1039:
lineages when they evolved this ability and these insects are now of major importance in ecosystems. The methods that insects use to farm fungi share fundamental similarities with human agriculture. Firstly, insects inoculate a particular habitat or substrate with fungi, much in the same as humans plant seeds in fields. Secondly, they cultivate the fungi by regulating the growing environment to try to improve the growth of the fungus, as well as protecting it from pests and diseases. Thirdly they harvest the fungus when it is mature and feed on it. Lastly they are dependent on the fungi they grow, in the same way that humans are dependent on crops.
1048:
1148:
297:
169:
2769:
31:
888:
1174:. The fungus is kept in a specialised part of the nest in fungus cones. Worker termites eat plant matter, producing faecal pellets which they continuously place on top of the cone. The fungus grows into this material and soon produces immature mushrooms, a rich source of protein, sugars and enzymes, which the worker termites eat. The nodules also contain
288:. Some slugs are selective towards certain parts or developmental stages of the fungi they eat, though this behavior varies greatly. Depending on the species and other factors, slugs eat only fungi at specific stages of development. Moreover, in other cases, whole mushrooms can be eaten, without any trace of selectivity.
918:
from the soil via the fungi. Some species of plant have evolved to manipulate this symbiosis, so that they no longer give fungi sugars that they produce and instead gain sugars from the fungi, a process called myco-heterotrophy. Some plants are only dependent on fungi as a source of sugars during the
1228:
carry a small part of fungus in small pouches in their mouthparts when they leave the nest to mate, allowing them to establish a new fungus garden when they form a new nest. Different lineages cultivate fungi on different substrates, those that evolved earlier do so on a wide range of plant matter,
1182:
also fruits, forming mushrooms above ground, which mature at the same time that the first workers emerge from newly formed nests. The mushrooms produce spores that are wind dispersed, and through this method, new colonies acquire a fungal strain. In some species, the genetic variation of the fungus
621:
There are three mechanisms by which bacteria feed on fungi; they either kill fungal cells, cause them to secrete more material out of their cells or enter into the cells to feed internally and they are categorised according to these habits. Those that kill fungal cells are called nectrotrophs, the
613:
this definition was adapted to only include bacteria which play an active role in gaining nutrition from fungi, excluding those that feed off passive secretions by fungi, or off dead or damaged hyphae. The majority of our knowledge in this area relates to interactions between bacteria and fungi in
1038:
Three insect lineages, beetles, ants and termites, independently evolved the ability to farm fungi between 40 and 60 million years ago. In a similar way to the way that human societies became more complex after the development of plant-based agriculture, the same occurred in these insect
1012:
The precise mechanisms by which these plants gain sugars from fungi are not known and has not been demonstrated scientifically. Two pathways have been proposed; they may either degrade fungal biomass, particularly the fungal hyphae which penetrate plant cells in a similar manner to in
632:. Both of these mechanisms may be required since fungal cell walls are highly complex, so require many different enzymes to degrade them, and because experiments demonstrate that bacteria that produce toxins cannot always infect fungi. It is likely that these two systems act
120:
are known to feed on fungi. Most of these species spend less than 5% of the time they spend feeding eating fungi, and fungi therefore form only a small part of their diet. Some species spend longer foraging for fungi, and fungi account for a greater part of their diet;
321:
a species of ant from the rainforests of South East Asia was found to harvest mushrooms from the rainforest. Witte & Maschwitz found that their diet consisted almost entirely of mushrooms, representing a previously undiscovered feeding strategy in ants. Several
622:
molecular mechanisms of this feeding are thought to overlap considerably with bacteria that feed on fungi after they have died naturally. Necrotrophs may kill the fungi through digesting their cell wall or by producing toxins which kill fungi, such as
137:. Fungi are comparatively very rare in tropical rainforests compared to other food sources such as fruit and leaves, and they are also distributed more sparsely and appear unpredictably, making them a challenging source of food for Goeldi’s monkeys.
59:. Many different organisms have been recorded to gain their energy from consuming fungi, including birds, mammals, insects, plants, amoebas, gastropods, nematodes, bacteria and other fungi. Some of these, which only eat fungi, are called
830:
first attaches themselves to a hyphae or sporangium via a feeding tube and then a ring-shaped structure, around 2 μm in diameter is observed to appear on the fungus, possibly consisting of degraded cell wall material.
614:
the soil and in or around plants, little is known about interactions in marine and freshwater habitats, or those occurring on or inside animals. It is not known what effects bacterial mycophagy has on the fungal
997:
are mixotrophs, but others do not photosynthesise. Because the fungi that myco-heterotrophic plants gain sugars from in turn gain them from plants that do photosynthesise, they are considered indirect
763:
whereas others are able to actively invade and subvert fungal cells. The molecular interactions involved in these interactions are mostly unknown. Many endocellular biotrophs, for example some
160:, but it is believed that in the past there were numerous vertebrate fungivores and that toxin development greatly lessened their number and forced these species to abandon fungi or diversify.
1448:
Bain, Roderick S.; Wilkinson, David M.; and
Sherratt, Thomas N.; "Explaining Dioscorides' "Double Difference": Why Are Some Mushrooms Poisonous, and Do They Signal Their Unprofitability?" in
835:
then feeds through the hole in the cell wall for, on average, 10 minutes, before detaching itself and moving away. The precise mechanism of feeding is not known, but it conceivably involves
1304:, which are the preferred diet of the snail. They also deposit faeces on the wounds that they create, which encourage the growth of the fungi because they are rich in nitrogen and fungal
955:
since they gain nutrition in more than one way, by gaining a significant amount of sugars from fungi, they are able to grow in the deep shade of forests. Examples include the orchids
346:, utilize fungi at their larval stage. Feeding on fungi is crucial for dead wood eaters as this is the only way to acquire nutrients not available in nutritionally scarce dead wood.
748:, but it remains to be demonstrated whether the changes they cause are directly beneficial to the bacteria. In the case of MHBs, which increase infection of plant roots by
796:
sizes indicating that they have become entirely dependent on the metabolic functions of the fungal cells in which they live. When all the endocellular bacteria inside
80:
Many mammals eat fungi, but only a few feed exclusively on fungi; most are opportunistic feeders and fungi only make up part of their diet. At least 22 species of
1418:
144:
to deter animals from feeding on them: even today humans die from eating poisonous fungi. A natural consequence of this is the virtual absence of obligate
1178:, meaning that the faecal pellets produced by the workers always contain spores of the fungus that colonise the plant material that they defaecate. The
2408:
De Fine Licht, H.; Boomsma, J.; Aanen, D. (2006). "Presumptive horizontal symbiont transmission in the fungus-growing termite
Macrotermes natalensis".
