Crab-eating macaque - Knowledge (XXG)

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impact to native threatened species. Several authors pointed out that the present evidence indicates that predation on birds by monkeys may have been overestimated. address these accusations and they point out the crab-eating macaques do not prefer primary forest thus it is unlikely that Mauritius macaques were ever a major source of indigenous forest destruction. The primary driver of bird extinction has been habitat destruction by humans. Sussman and Tattersall mention that the Dutch abandoned the island in 1710-12 due to monkeys and rats destroying plantations, they point out that the human population was low at this time and the crab eating macaques would have had plenty of primary forest to exploit, yet they chose to brave the dangers of raiding plantations. They do not deny that macaques on Mauritius prey on bird eggs and disseminate seeds of exotic plants yet the major loss of species on Mauritius is due to habitat loss caused by humans – macaques are successful because they prefer secondary forest and disturbed habitats. This is significant because the perception of crab-eating macaques being invasive and destructive to "native" biodiversity are used as a justification for use in biomedical research. It is important to be aware of perceptions, and how we categorize other beings because, for example, the label of "pest" or "invasive" provides justification and moral comfort about killing those that don't "belong" – these lives are viewed as not legitimate, killable, bare life lacking grievability.

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abandoned the island, they resettled again from 1664 to 1710, but abandoned the island again due in part to monkeys and rats destroying plantations. Crab-eating macaques were brought to Mauritius either by the Portuguese or the Dutch in the late 1500s toearly 1600s. This founder population likely came from Java, although a mixed origin has been suggested. From the mid 1980s to mid 1990s the population of crab-eating macaques on Mauritius was estimated at 35,000 to 40,000. The present population is not known but estimates indicate it may be as low as 8,000. This significant decline in the population is likely correlated to the booming Macaque breeding industry on Mauritius. As crab-eating macaques are considered invasive and destructive this justifies their use in biomedical research. On Mauritius macaques are also perceived as sacred, source of tourism, pets, pest, and food.

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in Bali, and is described as a population specific behavioral practice, prevalent and persistent across generations and characterized by marked intergroup variation. Synchronized expression of robbing and bartering was socially influenced and more specifically explained by response facilitation. This result further supports the cultural nature of robbing and bartering. Token-robbing and token/reward-bartering are cognitively challenging tasks for the Uluwatu macaques that revealed unprecedented economic decision-making processes, i.e., value based token selection and payoff maximization. This spontaneous, population specific, prevalent, cross-generational, learned and socially influenced practice may be the first example of a culturally maintained token economy in free-ranging animals.

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habitats and temples. Smaller groups are found in primary forest, swamp and mangrove forests. Groups will break into subgroups during the day throughout their range. Composition of groups is multi-male/multi-female but females outnumber males with the sex ratio varying between 1:5-6 and 1:2. Groups exhibit female philopatry with males emigrating from natal group at puberty. Males leave natal group as late juveniles or subadults before the age of seven. On average, adult females and juveniles in groups are related at the level of cousins, whereas adult males are unrelated. Higher relatedness in females is expected due to female

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Also in Thailand, crab eating macaques have been observed using tools to crack open oil palm nuts in abandoned plantations, the rapid uptake of oil palm nutcracking shows macaques ability to take advantage of anthropogenic changes and the recent establishment of this behavior indicates the potential for macaques to exhibit cultural tendencies. Unfortunately, human activities can negatively impact tool-using macaques, thus disrupting the persistence of these stone tool use traditions.

1510: 1055: 42: 86: 1282:, living off human resources. It feeds in cultivated fields on young dry rice, cassava leaves, rubber fruit, taro plants, coconuts, mangos, and other crops, often causing significant losses to local farmers. In villages, towns, and cities, it frequently takes food from garbage cans and refuse piles. It can become unafraid of humans in these conditions, which can lead to macaques directly taking food from people, both passively and aggressively. 741:

white underbelly with black and white highlights around the crown and face. The face skin is brownish to pinkish except for the eyelids which are white. Adults are usually bearded on and around the face, except for around the snout and eyes. Older females have the fullest beards, with males' being more whisker like. Subspecies on islands seem to have black coloration of their pelage and large island and mainland subspecies were lighter.

