362:
693:
773:
311:). These tests were officially to be held every three years, but in practice it was common for them to be held at other times as well. The composition test came to be viewed as more prestigious, and its successful applicants were divided into three grades. On the other hand, successful candidates on the classical examination were not ranked. In the course of the dynasty, some 6000 men passed the composition examination, while only about 450 passed the classics examination.
498:
42:
734:, were divided into four parts: translation, medicine, natural science (astrology, geography, and others), and recordkeeping. These examinations were overseen by the government office which employed specialists in the field. They were closely connected to the Sahak royal technical academies, which were overseen by the same offices.
671:
sent 30). Each of the first two of the higher examination was in turn divided into three parts: in the first section, the candidates showed their understanding of the
Confucian canon, in the second part they demonstrated their ability to compose in various literary forms, and in the last portion they
273:
The examinations were established in 958, during the reign of
Gwangjong as a means of breaking the hold which a few powerful families held over the government. Throughout the dynasty, they retained this character of strengthening the throne against the aristocracy. This also took the form of aligning
254:
Under the Goryeo dynasty, the national examinations became more systematic and powerful than they had been under Silla. However, they remained only one among several avenues to power. A man who had reached a position of the fifth rank or higher could automatically have one son placed in a position of
759:
were originally given a crimson certificate, the same color obtained by those who passed the literary examination. However, pressure from the yangban eventually changed this color to white, signifying a lower level of achievement and entitling the bearer to a position of lower rank. Those who passed
704:
The military examination selected 190 candidates in the first stage, of whom 28 were allowed to pass the second stage. Of these, 70 came from the capital and the remainder from the various provinces, with
Gyeongsang contributing 30, Chungcheong and Jeolla contributing 25, and the remaining provinces
679:
passed roughly 41% of these; the remainder passed in the course of irregular examinations. This proportion shifted over time; as the dynasty progressed, the irregular examinations became increasingly important. This may in part have been because the number of candidates in triennial examinations was
586:
was already employed in a position of rank, he was raised 4 levels. The candidates with second and third highest scores were given posts of the 7th junior rank. The rest were not guaranteed a post, but had to wait until one became vacant. The miscellaneous examinations had only the first two stages;
453:
When writing the examination, candidates had to record the names and positions of their four great-grandfathers. The higher literary examination was restricted to those who either were already in a position of rank, or who had already passed the lower examination. The miscellaneous examinations were
439:
examinations, but in reality only yangban who had the luxury of spending much of their childhood and early adulthood studying could hope to pass the exam. In the case of literary administration, children of remarried women, concubines, and officials who were dismissed for corruption were excluded
742:, which maintained interpreters in the capital and in the major border-ports and cities. At the first level, 45 candidates were accepted in spoken Chinese and 4 in each of the other languages; the second level selected 13 successful applicants in Chinese and 2 in each of the other languages.
650:
interpretation. From each regular administration of the test, a total of 100 successful candidates were selected for each licentiate. These were drawn from a pool of 600 (for each licentiate), of which 200 were chosen from the capital and 400 were apportioned from the various provinces.
590:
Testing procedures were a frequent flashpoint of controversy, with various factions vying for control of the examination criteria. In particular, the question of whether the first phase of the higher examination should be oral or written became a hot topic of debate in early Joseon.
168:. The form of writing varied from literature to proposals on management of the state. Technical subjects were also tested to appoint experts on medicine, interpretation, accounting, law etc. These were the primary route for most people to achieve positions in the bureaucracy.
551:(special examinations) held on other special occasions. However, these special examinations were usually limited to the literary and military examinations. Over the course of the dynasty, a total of 581 irregular examinations were held, in comparison to 163 of the triennial
745:
The medical examination selected 18 finalists, narrowed to 9 successful applicants in the second round. These were then given positions in the Bureau of
Medicine, which sent some of them to the palace and others to each provincial division down to the
712:
but the second stage, in which the successful applicants were selected, was an oral examination of applicants' knowledge of the
Confucian canon and certain classics of military thought. Of importance were Sun Tzu's Art of War, as well as Hanbizi and
341:
just before the dynasty's fall; however, for most of the dynasty, there was no military examination and thus no educational path to military rank. This may have reflected the relative strength of the military elites during this period.
