1)}{2j(j+1)}}}
927:
791:
27:
Physical quantity of interest in chemistry and electrodynamics
1506:, which gives rise to energy splittings in the presence of a
868:
has been used as a unit of the x-axis of a mass spectrum.
2000:
is the change in mirror separation required to bring the
879:
The first attempt to measure the mass-to-charge ratio of
2517:
The NIST Reference on
Constants, Units, and Uncertainty
1488:
and the helium gas produce a visible trail. A pair of
1121:{\displaystyle F_{\text{electric}}=F_{\text{magnetic}}}
1706:{\displaystyle \mathbf {J} =\mathbf {L} +\mathbf {S} }
1300:
equation, combined with other information such as the
673:
The IUPAC-recommended symbols for mass and charge are
2513:"2022 CODATA Value: electron charge to mass quotient"
2296:
2111:
2044:
1900:
1759:
1681:
1519:
1432:, and he is generally credited with their discovery.
1412:
ratio of the electron was successfully calculated by
1375:
1326:
1235:
1174:
1134:
1094:
1033:
983:
569:
410:
347:
124:
2573:
Compiled by A. D. McNaught and A. Wilkinson (1997).
2639:Proceedings of the Royal Society A 89, 1–20 (1913)
2546:
Quantities, Units and Symbols in Physical Chemistry
746:notation is used for the independent variable in a
113:
90:
77:
61:
56:
2432:
2280:
2095:
1982:
1870:
1705:
1627:
1396:
1350:
1274:{\displaystyle {\frac {q}{m}}={\frac {E}{B^{2}r}}}
1273:
1193:
1155:
1120:
1064:
1014:
622:
461:
391:
160:
2541:International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry
649:There are non-classical effects that derive from
2507:
2505:
2503:
754:. For example, if an ion carries one charge the
2575:"Mass-to-charge ratio in mass spectrometry, mz"
1428:were particles, which were later identified as
657:that can diverge the path of ions of identical
2709:International Organization for Standardization
2488:mass-to-charge ratio, m/z in mass spectrometry
1880:The shift in energy is also given in terms of
1065:{\displaystyle {\frac {q}{m}}={\frac {v}{Br}}}
563:Combining the two previous equations yields:
8:
1404:. It also has historical significance; the
969:) of an object is, as its name implies, the
1424:. Thomson's measurement convinced him that
2549:, 2nd edition, Oxford: Blackwell Science.
681:, respectively, however using a lowercase
34:Beam of electrons moving in a circle in a
2426:
2403:
2385:
2369:
2350:
2334:
2310:
2297:
2295:
2274:
2259:
2243:
2224:
2208:
2178:
2149:
2132:
2118:
2110:
2064:
2058:
2043:
2014:into coincidence with that of wavelength
1972:
1958:
1935:
1899:
1779:
1764:
1758:
1698:
1690:
1682:
1680:
1646:are quantum integer values ranging from −
1610:
1594:
1575:
1559:
1529:
1518:
1388:
1379:
1374:
1342:
1333:
1325:
1259:
1249:
1236:
1234:
1181:
1173:
1133:
1112:
1099:
1093:
1047:
1034:
1032:
1002:
982:
890:In 1897, the mass-to-charge ratio of the
612:
604:
596:
588:
574:
568:
448:
441:
436:
433:
422:
411:
409:
378:
370:
362:
348:
346:
161:{\displaystyle {\mathsf {MI^{-1}T^{-1}}}}
147:
134:
126:
125:
123:
2473:
2471:
2469:
941:
552:, it is common to use the dimensionless
2627:Philosophical Magazine, 44, 293 (1897).
2568:
2566:
2465:
2184:
1535:
231:It appears in the scientific fields of
1420:and deflection due to a perpendicular
1320:The electron charge-to-mass quotient,
216:(kg/C). It is most widely used in the
151:
148:
144:
138:
135:
131:
127:
53:
920:Kaufmann–Bucherer–Neumann experiments
827:. However, the empirical observation
7:
2760:instructions on quantities and units
1165:
1024:
1015:{\displaystyle qvB=mv{\frac {v}{r}}}
766:(Da), where the numerical value of
50:measured this way—only their ratio.
