696:, parachuting in troops defend an office building besieged by Congolese forces. On 11 July Lumumba and Kasa-Vubu flew to the town. After overseeing the election of new officers for the garrison, Lumumba joined Kasa-Vubu in admonishing the Europeans to stay. Most refused to do so unless they had the protection of the Belgian troops. After lengthy negotiation Lumumba agreed to the condition and communicated to the Belgian consul-general that the force could remain in the province of KasaĂŻ for two months. Back in LĂ©opoldville, Ganshof and de Schryver continued to meet with the ministers with the hopes of establishing a mutual guarantee of security for both Europeans and Africans. Then, for reasons not entirely clear, Belgian units intervened in Matadi. Fighting broke out and 12 to 18 Congolese were killed. News of the conflict (along with exaggerated casualty reports) spread to other army camps across the country, resulting in a wave of renewed mutinies and anti-Belgian hostility.
659:, urged his government to avoid the latter at all costs. As Lumumba was not in the capital, Ganshof and de Schryver met with other ministers in an attempt to persuade them to agree to a military intervention. Discussions continued late into the evening and though some members of cabinet appeared receptive, Deputy Prime Minister Gizenga was obstinately opposed to such action and ultimately refused to consent. Overnight orders to intervene were delivered several times to the Belgian troops at Kamina base only to be repeatedly countermanded by the government. Lumumba and Kasa-Vubu were informed of the planned intervention and, though initially receptive to the idea, were disturbed that the Belgian government would not make guarantees regarding respect for Congolese sovereignty and subsequently asked that all Belgian troops be withdrawn from Congolese soil.
528:
so that it could be destroyed in an emergency. The soldiers, wary of being killed, broke into the armoury and assaulted two officers. In the ensuing clash one
Belgian and one Congolese were killed, marking the first deaths of the mutiny. In LĂ©opoldville, several Congolese soldiers were convinced that Lumumba had brought Soviet troops into the country to disarm the Force Publique. Angered by this, they stormed the hotel rooms of the Soviet delegation which had been present for the independence celebrations. Upon hearing what had occurred, Lumumba directed Bomboko to assume responsibility of the security of all foreign delegations present in the Congo and ensure that the Soviets could safely leave the country. Bomboko ordered Minister-Delegate to the United Nations
583:, might ultimately make an optimal chief of staff. Though Thomas Kanza told him that Kasa-Vubu and the Bakongo ministers would never accept such a proposal, Lumumba introduced the idea when the ministers reconvened. Kasa-Vubu received the idea in silence, implying his deep displeasure, and Bomboko, Jacques Lumbala, and Delvaux all continuously pushed for Mobutu to be made chief of staff. In the end Mobutu was given the role and awarded the rank of colonel. The ministers then decided that the Minister of Defence should appoint a Congolese sergeant major to replace Janssens as commander-in-chief of the army with the rank of general. Lumumba, at the suggestion of
387:
524:, and the Vice President of Léopoldville Province to negotiate with the mutineers. They succeeded in releasing the captive Europeans and began evacuating them to the capital. Bands of angry soldiers roamed the capital, and Lumumba interrupted a cabinet meeting at his residence to invite one group to share its grievances. In an attempt to placate the mutinous troops, he dismissed Janssens and promoted every soldier by one grade. He also dismissed the Belgian officer in charge of the Sûreté and forced him into exile, precipitating a collapse of the organisation completed by the departure of most other Belgian personnel.
666:, the capital of Katanga Province, and occupied the local airport. Later that morning Bomboko met with fleeing Belgians at N'djili Airport. While there he declared that the Belgian intervention had been made at his request, though this was most likely untrue and probably only said to ease tensions. In the afternoon Lumumba and Kasa-Vubu returned to the capital having successfully quelled the unrest in the Lower Congo and convinced that negotiation could resolve the situation. Later they decided to solicit aid from the UN in restructuring the Force Publique. Ministers of the cabinet met with UN representative
630:), but the military situation in Kasai and Katanga remained tense and was marked by violence. The government's decision to Africanise the army caused anxiety in the civilian populace of the latter province, which feared such a reform would result in the collapse of domestic security. The provincial government refused to support Africanisation and appealed directly to Belgium to intervene to resolve the situation. The troops subsequently mutinied, both in an attempt to dislodge their officers and to try and ensure that the Katangese provincial government could not effect a secession.
626:, where tensions were quickly worsening. From that point until later in the month the two worked closely with one another and made most major decisions together. After appointing a new garrison commander, supervising the election of other officers, and securing the release of captive Europeans, the pair left the city to inspect other units throughout the Lower Congo. European officers handed over control to the Congolese in Kivu and Orientale without incident (the smooth transfer of power in the former owing to good co-ordination between the officers there and Provincial President
35:
565:
order to maintain the army's discipline. The soldiers on guard prevented them from leaving until they had decided upon their course of action. The
Council first heard soldier delegations' grievances; the root cause of their dissatisfaction was that the army's leadership was wholly European despite independence from Belgium. After allowing for the election of a new commandant for the garrison, the ministers debated over who would make a suitable army chief of staff. The two main candidates for the post were
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476:, began striking. The Force Publique was called into service and opened fire on the crowds, killing nine. The strikebreaking action was the last official undertaking of the Force before the mutiny began. That same day the Congolese cabinet convened to discuss reforming the national institutions. They resolved to establish a committee to examine reorganisation of the army, paying special attention to eliminating racial discrimination.
420:'s slow pace of reform. The rank-and-file felt that the Congolese political class—particularly ministers in the new government—were enriching themselves while failing to improve the troops' situation. There was dissatisfaction that Lumumba had appointed an unpopular colonel, van Hoorebeke, to a high post in the Ministry of Defence, and the troops from Équateur and southern Kasai were additionally upset that
540:
the situation when a ministerial car was stoned. Though the situation in the capital was relatively calm, anxiety grew among the
European community, which began to arms itself with weapons from illegal stockpiles. Belgian civilians began seeking passage to the French Congo or refuge in the Belgian embassy to await repatriation. Bomboko and Minister Resident in Belgium
682:"I regret, in the name of the government of our Republic, the inadmissible actions that some soldiers have perpetrated against Europeans living in this Province. Our Minister of Justice, Mr. Mwamba, has today given formal instructions to the King's Prosecutor for legal inquests to be opened immediately regarding all guilty elements."