1778:
2037:
Petz, W.; Foissner, W.; Wirnsberger, E.; Krautgartner, W. D.; Adam, H. (1986). "Mycophagy, a new feeding strategy in autochthonous soil ciliates".
987:, no longer photosynthesise and are totally dependent on fungi for nutrients. Around 230 such species exist, and this trait is thought to have
607:
was a term coined in 2005, to describe the ability of some bacteria to "grow at the expense of living fungal hyphae". In a 2007 review in the
1971:
1025:. To prevent the sugars returning to the fungi, they must compartmentalise the sugars or convert them into forms which the fungi cannot use.
783:
1308:. Juvenile snails raised on uninfected leaves do not grow and are more likely to die, indicating the importance of the fungi in the diet of
3135:
378:) have all been recorded to eat mushrooms, with the stomachs of Siberian jays containing mostly fungi in the early winter. The ascomycete,
1183:
is very low, suggesting that spores of the fungus are transmitted vertically from nest to nest, rather than from wind dispersed spores.
2595:
1826:
1368:
1809:
Kiss, L. (2008). "Chapter 3 Intracellular mycoparasites in action: Interactions between powdery mildew fungi and
Ampelomyces".
1286:
of the southeast of the United States feeds on fungi that it encourages to grow. It creates and maintains wounds on the grass,
542:, durable structures which contain food reserves, which is important if they are to control pathogenic fungi in the long term.
511:
of other fungi. They are able to detect other fungi and grow towards them, they then bind to the hyphae of other fungi using
384:
found in north Africa and the Middle East is eaten by migrating birds in winter and early spring, mainly by species of lark (
2271:
Mueller, U. G.; Gerardo, N. M.; Aanen, D. K.; Six, D. L.; Schultz, T. R. (2005). "The
Evolution of Agriculture in Insects".
1856:
1676:"Nutritional dynamics during the development of xylophagous beetles related to changes in the stoichiometry of 11 elements"
584:
2349:
Aanen, D.; Ros, V.; De Fine Licht, H.; Mitchell, J.; De Beer, Z.; Slippers, B.; Rouland-Lefèvre, C.; Boomsma, J. (2007).
752:
fungi, they may benefit, because the fungi gain nutrition from the plant and in turn the fungi will secrete more sugars.
3140:
1633:"Fungal Transformation of Tree Stumps into a Suitable Resource for Xylophagous Beetles via Changes in Elemental Ratios"
726:. The precise signalling molecules that are used to achieve these changes are unknown, but it has been suggested that
1132:. The ambrosia fungi are only found in the beetles and their galleries, suggesting that they and the beetles have an
702:
biotrophs; many bacteria feed on fungal secretions, but do not interact directly with the fungi and these are called
1425:
2995:
2990:
2985:
2980:
2975:
2604:
1066:
739:
1931:
1915:
3114:
1053:
1022:
1078:(organs which carry fungal spores) of ambrosia beetles contain various species of fungus, including species of
993:
593:
430:
284:
157:
130:
3094:
1785:
685:
648:
216:
210:
2351:"Patterns of interaction specificity of fungus-growing termites and Termitomyces symbionts in South Africa"
822:
2169:
Rasmussen, H. N.; Rasmussen, F. N. (2009). "Orchid mycorrhiza: implications of a mycophagous life style".
756:
738:
molecules may be involved. Bacteria have been identified that manipulate fungi in these ways, for example
566:
380:
374:
2739:
2588:
1594:
1419:"An Experiment for Assessing Vertebrate Response to Varying Levels and Patterns of Green-tree Retention"
1288:
1014:
983:
892:
760:
719:
715:
642:
362:
1047:
817:
2083:
Selosse, M.; Roy, M. (2009). "Green plants that feed on fungi: facts and questions about mixotrophy".
1515:
1233:
are more selective, mainly using only fresh leaves and flowers. The fungi are members of the families
3022:
2531:
2472:
2417:
2362:
2307:
2220:
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2046:
1888:
1603:
1532:
1192:
988:
628:
572:
368:
317:
301:
1589:
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but these have not been found in their droppings since they disintegrate when they are eaten. Emus (
126:
3109:
2963:
1968:
1523:
1278:
1198:
1080:
788:
770:
615:
408:
248:
1147:
1116:
969:
698:
Bacteria which manipulate fungi to produce more secretions which they in turn feed off are called
3104:
2754:
2441:
2331:
2062:
1959:
1906:
1836:
1556:
1488:
1002:
935:. Others are dependent on this food source for their entire lifetime, including some orchids and
744:
711:
691:
675:
669:
663:
578:
554:
338:
also are specialists on fungi, though they may eat other foods occasionally. Other insects, like
278:
242:
40:
1360:
296:
168:
3099:
2744:
2559:
2500:
2433:
2390:
2323:
2248:
2148:
2100:
2019:
1951:
1877:"Genetic basis of mycoparasitism: A mechanism of biological control by species of Trichoderma"
1822:
1697:
1548:
1496:
1364:
1213:
1092:
920:
901:
801:
560:
201:
122:
2284:
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2549:
2539:
2490:
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2425:
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2315:
2280:
2238:
2228:
2186:
2138:
2092:
2054:
2009:
1943:
1896:
1814:
1757:
1687:
1654:
1644:
1611:
1540:
1480:
1400:
1230:
840:
657:
548:
448:
30:
3076:
2948:
2927:
1975:
1860:
1848:
1321:
1202:
1165:
1128:
1061:
915:
609:
397:
2535:
2476:
2421:
2366:
2311:
2224:
2182:
2050:
1998:"Bacterial mycophagy: definition and diagnosis of a unique bacterial-fungal interaction"
1892:
1716:
1607:
1536:
3051:
3027:
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2495:
2460:
2385:
2350:
1659:
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1353:
1300:
1122:
1071:
991:
on five occasions outside of the orchid family. Some individuals of the orchid species
948:
735:
476:
339:
254:
240:). Species of mushroom producing fungi used as food source by slugs include milk-caps,
237:
2554:
2519:
2243:
2208:
1818:
887:
3129:
3061:
3056:
3015:
3005:
2953:
2718:
2713:
2632:
2429:
2190:
2143:
2126:
2014:
1997:
1326:
1294:
1018:
963:
940:
856:
804:, suggesting that some bacteria may also provide services to the fungi they live in.