831:
system became increasingly corrupt in the later years of the Joseon
Dynasty. Scholars who were unable to pass the examination began to form a class of disaffected yangban; notable among these was early 19th-century rebel leader
654:
The higher literary examination was administered every three years, and a total of 33 successful candidates were selected from a pool of 240. These 240, in turn, were sent from the
Seonggyungwan (50), the capital (40), and the
361:
737:
In the case of translation, the languages tested were the four in which the Joseon court maintained interpreters: contemporary
Chinese, Mongolian, Jurchen/Manchu, and Japanese. This examination was overseen by the
211:
and their subsequent career in government service. Under Joseon law, high office was closed to those who were not children of officials of the second full rank or higher, unless the candidate had passed the
721:
failing the Mugwa the first time due to falling off his horse during this phase, at which point he applied a hasty tourniquet using willow branches, and finishing his mounted archery portion is well known.
481:, scholars from out-of-favor factions often did not bother to take the examination at all. In the late Joseon Dynasty, an increasing percentage of successful candidates came from the northern province of
692:
772:
708:
The military examinations tested a mixture of military and literary skills and knowledge. The first stage of the test was a practical test of various military skills, focused on
274:
the throne with the provincial elites, and the kings of Goryeo strove to extend educational opportunities to the local elites throughout the country. In fact, any member of the
599:
The literary examination was divided into a lower and higher examination. In turn, in the lower literary examination some candidates applied for a "classics licentiate" (or
822:). This was an abbreviated examination, held in the presence of the king. The candidates had to be recommended by their local magistrate as men of the highest integrity.
1073:
717:. The third stage, in which the candidates were ranked, was again based on practical military skills. These include horsemanship, and mounted archery. The story of
418:) covering topics such as medicine, geography, astronomy, and translation. As other roads to advancement were much more closed than during the Goryeo period, the
877:
460:
class of hereditary technical workers. Criteria for the military examination varied, but over time it became open even to members of the lowest class (the
349:) were administered in various fields. One among these was Buddhism; monks who passed received a special clerical title, beginning with
622:
In the lower examination, the literary licentiate tested compositional skill in various forms of
Chinese poetry and prose, including
246:, which dictated that appointments be made on the basis of birth, these examinations did not have a strong effect on the government.
1394:
1350:
1331:
867:
186:
952:
95:
1428:
905:
These figures are given by SNUERI (1997), but Byeon (1999, p. 278) says that the total number from the provinces was 700.
1423:
1413:
643:
218:. Those who passed the higher literary examination came to monopolize all of the dynasty's high positions of state.
164:. Typically quite demanding, these tests measured candidates' ability of writing composition and knowledge of the
1258:
1078:
656:
675:
Over the course of the Joseon
Dynasty, a total of 14,620 men passed the literary examination. The triennial
478:
231:
739:
474:
109:
566:) conducted in the capital (in which the qualifying candidates were selected), and a third examination (
539:(visitation examinations), which were administered when the king visited the Shrine of Confucius at the
570:) in the presence of the king, in which the successful candidates were ranked in order. Each stage was
297:
280:
freeborn class was permitted to take the examination, although the descendants of monks, criminals and
558:
The literary and military examinations were administered in three stages: an initial qualifying test (
872:
862:
612:
450:
family that did not produce a government official for four generations lost their status as yangban.
172:
1253:
382:
Dynasty (1392–1910), the examinations fell under three broad categories: the literary examinations (
611:), they could proceed to the higher examination. This lower examination may have originated in the
267:
811:
338:
319:
315:
270:
was highly pleased with Shuang Ji and requested that he remain at the Korean court permanently.
1360:
Liu, Haifeng (2007). "Influence of China's imperial examinations on Japan, Korea and Vietnam".
497:
41:
1390:
1346:
1327:
914:
Byeon (1999, p. 279) gives 200 for the initial stage, but agrees with 28 for the second stage.