618:
to address the army's grievances. A communique was distributed by the secretariat of the
Council of Ministers to the press and radio, summarising the government's decisions. The Congolese soldiers were satisfied with them and tensions relaxed. Nevertheless, European civilians continued to try and flee the country.
512:
situation would not change. That evening the
Congolese sacked the canteen in protest at Janssens. He alerted the reserve garrison of Camp Hardy, 95 miles away in Thysville. The officers tried organising a convoy to send to Camp LĂ©opold II to restore order, but the men mutinied and seized the armoury. The "
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The situation in Matadi was relatively calm at the time and all
Europeans who had wished to leave had already done so. Some Belgian sources report that Belgian commanders were under the impression that European lives were at risk, while others state that the port was deemed strategically important in
479:
Meanwhile, at Camp LĂ©opold II, the chief military installation in LĂ©opoldville, officers observed a high level of excitement among the
Congolese ranks. One non-commissioned officer began telling his fellow soldiers that since the Congo was independent they were not required to adhere to the Belgians'
617:
The ministers decided it would be best to publicise their decisions as soon as possible. Immediately after the
Council adjourned the garrison of Camp LĂ©opold II was summoned to the barrack square. Lumumba, acting in his capacity as Minister of Defence, announced the actions the government was taking
670:
to discuss what technical assistance the UN could offer to the
Congolese administration. Bunche shortly thereafter informed Hammarskjöld of the Congolese government's intended request. By evening Lumumba had learned of the Belgian intervention in Élisabethville. He was furious that the Belgians had
601:
be the supreme commander of the military, the Prime
Minister and Minister of Defence would control the army in a structure approved by Parliament, and all army units would be placed under the command of Congolese officers. Delegations were to be dispatched across the country to implement the latter
527:
The spread of the mutiny to garrisons throughout the country developed as troops—not yet aware of Lumumba's reforms—grew fearful over various rumours. Growing suspicion and division between the officers and ranks at the Kongolo garrison led the officers to place gasoline drums in the camp's armoury
770:
The Force Publique mutiny increased the unpopularity of the army and cost the government a significant amount of support in rural areas. The insecurity they caused also impeded economic production and the distribution of goods and distracted the leadership from addressing other problems facing the
539:
On 7 July formal negotiations between the mutineers and the government on the reorganisation of army began. A delegation of Congolese soldiers met with Lumumba to demand immediate wage increases, promotions, and the dismissal of their white officers. The government became even more concerned about
564:
On 8 July the full Council of Ministers convened in an extraordinary session under the chairmanship of Kasa-Vubu at Camp LĂ©opold II in LĂ©opoldville to address the task of Africanising the garrison. By then the severity of the mutiny had convinced the ministers that radical reform was necessary in
519:
The following morning some groups of soldiers drove from Thysville to Inkisi, Madimba, and Mbanza-Boma, spreading the mutiny and raping two women. Meanwhile, Janssens finalised plans to attack Camp Hardy and had alerted the commander of the Belgian metropolitan troops in the Congo. The government
675:
We have just learnt that the Belgian government has sent troops to the Congo and that they have intervened. The responsibility of Belgium is great. We protest bitterly against these measures which prejudice good relations between our countries. We appeal to all Congolese to defend our Republic
578:
Lumumba saw Mpolo as courageous, but favored Mobutu's prudence. As the discussions continued, the cabinet began to divide themselves according to who they preferred to serve as chief of staff. Lumumba wanted to keep both men in his government and wished to avoid upsetting one of their camps of
817:
Sources do not agree on when the name change was applied. Gibbs says it occurred on Independence Day, while Gerard and Kuklick list it as a government reform in response to the mutiny. Vanderstraeten portrays it as a result of the 'extraordinary ministerial council' of 8 July at Camp LĂ©opold
511:
On the morning of 5 July General Janssens, in response to increasing unrest among the Congolese ranks, summoned all troops on duty at Camp LĂ©opold II. He demanded that the army maintain its discipline and wrote "before independence = after independence" on a black board to emphasise that the
435:
On 27 June the Lumumba Government established a committee to draft a Treaty of Friendship, Assistance, and Co-operation to be signed with Belgium. It stipulated that the Belgian civil servants in the Congo and the Belgian officers of the Force Publique would remain at their posts and receive
699:
Between 10 and 18 July, Belgian forces intervened 28 times in Congolese localities. With the exception of the Luluabourg authorisation, the Belgian troops never acted with the permission of the government. Belgium also dispatched the naval Task Group 218.2, under
607:"The head of state and all members of the government solemnly appeal to the whole population, to all soldiers and police, to reestablish order and return to work. The needful arrangements are being made to secure the safety and protection of people and property."
654:
were sent to LĂ©opoldville with an ultimatum for Lumumba: either a formal request for Belgian military assistance could be made or metropolitan troops would act on their own initiative to protect Belgian citizens. The Belgian ambassador,
415:
appointed shortly before independence, no Congolese soldier was able to advance past the rank of sergeant. Many hoped that independence would result in immediate promotions and material gains, but were disappointed by Prime Minister
3143:
484:, commander-in-chief of the Force Publique, arrived and personally demoted him. Three undisciplined soldiers were placed in a holding cell, though two were provisionally released to Secretary of State for National Defence
621:
On 9 July the government delegations left the capital to oversee the Africanisation of the ANC. Mobutu traveled to Équateur and while he was there Mpolo acted as ANC Chief of Staff. Kasa-Vubu and Lumumba went directly to
602:
reform. The ministers resolved to retain all Belgian officers "prepared to serve the Congo loyally" and guarantee the security of their income, families, and property so they could act as advisers to their successors.
758:. Order was ultimately restored largely through the use of the gendarmerie, a more wieldy and reliable institution than the army. The previously mutinous troops did not resist the arrival of peacekeepers with the
807:
Mwamba had believed that Mobutu was too young for the role of commander-in-chief, though other ministers felt otherwise. They accepted his proposal of Lundula when it was agreed that Mobutu would be chief of
488:, who was informed of the incident. In the evening Janssens heard on a radio broadcast of the government's intent to set up a committee to reorganise the army. He was outraged that he had not been consulted.