2483:Compendium of Chemical Terminology
2417:
2166:
2121:
2081:
2045:
1961:
1928:
1913:
1901:
1520:
778:refers to the molecular or atomic
449:
437:
278:of the mass-to-charge ratio. The
204:of a given particle, expressed in
25:
2583:Blackwell Scientific Publications
1699:
1691:
1683:
1470:electron charge-to-mass quotient
1194:{\displaystyle v={\frac {E}{B}}}
613:
605:
597:
589:
442:
423:
412:
379:
371:
363:
349:
2683:Applied charged particle optics
2637:Joseph John Thomson (1856–1940)
1468:. CODATA refers to this as the
2397:
2327:
2271:
2201:
1862:
1850:
1839:
1827:
1818:
1806:
1797:
1785:
1622:
1552:
383:
359:
224:, e.g. in electron optics and
1:
198:(quantity of matter) and the
2004:th-order ring of wavelength
2681:Septier, Albert L. (1980).
1225:
1219:
794:; however, the quantity of
249:Auger electron spectroscopy
38:, due to the presence of a
2806:
2666:. New York: Plenum Press.
2034:into coincidence with the
1994:Fabry–Pérot interferometer
731:
2662:Szilágyi, Miklós (1988).
2625:J. J. Thomson (1856–1940)
1734:angular momentum operator
914:measured the increase of
782:(number of nucleons) and
717:is kilogram per coulomb.
709:of the physical quantity
282:recommended value for an
262:Some disciplines use the
1476:is still commonly used.
1351:{\displaystyle -e/m_{e}}
953:exists only where shown.
809:) carrying two charges (
274:) instead, which is the
2664:Electron and ion optics
2591:10.1351/goldbook.M03752
2496:10.1351/goldbook.M03752
1397:{\displaystyle e/m_{e}}
949:is uniform throughout;
2434:
2282:
2097:
1984:
1872:
1707:
1664:total angular momentum
1629:
1439:recommended value is −
1398:
1352:
1275:
1195:
1157:
1156:{\displaystyle Eq=Bqv}
1122:
1066:
1016:
954:
894:was first measured by
816:) will be observed at
721:Mass spectrometry and
624:
463:
393:
276:multiplicative inverse
162:
51:
2754:manuscript check list
2435:
2283:
2105:It follows then that
2098:
1985:
1873:
1708:
1630:
1399:
1353:
1276:
1196:
1158:
1123:
1067:
1017:
945:
625:
530:magnetic flux density
464:
394:
163:
33:
2294:
2109:
2042:
2038:th-order ring, then
1898:
1757:
1679:
1517:
1373:
1324:
1233:
1172:
1132:
1092:
1031:
981:
959:charge-to-mass ratio
938:Charge-to-mass ratio
916:electromagnetic mass
655:Stern–Gerlach effect
567:
480:applied to the ion,
408:
345:
175:mass-to-charge ratio
122:
57:Mass-to-charge ratio
2775:Physical quantities
2559:Electronic version.
2030:ring of wavelength
918:of fast electrons (
402:Newton's second law
241:accelerator physics
233:electron microscopy
2449:Gyromagnetic ratio
2430:
2278:
2093:
1980:
1868:
1703:
1625:
1394:
1348:
1271:
1191:
1153:
1118:
1062:
1012:
955:
620:
546:mass spectrometers
459:
389:
158:
94:SI base units
52:
2780:Mass spectrometry
2718:978-92-67-01075-5
2696:978-0-12-014574-4
2673:978-0-306-42717-6
2600:978-0-9678550-9-7
2557:. pp. 4,14.