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environments (Sussman et al 2011). In Padangtegal Bali macaque 70% of their diet is provisioned, similarly Suchina Malaivijitnond et al 2011 describes how provisioned macaques in Thailand are given more food than they can consume in a single day. Macaque are known to feed on cultivated crops such as rice, sweet potatos, coconuts, bananas, sugar cane. Macaques have also been reported to feed on food scraps in refuse/trash.

1608:, can also infect humans. A few cases have been documented in humans, but for how long humans have been getting infections of this malarial strain is unknown. It is, therefore, not possible to assess if this is a newly emerging health threat, or if just newly discovered due to improved malarial detection techniques. Given the long history of humans and macaques living together in Southeast Asia, it is likely the latter. 1498: 61: 1114:. In crab-eating macaques, an experiment was performed in which individuals were given the opportunity to groom one another under three conditions: after being groomed by the other, after grooming the other, and without prior grooming. After grooming took place, the individual that received the grooming was much more likely to support their groomer than one that had not previously groomed that individual. 1243: 1139: 1103:

lower-ranking individuals tend to fear the winner of the conflict to a greater degree. In one study, this was seen in the ability to drink water together. Postconflict observations showed a staggered time between when the dominant individual begins to drink and the subordinate. Long-term studies reveal the gap in drinking time closes as the conflict moves further into the past.

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population so the true decline is probably even greater. A population Viability Analysis (PVA) for crab-eating macaques revealed that the presence and absence of females in a population are key to its short and long term viability. Anything that negatively targets females is likely to threaten population viability, e.g., harvesting for biomedical research targets females.

1537:, while other areas are characterized by conflict as a result of habitat loss and competition over food and space. Humans and crab-eating macaques have shared environments since prehistoric times, and both tend to frequent forest and river edge habitats. Crab-eating macaques are occasionally used as a food source for some indigenous forest-dwelling peoples. In 829:). Hybrids also occur across subspecies too. Rhesus and crab eating macaques hybridize within a contact zone where their ranges overlap, which has been proposed to lie between 15 and 20 degrees north and includes Thailand, Myanmar, Laos, Vietnam. Their offspring are fertile, and they continue to mate which leads to a broad range of admixture proportions. 455:"Weed" and "non-weed" species are distinguished based on that species ability to thrive in close proximity and association with human settlements. This label was not intentionally proposed to disparage crab-eating macaques but this term, like pest and invasive, can affect how people perceive this species and can trigger negatives perceptions. 1161:

an increased rate towards their own offspring compared to other juveniles. These observations suggest close proximity influences behavior in ownership, as a mother's kin are closer to her on average. When given a nonfood object and two owners, one being a kin and one not, the rival will choose the older individual to attack regardless of

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wild, which was illegal since 2009, but in 2021 the Indonesian government lifted the harvest ban and reinstated a harvest quota. In Indonesia, crab-eating macaques and pig tailed macaques are the only primates that are not included in the list of protected species. Often infants and juveniles are caught and sold in wildlife markets.

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the case. An aggressor's scratching decreases significantly after reconciliation. This suggests reconciliation rather than a property of the conflict is the cause of the reduction in scratching behavior. Though these results seem counterintuitive, the anxiety of the aggressor appears to have a basis in the risks of ruining

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Kowloon Hills there are groups of differing species and their hybrids, where they were released during the 1910s. Rhesus macaques and crab-eating macaques interbred and hybridized. Tibetan macaques were also released but did not interbreed. This location has become a popular tourist attraction. The immunovaccine

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classification in 2020 as a result of declining population resulting from hunting and troublesome interactions with humans, despite its wide range and ability to adapt to different habitats. These interactions include the skyrocketing demand for crab-eating macaques by the medical industry during the

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In the 1990s, four major commercial monkey farms operated by Chinese entrepreneurs began exporting wild caught macaques as captive bred, and monkeys smuggled from Laos and Cambodia were likely part of these transactions. By 2001, China was exporting significantly more crab-eating macaques than rhesus