448:
until another agreement could arrange the installations' handover to the Congolese government. The text of the treaty was hurriedly finished and on 29 June the agreement was signed by Belgian Prime Minister
544:
devoted much of their time to assisting them. The provincial presidents, who had been summoned to the capital, met with the Council of Ministers to discuss domestic security in the context of the mutiny.
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646:, were placed on alert following the dismissal of Janssens. In Brussels, news of conflict and abuses against Europeans brought public pressure against the Belgian government to take action.
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The revolt was the first of many army mutinies that occurred in African states in the 1960s. In the Congo itself, Colonel Mobutu would go on to seize power later in 1960 in
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1997:
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468:, the capital, sporadic fighting took place between factions that were dissatisfied by the result of presidential election. On the morning of 4 July workers in
775:
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Independence Day, 30 June 1960, was a Thursday. It was followed by a long weekend of festivities that occurred in relative calm across the country. In
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and Mobutu. The former had shown some influence over the mutinying troops, but Kasa-Vubu and the Bakongo ministers feared that he would enact a
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Regardless, the Belgians' decision to intervene ultimately prevailed and at 06:00 on 10 July metropolitan troops from Kamina flew into
432:. Many of the soldiers were also fatigued from maintaining order during the elections and participating in independence celebrations.
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No record of any such request has ever been found, and the Belgians never cited one when attempting to justify their intervention.
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595:(ANC)—was formed and put under the charge of a Congolese officer. It was further determined that the President would
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was long characterised by repressive police actions and entrenched racial segregation. With the exception of 10
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De la Force publique à l'Armée nationale congolaise : histoire d'une mutinerie : juillet 1960
1947:
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The Political Economy of Third World Intervention: Mines, Money, and U.S. Policy in the Congo Crisis
782:, which ran the government in 1960-61 under his authority. Five years later Mobutu seized power for
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for the role. In addition to the appointments a state committee for the army—officially renamed the
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786:, ushering in first quasi-military but then a civilian government. His rule lasted until 1997.
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De la Force publique à l'Armée nationale congolaise: histoire d'une mutinerie, juillet 1960
1722:(in French). Vol. I. Brussels: Centre de recherche et d'information socio-politiques.
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where they both convinced the Congolese soldiers to allow the Soviets to depart in peace.
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Katanga 1960–63: Mercenaries, Spies and the African Nation that Waged War on the World
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Discontent about repression, racial segregation, and slow progress of reforms in the
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acted contrary to the Treaty of Friendship and delivered a response over radio:
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supporters. During a break he asked Thomas Kanza whether he thought his father,
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if he were given power. The latter was perceived as calmer and more thoughtful.
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mutinied against their white officers. The revolt quickly spread throughout the
194:
132:
Belgian military intervention to protect citizens. Nomination of black officers.
64:
2709:
1615:
Peace Enforcement: The United Nations Experience in Congo, Somalia, and Bosnia
663:
597:
516:" which followed would come to dominate the tenure of the Lumumba Government.
1955:
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1727:
1669:"Economic Developments in the Republic of the Congo (Leopoldville) 1957–1960"
1913:
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359:
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2001:
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Extract from Lumumba's letter to the Belgian consul-general, 11 July 1960
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2069:(in French) (reprint ed.). Brussels: Académie royale de Belgique.
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82:
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Riots and civil disorder in the Democratic Republic of the Congo
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At the same time the Belgians launched a second intervention in
78:
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The Congo Crisis, 1960-1961: A Critical Oral History Conference
141:
137:
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compensation from the Belgian government. It also allowed for
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Petitjean, comprising nine vessels: the troop transport A957
1320:
1318:
560:, appointed chief of staff of the Armée Nationale Congolaise
1904:. LĂ©opoldville: Republic of the Congo, Documents Division,
1786:
The Rise and Fall of Patrice Lumumba: Conflict in the Congo
1458:
The province of the Katanga and Congolese independence 1962
1762:
The Congo Since Independence: January 1960 – December 1961
401:, the gendarmerie remained mostly loyal during the mutiny.
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1583:
Economic Developments in the Republic of the Congo 1961
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countermanded his order and instead dispatched Mobutu,
2148:
Politics in the Congo: Decolonization and Independence
1901:
The province of the Katanga and Congolese independence
1387:
1857:
Battleground Africa: Cold War in the Congo, 1960–1965
457:, Lumumba, and Congolese Minister of Foreign Affairs
1741:. American Politics and Political Economy. Chicago:
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and engulfed the country in disorder, beginning the
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107:) in the Force Publique; reorganisation of the army
99:
88:
70:
52:
44:
3169:Belgium–Democratic Republic of the Congo relations
2088:
640:commandement supérieur des forces métropolitaines,
1859:. Washington, D.C.: Woodrow Wilson Center Press.
3129:1960 in the Republic of the Congo (LĂ©opoldville)
2091:Patrimonialism and Political Change in the Congo
1990:Casebook on Insurgency and Revolutionary Warfare
1647:Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars
612:Extract from the government communique of 8 July
1618:(illustrated ed.). Westport, Connecticut:
680:
605:
103:Replacement of European officers (particularly
2121:Patrice Lumumba: la crise congolaise revisitée
1996:. Vol. I (revised ed.). Fort Bragg:
1546:
1267:
1219:
638:Belgian metropolitan troops in the Congo (the
2183:
1998:United States Army Special Operations Command
1718:Gerard-Libois, J.; Verhaegen, Benoit (1961).
1697:Death in the Congo: Murdering Patrice Lumumba
1684:United Nations Economic Commission for Africa
1255:
1153:
932:
642:Cometro), under the command of Major-General
354:On 5 July 1960, soldiers of the garrisons of
153:
8:
1946:. Vol. 4 (seventh ed.). Budapest:
997:
27:
2581:
2190:
2176:
2168:
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2358:Armée Populaire de Libération ("Simbas")
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2484:White Legion (Compagnie Internationale)
2063:Vanderstraeten, Louis-François (1993).
2040:Vanderstraeten, Louis-François (1985).
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1965:Tanganyika Rifles Mutiny: January 1964
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3053:Dissolution of the Lumumba Government
2376:United Nations Operation in the Congo
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760:United Nations Operation in the Congo
440:to continue to garrison the bases of
333:Dissolution of the Lumumba Government
7:
1558:
1522:
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1469:
1078:
366:, the army of the newly independent
3085:Belgian general strike of 1960–1961
917:
39:Congolese troops in early July 1960
1649:, 28 November 2011, archived from
1388:Gerard-Libois & Verhaegen 1961
25:
837:passing supplies to LĂ©opoldville.