2424:
2401:
2305:
2199:
2173:
2138:
2088:
1978:
1943:
1866:
1550:
1450: =
1269:
1244:
1215:
1214:
1189:
1115:
1102:
1086:
1085:
1060:
1042:
1010:
932:mass spectrometer
924:relativistic mass
774:is abstruse. The
699:elementary charge
669:Symbols and units
651:quantum mechanics
582:
488:of the particle,
457:
257:mass spectrometry
237:cathode ray tubes
222:charged particles
187:physical quantity
171:
170:
16:(Redirected from
2797:
2758:Physics Today's
2744:AIP style manual
2739:BIPM SI brochure
2722:
2700:
2677:
2649:
2646:
2640:
2634:
2628:
2622:
2616:
2611:
2605:
2604:
2570:
2561:
2538:
2532:
2531:
2529:
2528:
2509:
2498:
2475:
2439:
2437:
2436:
2431:
2425:
2423:
2412:
2404:
2402:
2400:
2396:
2395:
2380:
2379:
2361:
2360:
2345:
2344:
2322:
2311:
2306:
2298:
2287:
2285:
2284:
2279:
2270:
2269:
2254:
2253:
2235:
2234:
2219:
2218:
2200:
2198:
2190:
2179:
2174:
2172:
2158:
2150:
2139:
2137:
2136:
2127:
2119:
2102:
2100:
2099:
2094:
2089:
2087:
2073:
2065:
2063:
2062:
2029:
2013:
1989:
1987:
1986:
1981:
1979:
1977:
1976:
1967:
1959:
1948:
1944:
1936:
1877:
1875:
1874:
1869:
1867:
1865:
1842:
1780:
1769:
1768:
1753:, calculated as
1736:with eigenvalue
1724:with eigenvalue
1712:
1710:
1709:
1704:
1702:
1694:
1686:
1634:
1632:
1631:
1626:
1621:
1620:
1605:
1604:
1586:
1585:
1570:
1569:
1551:
1549:
1541:
1530:
1467:
1465:
1461:
1458:
1455:
1418:angular momentum
1403:
1401:
1400:
1395:
1393:
1392:
1383:
1357:
1355:
1354:
1349:
1347:
1346:
1337:
1280:
1278:
1277:
1272:
1270:
1268:
1264:
1263:
1250:
1245:
1237:
1209:
1200:
1198:
1197:
1192:
1190:
1182:
1166:
1162:
1160:
1159:
1154:
1127:
1125:
1124:
1119:
1117:
1116:
1113:
1104:
1103:
1100:
1080:
1071:
1069:
1068:
1063:
1061:
1059:
1048:
1043:
1035:
1025:
1021:
1019:
1018:
1013:
1011:
1003:
902:separated ions (
837:
826:
815:
808:
629:
627:
626:
621:
616:
608:
600:
592:
587:
583:
575:
468:
466:
465:
460:
458:
456:
452:
446:
445:
440:
434:
426:
415:
398:
396:
395:
390:
382:
374:
366:
352:
326:
324:
322:
318:
315:
312:
306:
304:
303:
298:
295:
167:
165:
164:
159:
157:
156:
155:
154:
142:
141:
95:
73:
69:
54:
21:
2805:
2804:
2800:
2799:
2798:
2796:
2795:
2794:
2765:
2764:
2735:
2719:
2703:
2697:
2680:
2674:
2661:
2658:
2653:
2652:
2647:
2643:
2635:
2631:
2623:
2619:
2612:
2608:
2601:
2572:
2571:
2564:
2539:
2535:
2526:
2524:
2511:
2510:
2501:
2476:
2467:
2462:
2445:
2413:
2405:
2381:
2365:
2346:
2330:
2323:
2312:
2292:
2291:
2255:
2239:
2220:
2204:
2191:
2180:
2159:
2151:
2128:
2120:
2107:
2106:
2074:
2066:
2054:
2040:
2039:
2023:
2005:
1968:
1960:
1931:
1896:
1895:
1843:
1781:
1760:
1755:
1754:
1748:
1677:
1676:
1645:
1606:
1590:
1571:
1555:
1542:
1531:
1515:
1514:
1500:
1490:Helmholtz coils
1463:
1459:
1456:
1453:
1451:
1449:
1384:
1371:
1370:
1364:
1338:
1322:
1321:
1318:
1286:
1255:
1254:
1231:
1230:
1207:
1170:
1169:
1130:
1129:
1108:
1095:
1090:
1089:
1078:
1052:
1029:
1028:
979:
978:
940:
885:Arthur Schuster
874:
828:
817:
810:
803:
736:
730:
693:(−). The
671:
647:
570:
565:
564:
502:electric charge
447:
435:
406:
405:
343:
342:
332:
320:
316:
313:
310:
308:
299:
296:
291:
290:
288:
287:
245:nuclear physics
218:electrodynamics
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2656:Bibliography
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2544:
2536:
2525:. Retrieved
2516:
2481:
2289:
2104:
2035:
2031:
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2019:
2015:
2010:
2006:
2001:
1997:
1991:
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1642:
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1636:
1510:
1501:
1478:
1473:
1469:
1466:10 C⋅kg
1444:
1440:
1434:
1426:cathode rays
1409:
1405:
1366:
1359:
1319:
1310:
1296:field. The
1291:
1287:
1284:Significance
1224:
1218:
1216:
1205:
1087:
1076:
977:Derivation:
976:
966:
962:
958:
956:
950:
946:
900:Wilhelm Wien
889:
878:
875:
860:
856:
852:
848:
843:
839:
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743:
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702:
682:
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553:
541:
537:
534:
517:
513:
505:
497:
494:acceleration
489:
481:
473:
471:
333:
323:10 C⋅kg
300:
292:
271:
267:
263:
261:
230:
199:
193:
182:
178:
174:
172:
79:SI unit
47:
43:
36:Teltron tube
2022:brings the
1493:calculated.