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In the 1970s, India was the largest supplier of macaques, mostly rhesus macaques, but put a ban on export because when it became apparent that monkeys were used to test military weapons. After this ban, crab-eating macaques began to be used more in biomedical research. Imports of crab-eating macaques

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that fueled feeding kin preferentially. This is due to the observation that food was given to kin for a significantly longer period of time than needed. The benefit to the mother is decreased due to less food availability for herself and the cost remains great for nonkin due to not receiving food. If

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Crab-eating macaques are sexually dimorphic, males weigh between 4.7-8.3 kg and females weigh 2.5-5.7 kg. The height of an adult male is between 412-648mm and 385-505mm for adult females. Their tails are the length of their head and body combined. Dorsal pelage is generally greyish or brownish with a

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species, the crab-eating macaque thrives near human settlements and in secondary forest. Crab-eating macaques are plastic in their attributes and roles ranging from smart and adaptive, to sacred, to vermin and pest to resource in biomedical research. They have been described as a species on the edge,

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Crab eating macaques are one of the most popular species used for scientific research. Crab-eating macaques are used primarily by the biotechnology and pharmaceutical industry in the evaluation of pharmacokinetics, pharmacodynamics, efficacy, and safety of new biologics and drugs, they are also used

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Between 2000 and 2018, the US was the largest importer of crab-eating macaques ranging from 41.7-70,1% of imports. other major importers: France up to 17.1%, Great Britain up to 15.9%, Japan up to 37.9%, and China up to 33.5%. During this time, China was the largest exporter of crab-eating macaques.

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has been reported in crab-eating macaques that have acted as the aggressor. After a conflict within a group, the aggressor appears to scratch itself at a higher rate than before the conflict. Though the scratching behavior cannot definitely be termed as an anxious behavior, evidence suggests this is

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Group living in all species is dependent on the tolerance of other group members. In crab-eating macaques, successful social group living requires postconflict resolution. Usually, less dominant individuals lose to a higher-ranking individual when conflict arises. After the conflict has taken place,

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Known fossils indicate that crab-eating macaques inhabited the Sunda Shelf since at least early Pleistocene, ~1mya. It is likely that crab-eating macaques were introduced to Timor and Flores (both on the east side of the Wallace line), by humans around 4,000-5,000 years ago. Crab-eating macaques are

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Robbing and bartering is a behavioral pattern in which free ranging nonhuman primates spontaneously steal an object from a human and then hold onto that object until that or another human solicits an exchange by offering food. This behavior is seen in crab eating macaques at Uluwatu population

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Studies have found that the dominant male copulates more than other males in the group. DNA tests indicate that dominant males sire most of the offspring in natural crab-eating macaque troops. Reproductive success in females is also linked to dominance. High ranking females have more offspring over

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In a study, a group of crab-eating macaques was given ownership of a food object. Adult females favored their own offspring by passively, yet preferentially, allowing them to feed on the objects they held. When juveniles were in possession of an object, mothers robbed them and acted aggressively at

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In 2000 the crab-eating macaque was placed on the list of 100 most invasive species. For example, they are considered an invasive alien species (IAS) on Mauritius, articles argue for LTMs spreading seeds of invasive plants, competing with native species like the flying fox, negative and detrimental

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who shared videos of baby long-tailed macaques being tortured by caretakers in Indonesia. There were many torture methods, from teasing the primates with baby bottles to killing them in blenders, sawing them in half, or cutting off their tails and limbs. Enthusiasts would pay for the caretakers to

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Crab-eating macaques are one of the most commonly internationally traded mammals and are also the most common primates in domestic trade, most often for pets or food. Macaques are regularly sold and kept as pets in China, Vietnam, and Indonesia. In Indonesia pet macaques are usually taken from the

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After 2018, Cambodia became the largest exporter of crab-eating macaques, contributing 59% of all macaques traded in 2019 and 2020. Between 2019 and 2020, Chinese crab-eating macaque trade decreased 96%. China banned animal trade in January 2020 due to concerns of Covid 19, yet this cannot account