731:
699:
413:
335:
266:
222:
149:
117:
2445:
2335:
2066:
1963:
1910:
1560:
3081:
2958:
2846:
2667:
2657:
1263:
1217:
1170:
1152:
1098:
944:
936:
765:
680:
516:
459:
360:) are believed to be the first birds in which mycophagy was recorded. Canada jays (
331:
205:
2298:
Batra, L. R. (1966). "Ambrosia fungi: extent of specificity to ambrosia beetles".
2096:
1901:
1876:
640:
degrading the cell wall and digesting the fungus. Examples of necrotrophs include
2319:
1468:
406:
Fungi are known to form an important part of the diet of the southern cassowary (
2902:
2887:
2882:
2872:
2867:
2851:
2810:
2800:
2647:
2642:
2637:
1853:
1238:
1234:
1086:
911:
864:
852:
749:
495:
228:
173:
2524:
Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
2465:
Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
2213:
Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
1391:
Hanson, A. M.; Hodge, K. T.; Porter, L. M. (2003). "Mycophagy among
Primates".
1220:
today. For these ants, farmed fungi are the only source of food on which their
3066:
2922:
2917:
2907:
2830:
2820:
2708:
2682:
2672:
1544:
1404:
1283:
1274:
1251:
1243:
1104:
779:
723:
707:
703:
527:
481:
436:
421:
356:
327:
156:
being the major exception. One of the few extant vertebrate fungivores is the
145:
2209:"Fungus-farming insects: multiple origins and diverse evolutionary histories"
1701:
3071:
3000:
2943:
2912:
2892:
2825:
2815:
2795:
2790:
2777:
2687:
2677:
2662:
2652:
2612:
2544:
2485:
2375:
1331:
1225:
1209:
1136:
1006:
978:
957:
952:
907:
848:
844:
654:
637:
539:
524:
508:
504:
425:
385:
307:
276:, are also eaten by slugs. Slime molds used as food source by slugs include
233:
186:
153:
2563:
2504:
2437:
2394:
2327:
2252:
2233:
2152:
2104:
2023:
1955:
1649:
1552:
1500:
416:
have been found in their droppings throughout the year, and
Simpson in the
1616:
2897:
2785:
1247:
1133:
1110:
1075:
998:
974:
623:
486:
343:
260:
189:
113:
109:
105:
93:
64:
17:
3037:
2723:
2703:
2627:
2058:
1947:
1692:
1675:
1574:
1492:
1175:
1161:
932:
860:
813:
633:
442:
389:
272:
193:
178:
97:
81:
1762:
1741:
3042:
3032:
2573:
1305:
1221:
1205:
924:
836:
793:
774:
512:
500:
454:
323:
141:
134:
89:
1484:
706:, rather than biotrophs. Extracellular biotrophs could alter fungal
305:, the only species of ant known to harvest mushrooms, feeding on a
1930:
Harman, G.; Howell, C.; Viterbo, A.; Chet, I.; Lorito, M. (2004).
1146:
1046:
886:
875:
bear some similarities to those made by amoeba, but unlike amoeba
727:
295:
197:
167:
101:
85:
56:
29:
1631:
Filipiak, Michał; Sobczyk, Łukasz; Weiner, January (2016-04-09).
928:
755:
The third group, that enter into living fungal cells are called
35:
2577:
1932:"Trichoderma species--opportunistic, avirulent plant symbionts"
1875:
Steyaert, J. M.; Ridgway, H. J.; Elad, Y.; Stewart, A. (2003).
1355:
The
Kingdom Fungi: The Biology of Mushrooms, Molds, and Lichens
896:, a myco-heterotroph dependent on fungi throughout its lifetime
484:, our knowledge of it in natural environments is very limited.
1590:"Scuttle flies (Diptera: Phoridae) reared from fungi in Benin"
855:
are visible in the feeding tube, as are possible reserves of
1588:
Disney, R.H.L.; Kurina, O.; Tedersoo, L.; Cakpo, Y. (2013).
1469:"Feeding activities of slugs on Myxomycetes and macrofungi"
914:
fungi, where fungi gain sugars from plants and plants gain
773:
which also contains species which live inside the cells of
63:
whereas others eat fungi as only part of their diet, being
403:
has also been found to opportunistically forage on fungi.
1292:
which are then infected by fungi, probably of the genera
1224:
are raised on and are also an important food for adults.
258:. Other species pertaining to different genera, such as
800:
were removed, the fungus grew differently and was less
480:
occurs when any fungus feeds on other fungi, a form of
396:
as bait in traps to attract birds. The ground-foraging
1516:"Mushroom harvesting ants in the tropical rain forest"
1017:, or absorb sugars from the fungi by disrupting their
1001:
of other plants. The relationship between orchids and
636:, with the toxins killing or inhibiting the fungi and
588:; although this protection may not be entirely due to
192:
are known to feed on fungi. It is the case in several
1881:
New Zealand Journal of Crop and Horticultural Science
1784:. Australasian Mycological Newsletter. Archived from
1201:
species, and more undescribed species of ants in the
2273:
Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics
546:
species have been recorded as protecting crops from
125:
spend up to 12% of their time consuming sporocarps,
2936:
2860:
2839:
2776:
2732:
2696:
2620:
2611:
2461:"Major evolutionary transitions in ant agriculture"
1352:
446:fungi if presented to them as will brush turkeys (
1674:Filipiak, Michał; Weiner, January (2016-09-01).
530:, which create holes in the cell wall, allowing
523:inject toxic enzymes into the host and probably
420:suggested it is likely they also eat species of
2127:"The evolutionary ecology of myco-heterotrophy"
1462:
1460:
1458:
947:. Those that are dependent on fungi, but still
129:spend up to 63% of their time doing so and the
2266:
2264:
2262:
2202:
2200:
1254:-producing bacteria also inhabit the gardens.