2477:6th Commando Battalion (Belgium)
2470:4th Commando Battalion (Belgium)
2463:2nd Commando Battalion (Belgium)
2326:Armée Nationale Congolaise (ANC)
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1880:(illustrated ed.). Stroud:
780:College of Commissioners-General
1987:Tompkins, Paul J., ed. (2013).
676:against those who threaten it.
397:, 1959. Unlike the rest of the
3060:Torture and killing of Lumumba
2022:1959-1960: la crise congolaise
2019:Vanderlinden, Jacques (1985).
1970:Dar es Salaam University Press
1105:, Chapter 3: The Piano Player.
648:Walter Ganshof van der Meersch
338:Torture and killing of Lumumba
1:
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1925:. New York: Alfred A. Knopf.
1595:Tanganyika Rifles Mutiny 1993
1699:. Cambridge, Massachusetts:
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532:to escort the delegation to
118:Belgian metropolitan troops
115:Mutinous Congolese soldiers
63:, later other places in the
28:1960 Force Publique mutinies
18:Mutiny of the Force Publique
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1943:The History of Black Africa
1906:Ministry of Foreign Affairs
1874:Othen, Christopher (2015).
1760:Hoskyns, Catherine (1965).
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2152:Princeton University Press
1620:Greenwood Publishing Group
593:Armée Nationale Congolaise
3067:Death of Dag Hammarskjöld
2101:Stanford University Press
1838:. Garden City, New York:
1256:Gerard & Kuklick 2015
933:Gerard & Kuklick 2015
503:troops on the streets of
480:orders. At 17:00 General
428:were not included in the
343:Death of Dag Hammarskjöld
177:
32:
3154:20th century in Kinshasa
3092:Decolonisation of Africa
2745:Hubert Fauntleroy Julian
2418:Ghana, Nigeria and Egypt
1921:Reid, Stuart A. (2023).
1735:Gibbs, David N. (1991).
1701:Harvard University Press
2843:Force Publique mutinies
2812:William "Rip" Robertson
2568:Cuban Exile Naval Force
2222:Egide Bocheley-Davidson
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1766:Oxford University Press
1686:: 90–102. January 1961.
182:Force Publique mutinies
2958:Port Francqui incident
1855:Namikas, Lise (2013).
1612:Boulden, Jane (2001).
684:
678:
609:
561:
508:
402:
267:Port Francqui incident
124:and loyal armed forces
3035:Stanleyville mutinies
2664:Jean-Marie Crèvecoeur
2561:211th Makasi Squadron
2344:Katangese Gendarmerie
1806:Legum, Colin (1961).
1790:Schenkman Books, Inc.
766:Aftermath and effects
702:Capitaine de vaisseau
673:
556:
499:
389:
368:Republic of the Congo
3016:Violettes Imperiales
2639:Joseph-Désiré Mobutu
2593:Conor Cruise O'Brien
2491:5 Mechanised Brigade
2278:Joseph-Désiré Mobutu
2124:(in French). Paris:
2085:Willame, Jean-Claude
1835:Lumumba: A Biography
1645:, Washington, D.C.:
790:Notes and references
634:Belgian intervention
558:Joseph-Désiré Mobutu
311:Violettes Imperiales
122:Congolese government
3159:Cold War rebellions
2692:Frédéric Vandewalle
1940:SĂk, Endre (1966).
1561:, pp. 170–171.
1547:Vanderstraeten 1993
1525:, pp. 148–149.
1270:, pp. 235–260.
1268:Vanderstraeten 1985
1220:Vanderstraeten 1993
1180:, pp. 193–194.
1117:, pp. 109–110.
1093:, pp. 189–190.
1081:, pp. 139–140.
1000:, pp. 126–127.
778:, establishing the
549:Government response
29:
3045:Other major events
2878:Congo-Stanleyville
2351:South Kasai forces
1691:Gerard, Emmanuel;
1682:(1). Addis Ababa:
1327:, pp. 92, 94.
1154:Wilson Center 2011
657:Jean van den Bosch
652:August de Schryver
562:
522:Charles Kisolokele
509:
507:during the mutiny
403:
327:Other major events
207:Congo-Stanleyville
3101:
3100:
2833:Main operations /
2828:
2827:
2456:White mercenaries
2318:government forces
2236:Christophe Gbenye
2207:Political leaders
2126:Éditions Karthala
2110:978-0-8047-0793-0
2097:M. Crawford Young
2055:978-2-8011-0557-3
1968:. Dar es Salaam:
1882:The History Press
1866:978-0-8047-8486-3
1710:978-0-674-72527-0
1549:, pp. 93–94.
1448:, pp. 22–23.
1129:, pp. 90–91.
998:Vanderlinden 1985
971:, pp. 87–88.
875:, pp. 61–62.
474:Équateur Province
472:, the capital of
351:
350:
186:Secession crisis
136:
135:
16:(Redirected from
3176:
3094:
3087:
3069:
3062:
3055:
3037:
3028:
3019:
3010:
3001:
2992:
2983:
2976:
2969:
2960:
2953:
2946:
2935:
2928:
2919:
2912:
2910:Battle of Kabalo
2905:
2898:
2889:
2880:
2871:
2864:
2857:
2850:
2849:Secession crisis
2845:
2821:
2814:
2807:
2789:
2782:
2775:
2768:
2761:
2759:Siegfried MĂĽller
2754:
2747:
2740:
2733:
2726:
2719:
2712:
2694:
2687:
2680:
2673:
2671:Jules Crèvecoeur
2666:
2648:
2641:
2634:
2616:
2609:
2607:Dewan Prem Chand
2602:
2595:
2582:
2570:
2563:
2556:
2549:
2542:
2535:
2528:
2521:
2514:
2507:
2500:
2493:
2486:
2479:
2472:
2465:
2458:
2438:
2420:
2413:
2406:
2399:
2392:
2385:
2378:
2360:
2353:
2346:
2328:
2308:
2301:
2294:
2292:Gaston Soumialot
2287:
2280:
2273:
2266:
2259:
2257:Joseph Kasa-Vubu
2252:
2245:
2243:Dag Hammarskjöld
2238:
2231:
2224:
2217:
2192:
2185:
2178:
2169:
2163:
2139:
2114:
2095:. Translated by
2094:
2080:
2059:
2036:
2015:
2013:
2012:
2006:
2000:. Archived from
1995:
1983:
1959:
1936:
1923:The Lumumba Plot
1917:
1895:
1870:
1851:
1825:
1802:
1782:Kanza, Thomas R.