818:. The supplementary examination was called an "examination for the learned and the virtuous" (
638:
239:
664:
515:
were originally administered every three years; these regular examinations were known as the
1369:
574:, with a set number of successful applicants. The candidate who received the highest score (
334:
327:
243:
165:
1418:
833:
628:
571:
133:
446:
examinations were very important not only for an individual but for his family because a
709:
259:
286:
were excluded. However, over time government-run educational institutions such as the
1407:
647:
540:
529:
became less important over time, and an increasing percentage of candidates took the
502:
182:
947:
850:
623:
326:. The earlier system based directly on the classics was replaced with one based on
323:
202:
303:
The major examinations were literary, and came in two forms: a composition test (
1381:
SNUERI (Seoul National University Educational Research Institute), ed. (1997).
815:
1373:
718:
668:
486:
263:
672:
wrote a problem-essay which was intended to show their political aptitude.
1326:] (in Korean) (20th printing, 4th ed.). Seoul: 三英社 (Samyeongsa).
660:
616:
293:
288:
282:
191:
853:
of 1894, along with legal class discrimination and the old rank system.
761:
482:
456:
447:
372:
844:
826:
805:
783:
777:
530:
510:
468:
454:
looked down upon by the yangban, and were generally restricted to the
441:
434:
419:
366:
213:
206:
176:
126:
100:
47:
837:
782:
answer sheet from a 31-year-old student who received a good score of
697:
680:
fixed, while the number in the irregular examinations was not fixed.
379:
276:
242:, the ruler of Silla at the time. However, due to Silla's entrenched
197:
157:
153:
63:
17:
1345:. Translated by Wagner, Edward W. Seoul: 一潮閣 (Ilchokak Publishers).
547:(augmented examinations) held during national celebrations, and the
226:
The first national examinations were administered in the kingdom of
771:
748:
691:
578:) in the literary examination was given a post of the 6th junior (
489:
came to produce more successful candidates than any other county.
333:
Military examinations were established briefly under the reign of
227:
161:
79:
314:
The classics examination was revised in 1344, under the reign of
258:
The examination system was spread to Goryeo in 957 by a visiting
714:
642:
problem-essays. The classics licentiate tested knowledge of the
501:
Modern reenactment of the exam being administered in the palace
429:
185:, gained importance in Goryeo, and were the centerpiece of most
1389:] (in Korean). Seoul: 교육과학사 (Kyoyook Book Publishing Co.).
424:
became virtually the only pathway to a position of rank.
114:
1200:
1198:
1173:
1171:
562:) administered in the provinces, a second examination (
1122:
1120:
896:
These translations are taken from Lee (1984), p. 181.
1008:
1006:
814:(1506–1544), at the suggestion of the high official
413:
401:
389:
108:
94:
78:
62:
57:
205:was aimed primarily at preparing students for the
659:(the number sent from each province varied, with
948:"시무십여조(時務十餘條): 남북국시대 통일신라학자 최치원이 진성여왕에게 올린 정책서"
1256:[Shim Sang-gi's Gwageo Answer Sheet].
840:scholars also turned away from state service.
477:. Due to the strength of regional factions in
230:beginning in 788, after the Confucian scholar
878:Republic of Korea public service examinations
603:) and others for a "literary licentiate" (or
296:lost ground to private institutions like the
8:
795:
789:
520:
407:
395:
383:
137:
85:
69:
607:). After passing these lower examinations (
40:
535:on special occasions. These included the
496:
360:
926:
889:
27:Civil service exams in pre-modern Korea
1240:
1228:
1216:
1204:
1189:
1177:
1150:
1048:
1036:
973:
933:
473:provided a basis for various forms of
307:), and a test of classical knowledge (
31:
1138:
1099:
7:
1302:
1290:
1278:
1162:
1126:
1111:
1076:[Gwageo Exams at Hamhung].
1060:
1024:
1012:
997:
985:
730:The miscellaneous examinations, or
406:), and miscellaneous examinations (
810:were supplemented in the reign of
587:their candidates were not ranked.