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Fuentes, A., Rompis, A.L.T., Ara Putra, I.G.A., Watiniasih, N.L., Suartha, I.N., Soma, I.G., Wandia, I.N., Putra, I.D.K.H., Stephenson, R., and Selamet, W. (2011). "Macaque behavior at the human-monkey interface: The activity and demography of semi-free-ranging Macaca fascicularis at Padangtegal,

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macaques. Cambodia grants harvest permits to five monkey farms to breed crab-eating macaques for export. Crab-eating macaque harvesting began to accelerate as farms and holding areas were established near protected areas. At this time, international trade of crab-eating macaques expanded rapidly.

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subspecies). A 1887 report described observations to tool use in a Myanmar population. Over 100 years later the first published report is published in 2007. describing crab eating macaques in Thailand using ax shaped stones to crack rock oysters, detached gastropods, bivalves, and swimming crabs.

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The crab-eating macaque exhibits particularly low tolerance for swallowing seeds. Despite its inability to digest seeds, many primates of similar size swallow large seeds, up to 25 mm (0.98 in), and simply defecate them whole. The crab-eating macaque, though, spits seeds out if they are

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Macaques are omnivorous-frugivores (i.e., they eat fruits and also leaves, flowers, shoots, roots, invertebrates, and small animals in variable quantities). Fruit makes up 40% to over 80% of diet in wild crab eating macaque populations, except in highly provisioned populations or highly disturbed

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A study was conducted in which food was given to 11 females. They were then given a choice to share the food with kin or nonkin. The kin altruism hypothesis suggests the mothers would preferentially give food to their own offspring. Yet eight of the 11 females did not discriminate between kin and

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Between 1988 and 1994, a total of 520 crab-eating macaques including 58 males and 462 females were released on Tinjil Island for the purpose of starting a natural habitat breeding facility. This may be a sustainable way of supplying monkeys for research, but it is in a legal gray area for trading

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Crab eating macaques first appeared on Ngeaur Island, during German rule in the early 20th century. Population size has fluctuated between 800 and 400 individuals. The population losses due to eradication efforts, yet the population has survived despite typhoons and WWII bombing on the island. In

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is also under investigation. Unfortunately, the crab-eating macaques involved in the Cambodian smuggling ring imported by Charles River are in limbo – they are ineligible for research but they cannot go back to the wild either. This laundering is a sophisticated trans-border wildlife trafficking

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among females, these ranks are stable over a female's lifetime and the matriline's rank may be sustained for generations. Matrilines creating interesting group dynamics, for example males are dominant to females at the individual level but groups of closely related females can have some level of

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Because crab-eating macaques are synanthropic, enhancing their visibility to humans, this leads to an overestimation in their population size. Researchers have been raising alarms about crab-eating macaque population decline at least since 1986. Many authors cite a 40% decline in the entire crab

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and Arab merchants has been suggested but it was not until the early 16th century that there is hard evidence of human presence on the island, with the Portuguese using it as a refreshing post. The Dutch reached the island in 1598 and attempted a permanent settlement from 1638 to 1658 when they

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Crab-eating macaques live in matrilineal groups ranging from <10 to >85, but most often fall in the range of 35-50. Group size varies greatly, especially between non-provisioned and provisioned groups. Large groups are found secondary forest, savanna and thorn scrub vegetation, and urban

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Using a noninvasive probability model to estimate the maximum population abundance, it was estimated that the current population of crab eating macaques is 1 million, which reflects a continuous decline in the population – 80% reduction over 35 years. This study used a model that overestimated

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Crab-eating macaques have been in West Papua for around 30 to 100 years, but this population has not expanded, remaining at around 60 to 70 individuals. There is little known of the population on Kabaena Island, Sulawesi. These crab-eating macaques appear to have distinct morphology, which may

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In November 2022, following a five year investigation by the DoJ and US Fish and Wildlife, the DoJ indicted Cambodian government officials and Cambodian owner and staff of Vanny Bio Research Corporation LtD, a macaque breeding center in Cambodia, for their alleged involvement in laundering

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Crab-eating macaques demonstrate two of the three forms of suggested postconflict behavior. In both captive and wild studies, the monkeys demonstrated reconciliation, or an affiliative interaction between former opponents, and redirection, or acting aggressively towards a third individual.