2589:
2120:
2118:
2116:
2114:
863:filled with the cytoplasm of the fungus, via
592:digesting these fungi, but by them improving
8:
2164:
2162:
1208:cultivate fungi. They are only found in the
1168:cultivate a specialised fungus in the genus
515:on the host fungi as a receptor, forming an
133:spends up to 95% of its feeding time eating
1870:
1868:
1005:has been suggested to be somewhere between
232:), which respectively feed on slime molds (
2617:
2596:
2582:
2574:
2078:
2076:
2553:
2543:
2494:
2484:
2384:
2374:
2242:
2232:
2142:
2013:
1991:
1989:
1987:
1985:
1983:
1925:
1923:
1900:
1761:
1746:mycophagy, truffles and soil disturbance"
1691:
1658:
1648:
1615:
462:may feed opportunistically on mushrooms.
2285:10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.36.102003.152626
1057:split open, with larvae and black fungus
1343:
1212:and are thought to have evolved in the
1156:mushrooms growing out of a termite nest
867:, which are then transported back into
1844:
1834:
1351:Steven L. Stephenson (21 April 2010).
1074:inside of trees and feed on them. The
777:and amoeba. Some of them, for example
55:is the process of organisms consuming
1811:Stress in Yeast and Filamentous Fungi
534:to grow inside of the host and feed.
7:
1575:"Tribe Bolitophagini - BugGuide.Net"
1467:Keller, H. W.; Snell, K. L. (2002).
418:Australasian Mycological Newsletter
1740:Elliott, T.F.; Vernes, K. (2019).
1164:in twelve genera of the subfamily
906:Around 90% of land plants live in
730:(better known for their role as a
392:hunters have been reported to use
25:
2518:Silliman, B.; Newell, S. (2003).
2207:Mueller, U.; Gerardo, N. (2002).
1779:"Why don't birds eat more fungi?"
1514:Witte, V.; Maschwitz, U. (2008).
859:, which may be used to form food
2767:
2430:10.1111/j.1365-294X.2006.03008.x
2191:10.1111/j.1600-0706.2008.17116.x
2144:10.1111/j.1469-8137.2005.01429.x
2015:10.1111/j.1469-8137.2007.02325.x
1996:Leveau, J.; Preston, G. (2008).
1813:. Vol. 27. pp. 37–52.
1777:J. A. Simpson (September 1998).
786:, which colonises the spores of
710:in three ways; they alter their
2459:Schultz, T.; Brady, S. (2008).
716:permeability of their membranes
1452:; vol. 166, pp. 767–775; 2005.
1:
2097:10.1016/j.tplants.2008.11.004
1902:10.1080/01140671.2003.9514263
1819:10.1016/S0275-0287(08)80045-8
826:, feed exclusively on fungi.
759:biotrophs. Some of these are
585:Colletotrichum lindemuthianum
458:, suggesting that species of
140:Fungi are renowned for their
2320:10.1126/science.153.3732.193
1936:Nature Reviews. Microbiology
923:, these include most of the
27:Organism that consumes fungi
3136:Animals by eating behaviors
2520:"Fungal farming in a snail"
1717:"More on mycophagous birds"
1241:. Other fungi in the genus
1176:indigestible asexual spores
246:spp., the oyster mushroom,
3157:
2125:Bidartondo, M. I. (2005).
1261:
1190:
1067:Austroplatypus incompertus
899:
879:never engulfs the fungus.
784:Glomeribacter gigasporarum
740:mycorrhiza helper bacteria
3115:Category:Eating behaviors
3090:
2765:
1722:. Australasian Mycologist
1545:10.1007/s00114-008-0421-9
1405:10.1017/S0269915X0300106X
1359:. Timber Press. pp.
1054:Xylosandrus crassiusculus
2355:BMC Evolutionary Biology
1680:Physiological Entomology
994:Cephalanthera damasonium
820:, including the species
722:of nutrients) and their
594:plant disease resistance
490:grow on dead mushrooms.
431:Dromaius novaehollandiae
326:families, including the
285:Symphytocarpus flaccidus
158:northern flying squirrel
131:Yunnan snub-nosed monkey
3095:Antipredator adaptation
2545:10.1073/pnas.2535227100
2486:10.1073/pnas.0711024105
2376:10.1186/1471-2148-7-115
2085:Trends in Plant Science
1450:The American Naturalist
769:species, belong to the
686:Cochliobolus miyabeanus
649:Cryptococcus neoformans
519:. Once this is formed,
229:Ariolimax californianus
211:Philomycus carolinianus
44:) feeding on a mushroom
2234:10.1073/pnas.242594799
1744:Menura novaehollandiae
1715:J. A. Simpson (2000).
1650:10.3390/insects7020013
1216:, where they are most
1160:Around 330 species of
1157:
1058:
1015:arbuscular mycorrhizae
919:early stages of their
897:
761:transmitted vertically
567:Glomerella graminicola
401:Menura novaehollandiae
312:
217:Phylomicus flexuolaris
182:
123:buffy-tufted marmosets
45:
1617:10.5733/afin.054.0204
1595:African Invertebrates
1289:Spartina alterniflora
1282:, which lives in the
1150:
1050:
989:evolved independently
984:Monotropastrum humile
939:, and all species of
900:Further information:
893:Monotropastrum humile
890:
823:Grossglockneria acuta
643:Staphylococcus aureus
299:
204:. Among them are the
171:
148:fungivores, with the
33:
1193:Ant-fungus mutualism
871:. The holes made by
629:Pseudomonas tolaasii
573:Phytophthora capsici
434:) will eat immature
381:Phaeangium lefebvrei
318:Euprenolepis procera
302:Euprenolepis procera
3141:Ecology terminology
3110:Carnivorous protist
2964:Intraguild predator
2536:2003PNAS..10015643S
2530:(26): 15643–15648.
2477:2008PNAS..105.5435S
2422:2006MolEc..15.3131D
2367:2007BMCEE...7..115A
2312:1966Sci...153..193B
2225:2002PNAS...9915247M
2219:(24): 15247–15249.