1777:
1756:
1731:
1714:
1687:
1673:
1664:
1663:
1661:
1655:
1644:
1633:
1598:
1592:
1586:
1580:
1574:
1568:
1562:
1556:
1550:
1544:
1538:
1532:
1526:
1520:
1514:
1508:
1502:
1496:
1490:
1484:
1473:
1467:
1461:
1455:
1449:
1443:
1437:
1431:
1418:
1412:
1406:
1400:
1391:
1385:
1379:
1373:
1364:
1358:
1352:
1346:
1340:
1334:
1328:
1322:
1313:
1307:
1301:
1295:
1286:
1280:
1271:
1265:
1259:
1253:
1247:
1241:
1235:
1229:
1223:
1217:
1211:
1205:
1196:
1190:
1181:
1175:
1169:
1163:
1157:
1151:
1145:
1139:
1130:
1124:
1118:
1112:
1106:
1100:
1094:
1088:
1082:
1076:
1070:
1064:
1055:
1049:
1040:
1034:
1025:
1019:
1013:
1007:
1001:
995:
989:
983:
972:
966:
960:
954:
948:
942:
936:
930:
921:
915:
906:
900:
891:
885:
876:
870:
864:
858:
838:
834:
828:
825:
819:
815:
809:
805:
771:administration.
688:
644:Roger A. Gheysen
613:
231:Battle of Kabalo
172:
162:
155:
148:
139:
37:
30:
21:
3184:
3183:
3179:
3178:
3177:
3175:
3174:
3173:
3104:
3103:
3102:
3097:
3090:
3083:
3072:
3065:
3058:
3051:
3040:
3033:
3022:
3013:
3004:
2995:
2986:
2981:Simba rebellion
2979:
2974:Kwilu rebellion
2972:
2967:Kanyarwanda War
2965:
2956:
2949:
2940:
2931:
2922:
2915:
2908:
2901:
2892:
2887:UN intervention
2885:
2876:
2867:
2860:
2853:
2848:
2841:
2834:
2824:
2817:
2810:
2803:
2792:
2785:
2780:Roger Trinquier
2778:
2771:
2764:
2757:
2750:
2743:
2736:
2729:
2724:Charles Gardien
2722:
2715:
2708:
2697:
2690:
2683:
2676:
2669:
2662:
2651:
2644:
2637:
2630:
2619:
2612:
2605:
2598:
2591:
2573:
2566:
2559:
2552:
2545:
2538:
2531:
2524:
2517:
2510:
2503:
2496:
2489:
2482:
2475:
2468:
2461:
2454:
2448:mercenary units
2447:
2441:
2434:
2423:
2416:
2409:
2402:
2395:
2388:
2381:
2374:
2363:
2356:
2349:
2342:
2331:
2324:
2317:
2311:
2304:
2297:
2290:
2283:
2276:
2271:Patrice Lumumba
2269:
2262:
2255:
2248:
2241:
2234:
2227:
2220:
2213:
2202:
2196:
2166:
2144:Young, Crawford
2142:
2136:
2117:
2111:
2083:
2077:
2062:
2056:
2039:
2033:
2018:
2010:
2008:
2004:
1993:
1986:
1980:
1962:
1948:Akadémiai Kiadó
1939:
1933:
1920:
1898:
1892:
1873:
1867:
1854:
1828:
1805:
1799:
1780:
1759:
1753:
1734:
1717:
1711:
1690:
1671:
1667:
1659:
1657:
1653:
1642:
1636:
1630:
1611:
1607:
1602:
1601:
1593:
1589:
1581:
1577:
1569:
1565:
1557:
1553:
1545:
1541:
1533:
1529:
1521:
1517:
1509:
1505:
1497:
1493:
1485:
1476:
1468:
1464:
1456:
1452:
1444:
1440:
1432:
1421:
1413:
1409:
1401:
1394:
1386:
1382:
1374:
1367:
1359:
1355:
1347:
1343:
1335:
1331:
1323:
1316:
1308:
1304:
1296:
1289:
1281:
1274:
1266:
1262:
1254:
1250:
1242:
1238:
1230:
1226:
1218:
1214:
1206:
1199:
1191:
1184:
1176:
1172:
1164:
1160:
1152:
1148:
1140:
1133:
1125:
1121:
1113:
1109:
1101:
1097:
1089:
1085:
1077:
1073:
1065:
1058:
1050:
1043:
1035:
1028:
1020:
1016:
1008:
1004:
996:
992:
984:
975:
967:
963:
955:
951:
943:
939:
931:
924:
916:
909:
901:
894:
886:
879:
871:
867:
859:
852:
847:
842:
841:
835:
831:
826:
822:
816:
812:
806:
802:
797:
792:
768:
690:
686:
636:
615:
611:
551:
534:N'djili Airport
494:
418:Patrice Lumumba
384:
352:
347:
284:Simba rebellion
279:Kwilu rebellion
274:Kanyarwanda War
214:UN intervention
173:
168:
166:
120:
116:
40:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
3182:
3180:
3172:
3171:
3166:
3161:
3156:
3151:
3146:
3141:
3136:
3131:
3126:
3121:
3116:
3114:Force Publique
3106:
3105:
3099:
3098:
3096:
3095:
3088:
3080:
3078:
3074:
3073:
3071:
3070:
3063:
3056:
3048:
3046:
3042:
3041:
3039:
3038:
3031:
3030:
3029:
3020:
3011:
3002:
2993:
2977:
2970:
2963:
2962:
2961:
2954:
2951:Kindu atrocity
2947:
2938:
2937:
2936:
2920:
2913:
2906:
2899:
2883:
2882:
2881:
2874:
2873:
2872:
2858:
2846:
2838:
2836:
2830:
2829:
2826:
2825:
2823:
2822:
2815:
2808:
2800:
2798:
2794:
2793:
2791:
2790:
2787:Hugh van Oppen
2783:
2776:
2769:
2762:
2755:
2748:
2741:
2734:
2727:
2720:
2717:Roger Faulques
2713:
2705:
2703:
2699:
2698:
2696:
2695:
2688:
2681:
2674:
2667:
2659:
2657:
2653:
2652:
2650:
2649:
2642:
2635:
2627:
2625:
2621:
2620:
2618:
2617:
2610:
2603:
2596:
2588:
2586:
2585:United Nations
2579:
2575:
2574:
2572:
2571:
2564:
2557:
2550:
2543:
2536:
2529:
2522:
2515:
2508:
2501:
2494:
2487:
2480:
2473:
2466:
2459:
2451:
2449:
2443:
2442:
2440:
2439:
2431:
2429:
2428:Other entities
2425:
2424:
2422:
2421:
2414:
2407:
2400:
2393:
2386:
2379:
2371:
2369:
2365:
2364:
2362:
2361:
2354:
2347:
2339:
2337:
2333:
2332:
2330:
2329:
2321:
2319:
2313:
2312:
2310:
2309:
2302:
2295:
2288:
2281:
2274:
2267:
2260:
2253:
2250:Albert Kalonji
2246:
2239:
2232:
2229:Gaston Eyskens
2225:
2218:
2215:Cyrille Adoula
2210:
2208:
2204:
2203:
2197:
2195:
2194:
2187:
2180:
2172:
2165:
2164:
2140:
2134:
2115:
2109:
2081:
2075:
2060:
2054:
2037:
2031:
2016:
1984:
1978:
1960:
1937:
1931:
1918:
1896:
1890:
1871:
1865:
1852:
1826:
1809:Congo Disaster
1803:
1797:
1778:
1757:
1751:
1732:
1715:
1709:
1693:Kuklick, Bruce
1688:
1665:
1656:on 5 July 2017
1634:
1628:
1608:
1606:
1603:
1600:
1599:
1587:
1575:
1563:
1551:
1539:
1537:, p. 318.
1527:
1515:
1513:, p. 317.
1503:
1501:, p. 148.
1491:
1474:
1472:, p. 145.
1462:
1450:
1438:
1419:
1407:
1392:
1390:, p. 377.
1380:
1365:
1353:
1351:, p. 198.
1341:
1339:, p. 136.
1329:
1314:
1312:, p. 195.
1302:
1287:
1285:, p. 194.
1272:
1260:
1248:
1236:
1234:, p. 147.
1224:
1222:, p. 241.
1212:
1210:, p. 193.
1197:
1195:, p. 192.
1182:
1170:
1168:, p. 191.
1158:
1156:, p. 105.
1146:
1144:, p. 116.
1131:
1119:
1107:
1095:
1083:
1071:
1069:, p. 316.
1056:
1054:, p. 111.
1041:
1026:
1014:
1012:, p. 334.
1002:
990:
973:
961:
949:
937:
935:, p. 163.
922:
920:, p. 319.
907:
892:
877:
865:
863:, p. 380.
849:
848:
846:
843:
840:
839:
829:
820:
810:
799:
798:
796:
793:
791:
788:
767:
764:
710:Algerine-class
679:
664:Élisabethville
635:
632:
604:
589:Victor Lundula
550:
547:
542:Albert Delvaux
501:Force Publique
493:
490:
482:Émile Janssens
470:Coquilhatville
459:Justin Bomboko
451:Gaston Eyskens
430:new government
426:Albert Kalonji
422:Jean Bolikango
407:Force Publique
399:Force Publique
383:
380:
364:Force Publique
349:
348:
346:
345:
340:
335:
324:
323:
322:
321:
314:
307:
300:
293:
281:
276:
271:
270:
269:
264:
262:Kindu atrocity
259:
252:
251:
250:
238:
233:
228:
223:
211:
210:
209:
204:
203:
202:
192:
184:
178:
175:
174:
167:
165:
164:
157:
150:
142:
134:
133:
130:
126:
125:
113:
109:
108:
105:Émile Janssens
101:
97:
96:
94:Force Publique
90:
86:
85:
72:
68:
67:
54:
50:
49:
46:
42:
41:
38:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3181:
3170:
3167:
3165:
3164:Kongo Central
3162:
3160:
3157:
3155:
3152:
3150:
3147:
3145:
3142:
3140:
3139:1960 protests
3137:
3135:
3132:
3130:
3127:
3125:
3122:
3120:
3117:
3115:
3112:
3111:
3109:
3093:
3089:
3086:
3082:
3081:
3079:
3075:
3068:
3064:
3061:
3057:
3054:
3050:
3049:
3047:
3043:
3036:
3032:
3027:
3026:
3021:
3018:
3017:
3012:
3009:
3008:
3003:
3000:
2999:
2994:
2991:
2990:
2985:
2984:
2982:
2978:
2975:
2971:
2968:
2964:
2959:
2955:
2952:
2948:
2945:
2944:
2939:
2934:
2930:
2929:
2927:
2926:
2921:
2918:
2914:
2911:
2907:
2904:
2903:Niemba ambush
2900:
2897:
2896:
2891:
2890:
2888:
2884:
2879:
2875:
2870:
2866:
2865:
2863:
2859:
2856:
2852:
2851:
2847:
2844:
2840:
2839:
2837:
2831:
2820:
2816:
2813:
2809:
2806:
2802:
2801:
2799:
2795:
2788:
2784:
2781:
2777:
2774:
2770:
2767:
2763:
2760:
2756:
2753:
2749:
2746:
2742:
2739:
2735:
2732:
2728:
2725:
2721:
2718:
2714:
2711:
2707:
2706:
2704:
2700:
2693:
2689:
2686:
2685:Jean Schramme
2682:
2679:
2675:
2672:
2668:
2665:
2661:
2660:
2658:
2654:
2647:
2643:
2640:
2636:
2633:
2629:
2628:
2626:
2622:
2615:
2611:
2608:
2604:
2601:
2597:
2594:
2590:
2589:
2587:
2583:
2580:
2576:
2569:
2565:
2562:
2558:
2555:
2551:
2548:
2544:
2541:
2537:
2534:
2530:
2527:
2523:
2520:
2516:
2513:
2509:
2506:
2502:
2499:
2495:
2492:
2488:
2485:
2481:
2478:
2474:
2471:
2467:
2464:
2460:
2457:
2453:
2452:
2450:
2444:
2437:
2433:
2432:
2430:
2426:
2419:
2415:
2412:
2408:
2405:
2401:
2398:
2394:
2391:
2387:
2384:
2380:
2377:
2373:
2372:
2370:
2368:UN contingent
2366:
2359:
2355:
2352:
2348:
2345:
2341:
2340:
2338:
2334:
2327:
2323:
2322:
2320:
2314:
2307:
2306:MoĂŻse Tshombe
2303:
2300:
2296:
2293:
2289:
2286:
2285:Pierre Mulele
2282:
2279:
2275:
2272:
2268:
2265:
2261:
2258:
2254:
2251:
2247:
2244:
2240:
2237:
2233:
2230:
2226:
2223:
2219:
2216:
2212:
2211:
2209:
2205:
2200:
2193:
2188:
2186:
2181:
2179:
2174:
2173:
2170:
2161:
2157:
2153:
2150:. Princeton:
2149:
2145:
2141:
2137:
2135:9782865372706
2131:
2127:
2123:
2122:
2116:
2112:
2106:
2102:
2098:
2093:
2092:
2086:
2082:
2078:
2076:9782803101047
2072:
2068:
2067:
2061:
2057:
2051:
2047:
2043:
2038:
2034:
2032:9782870271636
2028:
2024:
2023:
2017:
2007:on 2018-06-19
2003:
1999:
1992:
1991:
1985:
1981:
1979:9789976601879
1975:
1971:
1967:
1966:
1961:
1957:
1953:
1949:
1945:
1944:
1938:
1934:
1932:9781524748814
1928:
1924:
1919:
1915:
1911:
1907:
1903:
1902:
1897:
1893:
1891:9780750965804
1887:
1883:
1879:
1878:
1872:
1868:
1862:
1858:
1853:
1849:
1845:
1841:
1837:
1836:
1831:
1830:McKown, Robin
1827:
1823:
1819:
1815:
1812:. Baltimore:
1811:
1810:
1804:
1800:
1798:0-87073-901-8
1794:
1791:
1787:
1783:
1779:
1775:
1771:
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1763:
1758:
1754:
1752:9780226290713
1748:
1744:
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1698:
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1635:
1631:
1629:9780275969066
1625:
1621:
1617:
1616:
1610:
1609:
1604:
1597:, p. 37.
1596:
1591:
1588:
1585:, p. 99.
1584:
1579:
1576:
1573:, p. 81.
1572:
1567:
1564:
1560:
1555:
1552:
1548:
1543:
1540:
1536:
1531:
1528:
1524:
1519:
1516:
1512:
1507:
1504:
1500:
1495:
1492:
1489:, p. 98.
1488:
1483:
1481:
1479:
1475:
1471:
1466:
1463:
1460:, p. 18.
1459:
1454:
1451:
1447:
1442:
1439:
1436:, p. 97.
1435:
1430:
1428:
1426:
1424:
1420:
1417:, p. 65.
1416:
1411:
1408:
1405:, p. 96.
1404:
1399:
1397:
1393:
1389:
1384:
1381:
1378:, p. 95.
1377:
1372:
1370:
1366:
1363:, p. 94.
1362:
1357:
1354:
1350:
1345:
1342:
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1333:
1330:
1326:
1321:
1319:
1315:
1311:
1306:
1303:
1300:, p. 92.
1299:
1294:
1292:
1288:
1284:
1279:
1277:
1273:
1269:
1264:
1261:
1258:, p. 28.
1257:
1252:
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1246:, p. 78.
1245:
1240:
1237:
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1225:
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1198:
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1189:
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1128:
1123:
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1099:
1096:
1092:
1087:
1084:
1080:
1075:
1072:
1068:
1063:
1061:
1057:
1053:
1048:
1046:
1042:
1039:, p. 90.
1038:
1033:
1031:
1027:
1024:, p. 89.
1023:
1018:
1015:
1011:
1006:
1003:
999:
994:
991:
988:, p. 88.
987:
982:
980:
978:
974:
970:
965:
962:
959:, p. 82.
958:
953:
950:
947:, p. 22.
946:
941:
938:
934:
929:
927:
923:
919:
914:
912:
908:
905:, p. 87.
904:
899:
897:
893:
890:, p. 63.