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dominance over males. The dominant male within a group is not often stable, and males probably change troops several times during their life; rank below the dominant male is not consistent or stable either – males show sophisticated decision-making when it comes to transferring dominance.

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The crab-eating macaque is one of the most widely traded species of mammal listed on the CITES appendices. The international trade in crab-eating macaques is a multibillion dollar industry. Crab-eating macaques are sold for up to $ 20,000 to $ 24,000, and prices rise when supply reduces.

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larger than 3–4 mm (0.12–0.16 in). This decision to spit seeds is thought to be adaptive; it avoids filling the monkey's stomach with wasteful bulky seeds that cannot be used for energy. It also can help the plants by distributing seeds to new areas: Crab-eating macaques eat

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period of 162–193 days, the female gives birth to one infant. The infant's weight at birth is about 320 g (11 oz). Infants are born with black fur which will begin to turn to a grey or reddish-brown shade (depending on the subspecies) after about three months of age. This

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The crab-eating macaque has several common names. It is often referred to as the long-tailed macaque due to its tail, which is the length of their body and head combined. The name crab-eating macaque refers to it to it being seen foraging beaches for crabs. Another common name for

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The use of crab-eating macaques and other nonhuman primates in experimentation is controversial with critics charging that the experiments are cruel, unnecessary and lead to dubious findings. One of the most well known examples of experiments on crab-eating macaques is the 1981

1144: 1143: 1140: 1145: 227: 692:, crab-eating dispersed into the Sunda Shelf area. Earliest fossil record of crab-eating macaques was found in Java (this collection included H. erectus and leaf monkey species). They probably reached Java by dry land during a period of glacial advance and low sea levels 346:

The crab-eating macaque is the most traded primate species, the most culled primate species, the most persecuted primate species and also the most popular species used in scientific research. Due to these threats, the crab-eating macaque was listed as Endangered on the

1142: 1486:. A 2008 review of their populations suggested a need for better monitoring of populations due to increased wild trade and rising levels of human-macaque conflict, which continue to decrease overall population levels despite the species' wide distribution. 1369:. A 2008 review of population trends suggested a need for better monitoring of populations due to increased wild trade and rising levels of human-macaque conflict, which continue to decrease overall population levels despite the species' wide distribution. 4837:

Alexander, S. D.; Waters, S.; Aldrich, B. C.; Shanee, S.; Clarke, T. A.; Radford, L.; Hansen, M. F.; Gnanaolivu, S. D.; Dempsey, A. (2023). "The Past, Present, and Future of the Primate Pet Trade". In McKinney, T.; Waters, S.; Rodrigues, M. A. (eds.).

1219:. A young juvenile stays mainly with its mother and relatives. As male juveniles get older, they become more peripheral to the group. Here they play together, forming crucial bonds that may help them when they leave their natal group. Males that 1581:

found in a captive-bred population shipped to the US from the Philippines, which was later found to be a strain of Ebola that has no known pathological consequences in humans, unlike the African strains. Furthermore, they are a known carrier of

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Brotcorne, F.; Giraud, G.; Gunst, N.; Fuentes, A.; Wandia, I. N.; Beudels-Jamar, R. C.; Poncin, P.; Huynen, M.-C.; Leca, J.-B. (2017). "Intergroup variation in robbing and bartering by long-tailed macaques at Uluwatu Temple (Bali, Indonesia)".

699:. It is thought that the progenitors of these subspecies reached deep water habitats during the penultimate glacial maximum when sea levels were lower than present. These populations became isolated during the interglacial period around 120 kya 1901:"Descriptive Catalogue of a Zoological Collection, made on account of the Honourable East India Company, in the Island of Sumatra and its Vicinity, under the Direction of Sir Thomas Stamford Raffles, Lieutenant-Governor of Fort Marlborough" 1746:

Hansen, M.F.; Ang, A.; Trinh, T.; Sy, E.; Paramasiwam, S.; Ahmed, T.; Dimalibot, J.; Jones-Engel, L.; Ruppert, N.; Griffioen, C.; Lwin, N.; Phiapalath, P.; Gray, R.; Kite, S.; Doak, N.; Nijman, V.; Fuentes, A. & Gumert, M.D. (2022) .