2183:2009Oikos.118..334R
2131:The New Phytologist
2051:1986NW.....73..560P
2039:Naturwissenschaften
2002:The New Phytologist
1893:2003NZJCH..31..281S
1608:2013AfrIn..54..357D
1537:2008NW.....95.1049W
1524:Naturwissenschaften
1279:Littoraria irrorata
789:Gigaspora margarita
605:Bacterial mycophagy
538:are able to digest
409:Casuarius casuarius
372:) and Oregon jays (
252:and the penny bun,
249:Pleurotus ostreatus
3105:Carnivorous fungus
2755:Sexual cannibalism
2740:Animal cannibalism
2605:Feeding behaviours
2059:10.1007/BF00368169
1974:2012-03-12 at the
1948:10.1038/nrmicro797
1859:2011-10-03 at the
1693:10.1111/phen.12168
1158:
1059:
1003:orchid mycorrhizae
981:. Others, such as
898:
745:Pseudomonas putida
692:Rhizoctonia solani
676:Fusarium oxysporum
670:Sclerotium rolfsii
664:Rhizoctonia solani
579:Magnaporthe grisea
555:Rhizoctonia solani
507:which degrade the
493:The fungal genus,
366:), Siberian jays (
313:
279:Stemonitis axifera
183:
46:
41:Lehmannia nyctelia
3123:
3122:
3100:Carnivorous plant
2976:Aquatic predation
2763:
2762:
2745:Human cannibalism
2471:(14): 5435–5440.
2416:(11): 3131–3138.
2410:Molecular Ecology
2306:(3732): 193–195.
1763:10.1111/ibi.12644
1742:"Superb Lyrebird
1531:(11): 1049–1054.
1214:Amazon Rainforest
902:Myco-heterotrophy
841:acid phosphatases
818:Grossglockneridae
798:G. margarita
561:Alternaria solani
236:) and mushrooms (
185:Many terrestrial
16:(Redirected from
3148:
2969:Pursuit predator
2771:
2750:Self-cannibalism
2618:
2598:
2591:
2584:
2575:
2568:
2567:
2557:
2547:
2515:
2509:
2508:
2498:
2488:
2456:
2450:
2449:
2405:
2399:
2398:
2388:
2378:
2346:
2340:
2339:
2295:
2289:
2288:
2268:
2257:
2256:
2246:
2236:
2204:
2195:
2194:
2166:
2157:
2156:
2146:
2122:
2109:
2108:
2080:
2071:
2070:
2034:
2028:
2027:
2017:
1993:
1978:
1967:
1927:
1918:
1914:
1904:
1872:
1863:
1852:
1846:
1842:
1840:
1832:
1806:
1800:
1799:
1797:
1796:
1790:
1783:
1774:
1768:
1767:
1765:
1737:
1731:
1730:
1728:
1727:
1721:
1712:
1706:
1705:
1695:
1671:
1665:
1664:
1662:
1652:
1628:
1622:
1621:
1619:
1585:
1579:
1578:
1571:
1565:
1564:
1520:
1511:
1505:
1504:
1464:
1453:
1446:
1440:
1439:
1437:
1436:
1430:
1424:. Archived from
1423:
1415:
1409:
1408:
1388:
1382:
1381:
1379:
1377:
1358:
1348:
1310:L. irrorata
1250:the gardens and
1231:leaf cutter ants
1062:Ambrosia beetles
1009:and parasitism.
927:as well as many
771:β-proteobacteria
549:Botrytis cinerea
449:Alectura lathami
412:) of Australia.
127:Goeldi’s monkeys
21:
3156:
3155:
3151:
3150:
3149:
3147:
3146:
3145:
3126:
3125:
3124:
3119:
3086:
3077:Surplus killing
2949:Ambush predator
2932:
2856:
2835:
2772:
2759:
2728:
2692:
2607:
2602:
2572:
2571:
2517:
2516:
2512:
2458:
2457:
2453:
2407:
2406:
2402:
2348:
2347:
2343:
2297:
2296:
2292:
2270:
2269:
2260:
2206:
2205:
2198:
2168:
2167:
2160:
2124:
2123:
2112:
2082:
2081:
2074:
2036:
2035:
2031:
1995:
1994:
1981:
1976:Wayback Machine
1929:
1928:
1921:
1874:
1873:
1866:
1861:Wayback Machine
1843:
1833:
1829:
1808:
1807:
1803:
1794:
1792:
1788:
1781:
1776:
1775:
1771:
1739:
1738:
1734:
1725:
1723:
1719:
1714:
1713:
1709:
1673:
1672:
1668:
1630:
1629:
1625:
1587:
1586:
1582:
1573:
1572:
1568:
1518:
1513:
1512:
1508:
1485:10.2307/3761690
1466:
1465:
1456:
1447:
1443:
1434:
1432:
1428:
1421:
1417:
1416:
1412:
1390:
1389:
1385:
1375:
1373:
1371:
1350:
1349:
1345:
1340:
1322:Edible mushroom
1318:
1271:
1266:
1260:
1195:
1189:
1166:Macrotermitinae
1145:
1129:Tuberculariella
1045:
1036:
1031:
949:photosynthesise
904:
885:
810:
792:, have reduced
718:(including the
634:synergistically
610:New Phytologist
602:
473:
468:
398:superb lyrebird
352:
294:
166:
78:
73:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
3154:
3152:
3144:
3143:
3138:
3128:
3127:
3121:
3120:
3118:
3117:
3112:
3107:
3102:
3097:
3091:
3088:
3087:
3085:
3084:
3079:
3074:
3069:
3064:
3059:
3054:
3052:Hypercarnivore
3049:
3048:
3047:
3046:
3045:
3035:
3028:Cattle feeding
3025:
3020:
3019:
3018:
3013:
3011:Feeding frenzy
3008:
3003:
2998:
2996:Suction feeder
2993:
2988:
2983:
2973:
2972:
2971:
2966:
2961:
2956:
2951:
2940:
2938:
2934:
2933:
2931:
2930:
2925:
2920:
2915:
2910:
2905:
2900:
2895:
2890:
2885:
2880:
2875:
2870:
2864:
2862:
2858:
2857:
2855:
2854:
2849:
2843:
2841:
2837:
2836:
2834:
2833:
2828:
2823:
2818:
2813:
2808:
2806:Seed predation
2803:
2798:
2793:
2788:
2782:
2780:
2774:
2773:
2766:
2764:
2761:
2760:
2758:
2757:
2752:
2747:
2742:
2736:
2734:
2730:
2729:
2727:
2726:
2721:
2716:
2711:
2706:
2700:
2698:
2694:
2693:
2691:
2690:
2685:
2680:
2675:
2670:
2665:
2660:
2655:
2650:
2645:
2640:
2635:
2630:
2624:
2622:
2615:
2609:
2608:
2603:
2601:
2600:
2593:
2586:
2578:
2570:
2569:
2510:
2451:
2400:
2341:
2290:
2258:
2196:
2177:(3): 334–345.