889:
884:
882:
878:
874:
869:
866:
862:
861:Tompkins 2013
857:
855:
851:
844:
833:
830:
824:
821:
814:
811:
804:
801:
794:
789:
787:
785:
784:a second time
781:
777:
776:a coup d'Ă©tat
772:
765:
763:
761:
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749:
745:
742:
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582:
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568:
567:Maurice Mpolo
559:
555:
548:
546:
543:
537:
535:
531:
525:
523:
517:
515:
506:
502:
498:
491:
489:
487:
486:Albert Nyembo
483:
477:
475:
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467:
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244:
243:
239:
237:
234:
232:
229:
227:
226:Niemba ambush
224:
222:
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217:
216:
215:
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208:
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198:
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80:
76:
73:
69:
66:
62:
58:
55:
51:
47:
43:
36:
31:
19:
3124:Congo Crisis
3024:
3015:
3006:
2997:
2989:Dragon Rouge
2988:
2942:
2933:Camp Massart
2924:
2894:
2842:
2805:Larry Devlin
2752:Jack Malloch
2731:Hans Germani
2678:Marc Goosens
2646:Norbert Moke
2632:Louis Bobozo
2336:Rebel forces
2264:Théo Lefèvre
2199:Congo Crisis
2147:
2120:
2099:. Stanford:
2090:
2065:
2041:
2021:
2009:. Retrieved
2002:the original
1989:
1964:
1942:
1922:
1900:
1876:
1856:
1834:
1808:
1785:
1761:
1737:
1719:
1696:
1679:
1675:
1658:, retrieved
1651:the original
1638:
1614:
1590:
1578:
1571:Willame 1972
1566:
1554:
1542:
1530:
1518:
1506:
1494:
1487:Hoskyns 1965
1465:
1453:
1446:Boulden 2001
1441:
1434:Hoskyns 1965
1415:Namikas 2013
1410:
1403:Hoskyns 1965
1383:
1376:Hoskyns 1965
1361:Hoskyns 1965
1356:
1349:Hoskyns 1965
1344:
1337:Hoskyns 1965
1332:
1325:Hoskyns 1965
1305:
1298:Hoskyns 1965
1263:
1251:
1239:
1232:Willame 1990
1227:
1215:
1173:
1161:
1149:
1127:Hoskyns 1965
1122:
1110:
1098:
1086:
1074:
1037:Hoskyns 1965
1022:Hoskyns 1965
1017:
1005:
993:
986:Hoskyns 1965
969:Hoskyns 1965
964:
957:Hoskyns 1965
952:
945:Boulden 2001
940:
903:Hoskyns 1965
888:Willame 1972
873:Willame 1972
868:
832:
823:
813:
803:
773:
769:
755:
751:
747:
743:
735:
728:
721:
714:
705:
701:
698:
691:
685:
681:
674:
668:Ralph Bunche
661:
639:
637:
620:
616:
610:
606:
596:
581:Daniel Kanza
577:
570:
563:
538:
530:Thomas Kanza
526:
518:
514:Congo Crisis
510:
505:LĂ©opoldville
478:
466:LĂ©opoldville
463:
455:Pierre Wigny
434:
411:
404:
395:LĂ©opoldville
376:Congo Crisis
356:LĂ©opoldville
353:
326:
325:
317:
310:
303:
296:
290:Dragon Rouge
289:
255:
248:Camp Massart
241:
219:
181:
170:Congo Crisis
117:
112:Participants
57:LĂ©opoldville
3007:White Giant
2998:Dragon Noir
2862:South Kasai
2819:Che Guevara
2773:Jerry Puren
2766:John Peters
2614:Pat Quinlan
2600:K.A.S. Raja
2554:15 Commando
2547:14 Commando
2540:13 Commando
2533:12 Commando
2526:11 Commando
2201:(1960–1965)
1660:9 September
1142:McKown 1969
1052:McKown 1969
628:Jean Miruho
587:, selected
585:RĂ©my Mwamba
572:coup d'Ă©tat
391:Gendarmerie
304:White Giant
297:Dragon Noir
195:South Kasai
65:Lower Congo
3134:1960 riots
3108:Categories
2917:Jadotville
2738:Mike Hoare
2710:Bob Denard
2578:Commanders
2519:9 Commando
2512:6 Commando
2505:5 Commando
2498:4 Commando
2011:2018-09-25
1764:. London:
1720:Congo 1960
1605:References
1535:Young 1965
1511:Young 1965
1310:Kanza 1994
1283:Kanza 1994
1244:Gibbs 1991
1208:Kanza 1994
1193:Kanza 1994
1178:Kanza 1994
1166:Kanza 1994
1115:Legum 1961
1103:Othen 2015
1091:Kanza 1994
1067:Young 1965
1010:Young 1965
739:, and the
729:De Brouwer
694:Luluabourg
598:ex officio
492:The mutiny
382:Background
236:Jadotville
2943:Grandslam
2895:Rum Punch
2702:Mercenary
2624:Congolese
2446:Belgian /
2316:Congolese
1956:313517290
1848:977145530
1840:Doubleday
1728:963926463
1559:Reid 2023
1523:Reid 2023
1499:Reid 2023
1470:Reid 2023
1079:Reid 2023
845:Citations
412:adjutants
372:Bas-Congo
360:Thysville
256:Grandslam
220:Rum Punch
61:Thysville
48:July 1960
3119:Mutinies
2869:Invasion
2411:Ethiopia
2146:(1965).
2087:(1972).
1972:. 1993.
1914:25943688
1908:. 1962.
1832:(1969).
1784:(1994).
1695:(2015).
918:SĂk 1966
741:vedettes
715:Lecointe
200:Invasion
83:protests
53:Location
3077:Related
2855:Katanga
2835:battles
2656:Belgian
2390:Ireland
2299:U Thant
1814:Penguin
362:of the
190:Katanga
129:Outcome
2925:UNOKAT
2397:Sweden
2383:Canada
2160:307971
2158:
2132:
2107:
2073:
2052:
2029:
1976:
1954:
1929:
1912:
1888:
1863:
1846:
1822:586629
1820:
1795:
1774:414961
1772:
1749:
1726:
1707:
1626:
808:staff.
756:Ourthe
754:, and
752:Dender
744:Semois
736:Demoor
722:Dufour
708:, the
706:Kamina
624:Matadi
446:Kamina
442:Kitona
242:UNOKAT
100:Motive
75:Mutiny
3025:South
2797:Other
2404:India
2005:(PDF)
1994:(PDF)
1672:(PDF)
1654:(PDF)
1643:(PDF)
795:Notes
748:Rupel
734:F905
727:F904
720:F903
713:F901
318:South
89:Cause
79:riots
2156:OCLC
2130:ISBN
2105:ISBN
2071:ISBN
2050:ISBN
2027:ISBN
1974:ISBN
1952:OCLC
1927:ISBN
1910:OCLC
1886:ISBN
1861:ISBN
1844:OCLC
1818:OCLC
1793:ISBN
1770:OCLC
1747:ISBN
1724:OCLC
1705:ISBN
1662:2017
1624:ISBN
732:and
650:and
444:and
424:and
405:The
358:and
71:Type
59:and
45:Date
2436:CIA
818:II.
393:in
3110::
2154:.
2128:.
2103:.
2048:.
1950:.
1884:.
1842:.
1816:.
1768:.
1745:.
1703:.
1678:.
1674:.
1622:.
1477:^
1422:^
1395:^
1368:^
1317:^
1290:^
1275:^
1200:^
1185:^
1134:^
1059:^
1044:^
1029:^
976:^
925:^
910:^
895:^
880:^
853:^
762:.
750:,
746:,
725:,
718:,
461:.
378:.
81:,
77:,
2191:e
2184:t
2177:v
2162:.
2138:.
2113:.
2079:.
2058:.
2035:.
2014:.
1982:.
1958:.
1935:.
1916:.
1894:.
1869:.
1850:.
1824:.
1801:.
1776:.
1755:.
1730:.
1713:.
1680:1
1632:.
161:e
154:t
147:v
20:)
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