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Other exporters include Mauritius, Laos, Cambodia, Thailand, Indonesia, and Vietnam. Between 2008 and 2019, at least 450,000 live crab-eating macaques and over 700,000 specimens were traded, with mover 50,000 identified as wild caught.

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Crab-eating macaques extensively overlap with humans across their range in Southeast Asia. Consequently, they live together in many locations. Some of these areas are associated with religious sites and local customs, such as the

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Bunlungsup, S.; Kanthaswamy, S.; Oldt, R. F.; Smith, D. G.; Houghton, P.; Hamada, Y.; Malaivijitnond, S. (2017). "Genetic analysis of samples from wild populations opens new perspectives on hybridization between long-tailed

909:. It also easily adjusts to human settlements and is considered sacred at some Hindu temples and on some small islands, but as a pest around farms and villages. Typically, it prefers disturbed habitats and forest periphery. 4801:

Nijman, V.; Spaan, D.; Rode-Margono, E. J.; Wirdateti; Nekaris, K. A. I. (2017). "Changes in the primate trade in Indonesian wildlife markets over a 25-year period: Fewer apes and langurs, more macaques, and slow lorises".

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Bissessur, P.; Bunsy, Y.; Baider, C.; Florens, F. B. V. (2019). "Non-intrusive systematic study reveals mutualistic interactions between threatened island endemic species and points to more impactful conservation".

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Brotcorne, F.; Holzner, A.; Jorge-Sales, L.; Gunst, N.; Hambuckers, A.; Wandia, I. N.; Leca, J.-B. (2020). "Social influence on the expression of robbing and bartering behaviours in Balinese long-tailed macaques".

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Kyes, R.C.; Sajuthi, D.; Morton, W.R.; Smith, O.A.; Lelana, R.P.A.; Pamungkas, J.; Iskandriati, D.; Iskander, E.; Crocket, C.M. (1997). "The Tinjil Island natural habitat breeding facility: A decade of operation".

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eating macaque population between 1980 to 2006. This comes from a population estimate of 5 million in the 1980s-90s. population estimate of 3 million in 2006. It is unclear how the 3 million estimate was reached.

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Gamalo, L. E.; Ilham, K.; Jones-Engel, L.; Gill, M.; Sweet, R.; Aldrich, B.; Phiapalath, P.; Van Bang, T.; Ahmed, T.; Kite, S.; Paramasivam, S.; Seiha, Hun; Z., M. Z.; Nielsen, D.R. K.; Ruppert, N. (2024).

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Gumert, M.D. (2011). "The common monkey of southeast Asia: Long-tailed macaque populations, ethnophoresy, and their occurrence in human environments". In Gumert, M.D.; Fuentes, A.; Jones-Engel, L. (eds.).

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International crab-eating macaque trade does not appear to follow a particular trend but continues to change over time. Although peak exports often correlate with declarations of public health emergences.

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Stage 5: less than 18 thousand years ago, the isolation of the progenitors of shallow water fringing island populations and populations in Penida and Lombok (deep water) occurred. These subspecies include

1165:. Though the hypothesis remains that mother-juvenile relationships may facilitate social learning of ownership, the combined results clearly point to aggression towards the least-threatening individual. 993:

There are few studies on the individual life histories of crab-eating macaques, on demography and population, or on its variation in ecology and behavio, often any study on ecology is of older origin.

666:) ~3.86 mya. This divergence and subsequent hybridization occurred during rapid glacial-eustatic fluctuations in the early Pleistocene: high sea levels may have led to the initial separation of proto- 1178:

these results are correct, crab-eating macaques are unique in the animal kingdom, as they appear not only to behave according to the kin selection theory, but also act spitefully toward one another.