2158:
2137:(2): 335–352.
2110:
2072:
2045:(9): 560–562.
2029:
2008:(4): 859–876.
1979:
1919:
1887:(4): 281–291.
1864:
1845:|journal=
1827:
1801:
1769:
1756:(2): 198–204.
1732:
1707:
1666:
1623:
1602:(2): 357–371.
1580:
1566:
1506:
1479:(5): 757–760.
1454:
1441:
1410:
1383:
1369:
1342:
1341:
1339:
1336:
1335:
1334:
1329:
1324:
1317:
1314:
1301:Mycosphaerella
1270:
1267:
1262:Main article:
1259:
1256:
1191:Main article:
1188:
1185:
1144:
1141:
1123:Monacrosporium
1072:ambrosia fungi
1064:, for example
1044:
1041:
1035:
1032:
1030:
1029:Fungal farming
1027:
1019:cell membranes
977:of the family
973:and the tribe
884:
881:
809:
806:
736:quorum sensing
683:which feed on
661:which feed on
646:which feed on
601:
598:
477:Mycoparasitism
472:
469:
467:
464:
351:
348:
334:, and certain
293:
290:
255:Boletus edulis
238:basidiomycetes
200:from distinct
165:
162:
118:vervet monkeys
77:
74:
72:
69:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3153:
3142:
3139:
3137:
3134:
3133:
3131:
3116:
3113:
3111:
3108:
3106:
3103:
3101:
3098:
3096:
3093:
3092:
3089:
3083:
3080:
3078:
3075:
3073:
3070:
3068:
3065:
3063:
3062:Mesocarnivore
3060:
3058:
3057:Hypocarnivore
3055:
3053:
3050:
3044:
3041:
3040:
3039:
3036:
3034:
3031:
3030:
3029:
3026:
3024:
3021:
3017:
3016:Filter feeder
3014:
3012:
3009:
3007:
3006:Bottom feeder
3004:
3002:
2999:
2997:
2994:
2992:
2989:
2987:
2984:
2982:
2979:
2978:
2977:
2974:
2970:
2967:
2965:
2962:
2960:
2957:
2955:
2954:Apex predator
2952:
2950:
2947:
2946:
2945:
2942:
2941:
2939:
2935:
2929:
2926:
2924:
2921:
2919:
2916:
2914:
2911:
2909:
2906:
2904:
2901:
2899:
2896:
2894:
2891:
2889:
2886:
2884:
2881:
2879:
2876:
2874:
2871:
2869:
2866:
2865:
2863:
2859:
2853:
2850:
2848:
2845:
2844:
2842:
2838:
2832:
2829:
2827:
2824:
2822:
2819:
2817:
2814:
2812:
2809:
2807:
2804:
2802:
2799:
2797:
2794:
2792:
2789:
2787:
2784:
2783:
2781:
2779:
2775:
2770:
2756:
2753:
2751:
2748:
2746:
2743:
2741:
2738:
2737:
2735:
2733:cannibalistic
2731:
2725:
2722:
2720:
2719:Breastfeeding
2717:
2715:
2714:Placentophagy
2712:
2710:
2707:
2705:
2702:
2701:
2699:
2695:
2689:
2686:
2684:
2681:
2679:
2676:
2674:
2671:
2669:
2666:
2664:
2661:
2659:
2656:
2654:
2651:
2649:
2646:
2644:
2641:
2639:
2636:
2634:
2633:Egg predation
2631:
2629:
2626:
2625:
2623:
2619:
2616:
2614:
2610:
2606:
2599:
2594:
2592:
2587:
2585:
2580:
2579:
2576:
2565:
2561:
2556:
2551:
2546:
2541:
2537:
2533:
2529:
2525:
2521:
2514:
2511:
2506:
2502:
2497:
2492:
2487:
2482:
2478:
2474:
2470:
2466:
2462:
2455:
2452:
2447:
2443:
2439:
2435:
2431:
2427:
2423:
2419:
2415:
2411:
2404:
2401:
2396:
2392:
2387:
2382:
2377:
2372:
2368:
2364:
2360:
2356:
2352:
2345:
2342:
2337:
2333:
2329:
2325:
2321:
2317:
2313:
2309:
2305:
2301:
2294:
2291:
2286:
2282:
2278:
2274:
2267:
2265:
2263:
2259:
2254:
2250:
2245:
2240:
2235:
2230:
2226:
2222:
2218:
2214:
2210:
2203:
2201:
2197:
2192:
2188:
2184:
2180:
2176:
2172:
2165:
2163:
2159:
2154:
2150:
2145:
2140:
2136:
2132:
2128:
2121:
2119:
2117:
2115:
2111:
2106:
2102:
2098:
2094:
2090:
2086:
2079:
2077:
2073:
2068:
2064:
2060:
2056:
2052:
2048:
2044:
2040:
2033:
2030:
2025:
2021:
2016:
2011:
2007:
2003:
1999:
1992:
1990:
1988:
1986:
1984:
1980:
1977:
1973:
1970:
1965:
1961:
1957:
1953:
1949:
1945:
1941:
1937:
1933:
1926:
1924:
1920:
1917:
1912:
1908:
1903:
1898:
1894:
1890:
1886:
1882:
1878:
1871:
1869:
1865:
1862:
1858:
1855:
1850:
1838:
1830:
1828:9780123741844
1824:
1820:
1816:
1812:
1805:
1802:
1791:on 2011-07-06
1787:
1780:
1773:
1770:
1764:
1759:
1755:
1751:
1747:
1745:
1736:
1733:
1718:
1711:
1708:
1703:
1699:
1694:
1689:
1685:
1681:
1677:
1670:
1667:
1661:
1656:
1651:
1646:
1642:
1638:
1634:
1627:
1624:
1618:
1613:
1609:
1605:
1601:
1597:
1596:
1591:
1584:
1581:
1576:
1570:
1567:
1562:
1558:
1554:
1550:
1546:
1542:
1538:
1534:
1530:
1526:
1525:
1517:
1510:
1507:
1502:
1498:
1494:
1490:
1486:
1482:
1478:
1474:
1470:
1463:
1461:
1459:
1455:
1451:
1445:
1442:
1431:on 2011-05-25
1427:
1420:
1414:
1411:
1406:
1402:
1398:
1394:
1387:
1384:
1372:
1370:9780881928914
1366:
1362:
1357:
1356:
1347:
1344:
1337:
1333:
1330:
1328:
1327:Mushroom diet
1325:
1323:
1320:
1319:
1315:
1313:
1311:
1307:
1303:
1302:
1297:
1296:
1295:Phaeosphaeria
1291:
1290:
1285:
1281:
1280:
1276:
1268:
1265:
1257:
1255:
1253:
1249:
1246:
1245:
1240:
1236:
1232:
1227:
1223:
1219:
1215:
1211:
1207:
1204:
1200:
1194:
1186:
1184:
1181:
1177:
1173:
1172:
1167:
1163:
1155:
1154:
1149:
1142:
1140:
1138:
1135:
1131:
1130:
1125:
1124:
1119:
1118:
1113:
1112:
1107:
1106:
1101:
1100:
1095:
1094:
1089:
1088:
1083:
1082:
1081:Ambrosiomyces
1077:
1073:
1069:
1068:
1063:
1056:
1055:
1049:
1042:
1040:
1033:
1028:
1026:
1024:
1020:
1016:
1010:
1008:
1004:
1000:
996:
995:
990:
986:
985:
980:
976:
972:
971:
966:
965:
964:Cephalanthera
960:
959:
954:
950:
946:
942:
941:Monotropaceae
938:
934:
930:
926:
922:
917:
913:
909:
903:
895:
894:
889:
882:
880:
878:
877:G. acuta
874:
873:G. acuta
870:
869:G. acuta
866:
862:
858:
857:cell membrane
854:
850:
846:
842:
838:
834:
833:G. acuta
829:
828:G. acuta
825:
824:
819:
815:
807:
805:
803:
799:
795:
791:
790:
785:
782:
781:
776:
772:
768:
767:
762:
758:
753:
751:
747:
746:
741:
737:
733:
732:plant hormone
729:
725:
721:
717:
713:
709:
705:
701:
700:extracellular
696:
694:
693:
688:
687:
682:
678:
677:
672:
671:
666:
665:
660:
659:
656:
651:
650:
645:
644:
639:
635:
631:
630:
625:
619:
617:
612:
611:
606:
599:
597:
595:
591:
587:
586:
581:
580:
575:
574:
569:
568:
563:
562:
557:
556:
551:
550:
545:
541:
537:
533:
529:
526:
522:
518:
514:
510:
506:
502:
498:
497:
491:
489:
488:
483:
479:
478:
470:
465:
463:
461:
457:
456:
452:) if offered
451:
450:
445:
444:
439:
438:
433:
432:
427:
423:
419:
415:
414:Bracket fungi
411:
410:
404:
402:
399:
395:
391:
387:
383:
382:
377:
376:
371:
370:
365:
364:
363:P. canadensis
359:
358:
349:
347:
345:
344:scuttle flies
341:
337:
336:Tenebrionidae
333:
329:
325:
320:
319:
310:
309:
304:
303:
298:
291:
289:
287:
286:
281:
280:
275:
274:
269:
268:
267:Pleurocybella
263:
262:
257:
256:
251:
250:
245:
244:
239:
235:
231:
230:
225:
224:
223:Ariolimacidae
219:
218:
213:
212:
207:
203:
199:
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75:
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68:
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62:
58:
54:
50:
43:
42:
37:
32:
19:
3082:Trophallaxis
2986:Pivot feeder
2981:Lunge feeder
2959:Egg predator
2877:
2847:Phagocytosis
2697:reproductive
2668:Myrmecophagy
2658:Molluscivore
2527:
2523:
2513:
2468:
2464:
2454:
2413:
2409:
2403:
2358:
2354:
2344:
2303:
2299:
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2174:
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2134:
2130:
2091:(2): 64–70.
2088:
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2005:
2001:
1969:free version
1942:(1): 43–56.
1939:
1935:
1916:Free version
1884:
1880:
1854:Free version
1810:
1804:
1793:. Retrieved
1786:the original
1772:
1753:
1749:
1743:
1735:
1724:. Retrieved
1710:
1683:
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1433:. Retrieved
1426:the original
1413:
1396:
1392:
1386:
1374:. Retrieved
1354:
1346:
1309:
1299:
1293:
1287:
1284:salt marshes
1277:
1272:
1264:Fungiculture
1242:
1196:
1180:Termitomyces
1179:
1171:Termitomyces
1169:
1159:
1153:Termitomyces
1151:
1127:
1121:
1117:Endomycopsis
1115:
1109:
1103:
1099:Ceratocystis
1097:
1091:
1085:
1079:
1065:
1060:
1052:
1037:
1011:
992:
982:
970:Plantanthera
968:
962:
956:
945:Triuridaceae
937:Gentianaceae
905:
891:
876:
872:
868:
853:Microtubules
832:
827:
821:
811:
797:
787:
778:
766:Burkholderia
764:
757:endocellular
754:
743:
697:
690:
684:
681:myxobacteria
674:
668:
662:
653:
647:
641:
627:
626:produced by
620:
608:
604:
603:
596:indirectly.
589:
583:
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559:
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547:
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531:
520:
517:appressorium
494:
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460:Megapodiidae
453:
447:
441:
435:
429:
417:
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405:
400:
394:P. lefebvrei
393:
379:
373:
369:P. infaustus
367:
361:
355:
353:
340:fungus gnats
332:Endomychidae
316:
314:
306:
300:
283:
277:
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265:
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253:
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227:
221:
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209:
206:Philomycidae
184:
177:
139:
84:, including
79:
60:
52:
48:
47:
39:
2903:Planktivore
2888:Detritivore
2883:Coprophagia
2873:Bacterivore
2868:Microbivory
2852:Myzocytosis
2811:Nectarivore
2801:Graminivore
2648:Lepidophagy
2643:Insectivore
2638:Hematophagy
2279:: 563–595.