25:
760:this examination became known as
330:interpretations of the classics.
696:Military exam pass certificate,
868:Education in the Joseon Dynasty
189:. The tutelage provided at the
187:education in the Joseon dynasty
1318:변태섭 (Byeon Tae-seop) (1999).
953:Encyclopedia of Korean Culture
849:were finally abolished in the
796:
790:
521:
408:
396:
384:
138:
86:
70:
1:
1362:Frontiers of History in China
427:In theory, anyone other than
1387:Educational History of Korea
644:Four Books and Five Classics
345:Miscellaneous examinations (
337:, and again in the reign of
46:A modern reenactment of the
845:
827:
806:
784:
778:
531:
511:
469:
442:
435:
420:
414:
402:
390:
367:
365:Joseon-era painting of the
236:Ten Urgent Points of Reform
214:
207:
177:
127:
115:
101:
48:
1445:
726:Miscellaneous examinations
485:, and the small county of
394:), military examinations (
173:civil service examinations
150:civil service examinations
1374:10.1007/s11462-007-0025-5
1324:Outline of Korean History
52:being administered (2018)
39:
34:
1382:
1319:
1259:National Museum of Korea
1079:National Museum of Korea
684:Military examinations (
636:documentary prose, and
479:Joseon Dynasty politics
353:, or "monk designate."
175:of imperial China, the
160:(1392–1897) periods of
1343:A New History of Korea
801:
740:Bureau of Interpreters
701:
667:sending only 10 while
506:
440:from taking the exam.
375:
371:being administered in
318:, on the model of the
1341:Lee, Ki-baik (1984).
775:
755:Those who passed the
695:
613:entrance examinations
595:Literary examinations
500:
364:
262:named Shuang Ji from
1429:Imperial examination
873:History of education
863:Imperial examination
836:. Many of the later
705:10 candidates each.
96:Revised Romanization
1424:Korean Confucianism
1414:Education in Joseon
1219:, pp. 110–111.
1102:, pp. 277–278.
1000:, pp. 104–105.
988:, pp. 498–499.
543:royal academy, the
812:Jungjong of Joseon
802:
702:
507:
376:
320:examination system
148:were the national
976:, pp. 63–64.
768:Historical change
646:from an orthodox
322:then employed in
298:Twelve Assemblies
122:
121:
110:McCune–Reischauer
16:(Redirected from
1436:
1400:
1377:
1356:
1337:
1306:
1300:
1294:
1288:
1282:
1276:
1270:
1269:
1267:
1266:
1250:
1244:
1238:
1232:
1226:
1220:
1214:
1208:
1202:
1193:
1187:
1181:
1175:
1166:
1160:
1154:
1148:
1142:
1136:
1130:
1124:
1115:
1109:
1103:
1097:
1091:
1090:
1088:
1087:
1070:
1064:
1058:
1052:
1046:
1040:
1034:
1028:
1022:
1016:
1010:
1001:
995:
989:
983:
977:
971:
965:
964:
962:
961:
943:
937:
931:
915:
912:
906:
903:
897:
894:
848:
830:
809:
799:
798:
793:
792:
787:
781:
534:
525:). However, the
524:
523:
514:
472:
445:
438:
423:
417:
411:
410:
405:
399:
398:
393:
387:
386:
370:
309:myeonggyeong eop
244:bone rank system
217:
210:
180:
166:Chinese classics
141:
140:
130:
118:
104:
89:
88:
73:
72:
51:
44:
32:
21:
1444:
1443:
1439:
1438:
1437:
1435:
1434:
1433:
1404:
1403:
1397:
1384:
1380:
1359:
1353:
1340:
1334:
1321:
1317:
1314:
1309:
1301:
1297:
1289:
1285:
1277:
1273:
1264:
1262:
1252:
1251:
1247:
1239:
1235:
1227:
1223:
1215:
1211:
1203:
1196:
1188:
1184:
1176:
1169:
1161:
1157:
1149:
1145:
1137:
1133:
1125:
1118:
1110:
1106:
1098:
1094:
1085:
1083:
1072:
1071:
1067:
1059:
1055:
1047:
1043:
1035:
1031:
1023:
1019:
1011:
1004:
996:
992:
984:
980:
972:
968:
959:
957:
945:
944:
940:
932:
928:
924:
919:
918:
913:
909:
904:
900:
895:
891:
886:
859:
834:Hong Gyeong-nae
770:
728:
700:, 16 March 1588
690:
657:Eight Provinces
632:rhyming prose,
597:
582:) rank. If the
572:norm-referenced
495:
359:
252:
224:
181:first arose in
156:(918–1392) and
90:
74:
53:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
1442:
1440:
1432:
1431:
1426:
1421:
1416:
1406:
1405:
1402:
1401:
1395:
1378:
1368:(4): 493–512.