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Stage 3: more than 18 thousand years ago, the differentiation of progenitors of populations of the Indochinese peninsula and northern part of the isthmus of Kra occurred. These subspecies include

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Koch Liston, A. L.; Zhu, X.; Bang, T. V.; Phiapalath, P.; Hun, S.; Ahmed, T.; Hasan, S.; Biswas, S.; Nath, S.; Ahmed, T.; Ilham, K.; Lwin, N.; Frechette, J. L.; Hon, N; Agger, C. (2024).

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Blancher, A.; Bonhomme, M.; Crouau-Roy, B.; Terao, K.; Kitano, T.; Saitou, N. (2008). "Mitochondrial DNA Sequence Phylogeny of 4 Populations of the Widely Distributed Cynomolgus Macaque (

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film videos torturing the macaques. Investigation has led to some prisons and police searches in both Indonesia and the United States, where many of the torture enthusiasts were located.

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Padayatchy, N. (2011). "The support of conservation programs through the biomedical usage of long-tailed macaques in Mauritius". In Gumert, M.D.; Fuentes, A.; Jones-Engel, L. (eds.).

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leaves, before consumption. Crab-eating macaques either soak these foods in water or rub them through their hands as if to clean them. They also peel the sweet potatoes, using their

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Crab eating macaques are the only old world monkey known to use stone tools in their daily foraging. This is mainly observed in populations along the ocean of Thailand and Myanmar (

343:. Crab eating macaques are the only old-world monkey known to use stone tools in their daily foraging and they engage in a robbing and bartering behavior in some tourist locations. 2717:

Zhang, B.-L.; Chen, W.; Wang, Z.; Pang, W.; Luo, M.-T.; Wang, S.; Shao, Y.; He, W.-Q.; Deng, Y.; Zhou, L.; Chen, J.; Yang, M.-M.; Wu, Y.; Wang, L.; Fernández-Bellon, H. (2023).

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with a partner are more successful than those that leave alone. Young females, though, stay with the group and become incorporated into the matriline into which they were born.

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van Schaik, C. P.; van Noordwijk, M. A.; de Boer, R. J.; den Tonkelaar, I. (1983). "The effect of group size on time budgets and social behaviour in wild long-tailed macaques (

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Stage 2: around 160 thousand years ago, dispersal and isolation of progenitors of the strongly differentiated deep water fringing island populations occurred. These include

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In the 1980s, crab-eating macaques were introduced to China and began being bred in captive facilities. Since then, captive macaques have been favored in biomedical trade.

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coat may indicate to others the status of the infant, and other group members treat infants with care and rush to their defense when distressed. Immigrant males sometimes

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network. Crab eating macaques are harvested in places like Cambodia, Laos, and Myanmar and then laundered through Vietnam and illegally smuggled to places like China.

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meaning "dog milkers". It has also been suggested that cynomolgus refers to a race of humans with long hair and handsome beards who used dogs for hunting according to

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females to increase the chance of mating. A female is more likely to engage in sexual activity with a male that has recently groomed her than with one that has not.

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in Mauritius: implications for macaque-human interactions and for future research on long-tailed macaques". In Gumert, M.D.; Fuentes, A.; Jones-Engel, L. (eds.).

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Malaivijitnond, S.; Vazquez, Y.; Hamada, Y. (2011). "Human impact on long-tailed macaques in Thailand". In Gumert, M.D.; Fuentes, A.; Jones-Engel, L. (eds.).

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van Noordwijk, M.; van Schaik, C. (1999). "The Effects of Dominance Rank and Group Size on Female Lifetime Reproductive Success in Wild Long-tailed Macaques,

5294:"First monkeys cloned with technique that made Dolly the sheep - Chinese scientists create cloned primates that could revolutionize studies of human disease" 1549:

and other crops, affecting agriculture and livelihoods, and can be aggressive towards humans. Macaques may carry potentially fatal human diseases, including

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Luncz, L. V.; Gill, M.; Proffitt, T.; Svensson, M. S.; Kulik, L.; Malaivijitnond, S. (2019). Thompson, J. C.; Weigel, D.; Thompson, J. C.; Tan, A. (eds.).