1376:10 February
1273:The marine
1239:Pterulaceae
1235:Lepiotaceae
1197:Around 220
1087:Ambrosiella
1051:Gallery of
951:are called
921:development
912:mycorrhizal
865:endocytosis
750:mycorrhizal
742:(MHBs) and
712:development
704:saprotrophs
679:, and some
618:in nature.
616:communities
590:Trichoderma
544:Trichoderma
536:Trichoderma
532:Trichoderma
528:antibiotics
521:Trichoderma
496:Trichoderma
375:P. obscurus
234:myxomycetes
176:feeding on
174:banana slug
150:diprotodont
3130:Categories
3067:Parasitism
3001:Bait balls
2991:Ram feeder
2923:Plastivore
2918:Lithotroph
2908:Saprophagy
2831:Osteophagy
2821:Palynivore
2778:Herbivores
2709:Paedophagy
2683:Spongivore
2673:Ophiophagy
2613:Carnivores
2361:(1): 115.
1795:2010-09-23
1726:2010-09-23
1435:2008-07-25
1393:Mycologist
1338:References
1269:Gastropods
1252:antibiotic
1248:parasitise
1244:Escovopsis
1226:Queen ants
1105:Dipodascus
1021:, through
953:mixotrophs
849:chitinases
845:cellulases
839:including
780:Candidatus
724:metabolism
708:physiology
638:exoenzymes
509:cell walls
505:chitinases
482:parasitism
437:Lycoperdon
422:Agaricales
357:Perisoreus
328:Erotylidae
146:vertebrate
61:fungivores
3072:Scavenger
2944:Predation
2913:Xenophagy
2893:Geophagia
2878:Fungivore
2826:Xylophagy
2816:Mellivory
2796:Frugivore
2791:Florivore
2688:Vermivore
2678:Piscivore
2663:Mucophagy
2653:Man-eater
1847:ignored (
1837:cite book
1702:1365-3032
1686:: 73–84.
1643:(2): 13.
1473:Mycologia
1332:Mycophagy
1210:New World
1199:described
1137:symbiosis
1023:mass flow
1007:predation
999:parasites
979:Ericaceae
958:Epipactis
916:nutrients
908:symbiosis
655:Aeromonas
540:sclerotia
525:peptaibol
499:produces
466:Microbial
426:Pezizales
386:Alaudidae
315:In 2008,
308:Pleurotus
243:Lactarius
187:gastropod
154:Potoridae
114:marmosets
110:mangabeys
94:colobines
65:omnivores
53:mycophagy
49:Fungivory
18:Mycophagy
3023:Browsing
2898:Omnivore
2840:Cellular
2786:Folivore
2564:14657360
2505:18362345
2446:23566883
2438:16968259
2395:17629911
2336:25612420
2328:17831508
2253:12438688
2153:15998389
2105:19162524
2067:11054032
2024:18086226
1972:Archived
1964:17404703
1956:15035008
1911:84872444
1857:Archived
1561:19228479
1553:18633583
1501:21156549
1399:: 6–10.
1316:See also
1229:whereas
1162:termites
1143:Termites
1134:obligate
1111:Diplodia
1093:Ascoidea
1076:mycangia
975:Pyroleae
933:lycopods
861:vacuoles
808:Ciliates
624:tolaasin
600:Bacteria
503:such as
487:Collybia
311:mushroom
261:Agaricus
202:families
190:mollusks
164:Mollusks
106:macaques
98:gorillas
3038:Grazing
2937:Methods
2724:Weaning
2704:Oophagy
2628:Avivore
2532:Bibcode
2496:2291119
2473:Bibcode
2418:Bibcode
2386:1963455
2363:Bibcode
2308:Bibcode
2300:Science
2221:Bibcode
2179:Bibcode
2047:Bibcode
1889:Bibcode
1660:4931425
1637:Insects
1604:Bibcode
1533:Bibcode
1493:3761690
1218:diverse
1070:, farm
1043:Beetles
1034:Insects
925:orchids
837:enzymes
816:family
814:ciliate
775:mammals
513:lectins
501:enzymes
443:Bovista
390:Bedouin
292:Insects
273:Russula
208:(e. g.
194:species
179:Amanita
152:family
142:poisons
135:lichens
90:bonobos
82:primate
76:Mammals
71:Animals
3043:Forage
3033:Fodder
2861:Others
2562:
2555:307621
2552:
2503:
2493:
2444:
2436:
2393:
2383:
2334:
2326:
2251:
2244:137700
2241:
2151:
2103:
2065:
2022:
1962:
1954:
1909:
1825:
1700:
1657:
1559:
1551:
1499:
1491:
1367:
1306:hyphae
1258:Humans
1222:larvae
1206:Attini
883:Plants
794:genome
734:) and
728:auxins
720:efflux
714:, the
658:caviae
455:Mycena
354:Jays (
324:beetle
220:) and
102:lemurs
86:humans
2621:adult
2442:S2CID
2332:S2CID
2171:Oikos
2063:S2CID
1960:S2CID
1907:S2CID
1789:(PDF)
1782:(PDF)
1720:(PDF)
1557:S2CID
1519:(PDF)
1489:JSTOR
1429:(PDF)
1422:(PDF)
1275:snail
1203:tribe
929:ferns
910:with
471:Fungi
350:Birds
198:slugs
57:fungi
2928:Pica
2560:PMID
2501:PMID
2434:PMID
2391:PMID
2324:PMID
2249:PMID
2149:PMID
2101:PMID
2020:PMID
1952:PMID
1849:help
1823:ISBN
1750:Ibis
1698:ISSN
1549:PMID
1497:PMID
1378:2011
1365:ISBN
1298:and
1237:and
1187:Ants
1126:and
967:and
943:and
931:and
847:and
812:The
689:and
673:and
582:and
440:and
424:and
342:and
282:and
270:and
214:and
116:and
36:slug
2550:PMC
2540:doi
2528:100
2491:PMC
2481:doi
2469:105
2426:doi
2381:PMC
2371:doi
2316:doi
2304:153
2281:doi
2239:PMC
2229:doi
2187:doi
2175:118
2139:doi
2135:167
2093:doi
2055:doi
2010:doi
2006:177
1944:doi
1897:doi
1815:doi
1758:doi
1754:161
1688:doi
1655:PMC
1645:doi
1612:doi
1541:doi
1481:doi
1401:doi
1363:–.
1361:200
802:fit
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196:of
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