1357:
1351:
1338:
1332:
1313:
1310:
1308:
1307:
1305:, p. 291.
1295:
1293:, p. 254.
1283:
1281:, p. 205.
1271:
1245:
1243:, p. 104.
1233:
1231:, p. 111.
1221:
1209:
1207:, p. 110.
1194:
1192:, p. 112.
1182:
1180:, p. 107.
1167:
1165:, p. 180.
1155:
1153:, p. 109.
1143:
1141:, p. 278.
1131:
1129:, p. 181.
1116:
1114:, p. 219.
1104:
1092:
1065:
1063:, p. 133.
1053:
1041:
1029:
1027:, p. 129.
1017:
1015:, p. 118.
1002:
990:
978:
966:
946:정, 중환 (1995).
938:
936:, p. 108.
925:
923:
920:
917:
916:
907:
898:
888:
887:
885:
882:
881:
880:
875:
870:
865:
858:
855:
769:
766:
727:
724:
710:Korean archery
689:
682:
596:
593:
555:examinations.
494:
493:Administration
491:
358:
355:
260:Hanlin scholar
251:
248:
240:Queen Jinseong
234:submitted the
232:Ch'oe Ch'i-wŏn
223:
220:
120:
119:
112:
106:
105:
98:
92:
91:
84:
82:
76:
75:
68:
66:
60:
59:
55:
54:
45:
37:
36:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
1441:
1430:
1427:
1425:
1422:
1420:
1417:
1415:
1412:
1411:
1409:
1398:
1396:89-8287-130-6
1392:
1388:
1379:
1375:
1371:
1367:
1363:
1358:
1354:
1352:9788933702048
1348:
1344:
1339:
1335:
1333:9788944591013
1329:
1325:
1316:
1315:
1311:
1304:
1299:
1296:
1292:
1287:
1284:
1280:
1275:
1272:
1261:
1260:
1255:
1254:"심상기의 과거 답안지"
1249:
1246:
1242:
1237:
1234:
1230:
1225:
1222:
1218:
1213:
1210:
1206:
1201:
1199:
1195:
1191:
1186:
1183:
1179:
1174:
1172:
1168:
1164:
1159:
1156:
1152:
1147:
1144:
1140:
1135:
1132:
1128:
1123:
1121:
1117:
1113:
1108:
1105:
1101:
1096:
1093:
1081:
1080:
1075:
1069:
1066:
1062:
1057:
1054:
1051:, p. 62.
1050:
1045:
1042:
1039:, p. 63.