1484:calculated.
1217:Equations (
910:). In 1901
908:Wien filter
881:cathode ray
780:mass number
2769:Categories
2685:. Boston:
2581:. Oxford:
2527:2024-05-18
2523:. May 2024
2460:References
1889:wavelength
1660:eigenvalue
904:canal rays
645:Exceptions
404:of motion:
226:ion optics
48:separately
2785:Metrology
2418:Δ
2407:δ
2363:−
2317:π
2237:−
2185:ℏ
2167:Δ
2153:δ
2130:λ
2125:λ
2122:Δ
2082:Δ
2068:δ
2056:λ
2049:λ
2046:Δ
1970:λ
1965:λ
1962:Δ
1941:λ
1929:Δ
1917:ν
1914:Δ
1902:Δ
1882:frequency
1822:−
1588:−
1536:ℏ
1521:Δ
1430:electrons
1328:−
1298:cyclotron
610:×
376:×
253:cosmology
210:kilograms
149:−
136:−
115:Dimension
2748:NIST on
2711:. 1993.
2543:(1993).
2443:See also
1732:is the
1667:operator
1443:/
1316:Electron
1294:magnetic
1229:) yield
1114:magnetic
1101:electric
892:electron
691:negative
687:positive
528:and the
526:velocity
284:electron
190:relating
2018:, and Δ
1998:δD
1749:is the
1720:is the
1672:, with
1662:of the
1658:as the
1654:, with
1223:) and (
872:History
866:thomson
790:of the
786:to the
764:daltons
707:SI unit
705:). The
695:Coulomb
689:(+) or
544:. Thus
520:is the
516:×
508:is the
500:is the
492:is the
484:is the
476:is the
305:
289:
266:ratio (
214:coulomb
185:) is a
2790:Ratios
2715:
2693:
2670:
2597:
2553:
2028:+ 1)th
1716:where
1472:, but
1452:−1.758
1437:CODATA
1088:Since
971:charge
922:), or
752:dalton
512:, and
472:where
330:Origin
309:−1.758
280:CODATA
44:cannot
2750:units
2478:IUPAC
1637:Here
1474:ratio
807:= 100
478:force
341:law:
206:units
2752:and
2713:ISBN
2691:ISBN
2668:ISBN
2595:ISBN
2551:ISBN
2521:NIST
1887:and
1728:and
1462:(55)
1435:The
1369:and
957:The
928:ions
677:and
486:mass
319:(55)
255:and
212:per
195:mass
192:the
173:The
2587:doi
2492:doi
2490:".
1894:as
1650:to
1457:008
1454:820
1163:or
1128:,
1022:or
814:= 2
792:ion
314:008
311:820
286:is
220:of
208:of
91:In
83:kg/
46:be
18:M/z
2771::
2707:.
2689:.
2593:.
2585:.
2577:.
2565:^
2519:.
2515:.
2502:^
2480:,
2468:^
2011:Δλ
2009:+
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825:50
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504:,
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317:38
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251:,
247:,
243:,
239:,
235:,
228:.
100:kg
2721:.
2699:.
2676:.
2603:.
2589::
2530:.
2494::
2428:.
2421:D
2415:D
2410:D
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2393:i
2390:,
2387:J
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2079:D
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2020:D
2016:λ
2007:λ
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1956:c
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1911:h
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994:=
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661:/
659:m
639:Q
637:/
635:m
618:.
614:B
606:v
602:+
598:E
594:=
590:a
585:)
580:Q
577:m
572:(
558:z
556:/
554:m
542:Q
540:/
538:m
518:B
514:v
506:E
498:Q
490:a
482:m
474:F
454:t
450:d
443:v
438:d
431:m
428:=
424:a
420:m
417:=
413:F
387:,
384:)
380:B
372:v
368:+
364:E
360:(
357:Q
354:=
350:F
325:.
321:×
301:m
297:/
293:Q
272:m
270:/
268:Q
183:Q
181:/
179:m
177:(
152:1
145:T
139:1
132:I
128:M
108:s
106:⋅
104:A
102:⋅
85:C
72:Q
70:/
68:m
20:)
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