1038:
1033:
1030:
1026:
1021:
1018:
1014:
1009:
1007:
1003:
999:
994:
991:
987:
982:
979:
975:
970:
967:
955:
954:
949:
942:
939:
935:
930:
927:
921:
911:
908:
902:
899:
893:
890:
883:
879:
876:
874:
871:
869:
866:
864:
861:
860:
856:
854:
852:
847:
841:
839:
835:
829:
823:
821:
817:
813:
808:
786:
780:
776:A Joseon-era
774:
767:
765:
763:
758:
753:
751:
750:
743:
741:
735:
733:
725:
723:
720:
716:
711:
706:
699:
694:
687:
683:
681:
678:
673:
670:
666:
662:
658:
652:
649:
648:Neo-Confucian
645:
641:
640:
635:
631:
630:
625:
620:
618:
614:
610:
606:
602:
594:
592:
588:
585:
581:
577:
573:
569:
565:
561:
556:
554:
550:
546:
542:
541:Seonggyungwan
538:
533:
528:
518:
513:
504:
503:Changdeokgung
499:
492:
490:
488:
484:
480:
476:
471:
465:
463:
459:
458:
451:
449:
444:
437:
432:
431:
425:
422:
416:
404:
392:
381:
374:
369:
363:
356:
354:
352:
348:
343:
340:
336:
331:
329:
328:Neo-Confucian
325:
321:
317:
312:
310:
306:
301:
299:
295:
291:
290:
285:
284:
279:
278:
271:
269:
265:
261:
256:
249:
247:
245:
241:
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1074:"함흥에서의 과거시험"
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1229:SNUERI 1997
1217:SNUERI 1997
1205:SNUERI 1997
1190:SNUERI 1997
1178:SNUERI 1997
1151:SNUERI 1997
1082:(in Korean)
1049:SNUERI 1997
1037:SNUERI 1997
974:SNUERI 1997
956:(in Korean)
934:SNUERI 1997
816:Jo Gwang-jo
619:of Goryeo.
527:singnyeonsi
517:singnyeonsi
475:regionalism
433:could take
136::
58:Korean name
1408:Categories
1265:2023-08-14
1139:Byeon 1999
1100:Byeon 1999
1086:2023-08-15
960:2022-08-27
922:References
719:Yi Sunshin
677:singneonsi
669:Gyeongsang
553:singneonsi
378:Under the
264:Later Zhou
152:under the
537:alseongsi
305:jesul eop
268:Gwangjong
1303:Lee 1984
1291:Lee 1984
1279:Lee 1984
1163:Lee 1984
1127:Lee 1984
1112:Lee 1984
1061:Lee 1984
1025:Lee 1984
1013:Lee 1984
998:Lee 1984
986:Liu 2007
857:See also
661:Hwanghae
626:poetry,
617:Gukjagam
615:for the
601:saengwon
462:cheonmin
339:Gongyang
316:Chunghye
294:Gukjagam
289:hyanggyo
283:cheonmin
192:hyanggyo
1312:Sources
785:chasang
762:chungin
752:level.
665:Yeongan
584:jangwon
576:jangwon
549:byeolsi
487:Chŏngju
483:Pyongan
457:chungin
448:yangban
391:mun-gwa
373:Hamhung
351:daeseon
1419:Goryeo
1393:
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846:gwageo
838:Silhak
828:gwageo
807:gwageo
794:;
779:gwageo
757:japgwa
732:japgwa
698:Joseon
568:jeonsi
532:gwageo
512:gwageo
505:(2018)
470:gwageo
443:Gwageo
436:gwageo
421:gwageo
415:japgwa
412:;
400:;
388:;
380:Joseon
368:gwageo
357:Joseon
347:jabeop
335:Yejong
277:yangin
255:rank.
250:Goryeo
215:gwageo
208:gwageo
201:, and
198:seowon
178:gwageo
158:Joseon
154:Goryeo
134:Korean
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102:gwageo
64:Hangul
49:gwageo
35:Gwageo
1385:[
1383:한국교육사
1322:[
1320:韓國史通論
884:Notes
749:hyeon
686:mugwa
605:jinsa
564:hoesi
560:chosi
403:mugwa
228:Silla
222:Silla
162:Korea
145:kwagŏ
142:) or
116:kwagŏ
80:Hanja
18:Mugwa
1391:ISBN
1347:ISBN
1328:ISBN
843:The
825:The
804:The
715:Wuzi
663:and
639:ts'e
634:piao
580:jong
509:The
467:The
430:nobi
292:and
124:The
1370:doi
624:shi
522:식년시
464:).
238:to
1410::
1364:.
1197:^
1170:^
1119:^
1005:^
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797:次上
791:차상
764:.
629:fu
409:雜科
397:武科
385:文科
300:.
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195:,
139:과거
87:科擧
71:과거
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