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their life-time than low-ranking females – higher ranking females reproduce at a younger age and their offspring have a higher chance of survival.

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The Long-Tailed Macaque Project and The Macaque Coalition are engaged in conservation of the crab-eating macaque through research and public engagement.

1380:, where its small, native population has been seriously fragmented. It is listed as vulnerable on the IUCN Red List. The Philippine long-tailed macaque ( 990:

Crab-eating macaques are synanthropic, meaning they are highly adaptive, living near and benefiting from humans and their environmental modifications.

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Stage 4: 18 thousand years ago, the dispersal and isolation of progenitors of weakly differentiated deep water fringing island populations occurred (

6927: 6704: 4170:

Malaivijitnond, S.; Lekprayoon, C.; Tandavanittj, N.; Panha, S.; Cheewatham, C.; Hamada, Y. (2007). "Stone-tool usage by Thai long-tailed macaques (

4715: 6769: 5484: 3311: 727:

Stage 6: 4.5 thousand years ago, the dispersal and isolation of progenitors of populations in easter lesser Sunda islands (deep water), occurred (

2860: 4490:"Acquisition of object-robbing and object/food-bartering behaviours: a culturally maintained token economy in free-ranging long-tailed macaques" 1296: 5120: 4855: 2978: 2433: 2111: 2046: 3838:

Ruiter, J. R. De; Van Hooff, Jan A. R. A. M.; Scheffrahn, W. (1994). "Social and genetic aspects of paternity in wild Long-Tailed Macaques (

1450: 5511: 961:(PZP), which causes infertility in females, is currently being tested in Hong Kong to investigate its use as potential population control. 1372:

Each subspecies faces differing levels of threats, and too little information is available on some subspecies to assess their conditions.

2891:"Colonization During Colonialism: Developing a Framework to Assess the Rapid Ecological Transformation of Mauritius's Pristine Ecosystem" 7038: 6978: 5526: 3630:

Das, M.; Penke, Z. & van Hoof, J. (1998). "Postconflict Affiliation and Stress-Related Behavior of Long-Tailed Macaque Aggressors".

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and disease. Due to their close physiology, they can share infections with humans. Some cases of concern have been an isolated event of

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Naiken, S.; Griffiths, M.-A.; Edouard, L; Padayatchy, N. (2015). "Factors influencing reproduction in captive-bred cynomolgus monkeys (

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In places like Thailand and Singapore human-macaque conflict task forces have been created to try and resolve some of these conflicts.

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the infants of lower-ranking females. These kidnappings can result in the death of the infants, as the other female is usually not

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group (which include m. fascicularis, m. mulatta, and m. fuscata) share a common ancestor that lived 2.5 mya. It is suggested that

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Richard, A. F.; Goldstein, S. J.; Dewar, R. E. (1989). "Weed macaques: The evolutionary implications of macaque feeding ecology".

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in the US and elsewhere began to increase during the worldwide reduction and subsequent ban of rhesus macaque exports from India.

837:, whereas introgression from crab eating to rhesus macaques is more restricted. There seems to be a rhesus biased and male biased 6795: 6717: 4906: 65: 841:

between rhesus and crab eating macaque population which has led to different degrees of genetic admixture in these two species.

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living on the edge of forests, rivers, and seas, at the edge of human settlements, and maybe on the edge of population decline.

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Corlett, R.T.; Lucas, P.W. (1990). "Alternative Seed-Handling Strategies in Primates: Seed-Spitting by Long-tailed Macaques (

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form tolerant foraging associations, with juveniles playing together. Crab eating macaques have also been observed grooming

1043: 3744: 2095:

Quammen, D. (2011). "Forward: Thirteen ways of looking at a monkey". In Gumert, M.D.; Fuentes, A.; Jones-Engel, L. (eds.).

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is vulnerable. All other subspecies are listed as data deficient and need further study; although recent work is showing

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Crab-eating macaques are understood and perceived in many ways: smart, pestiferous, exploited, sacred, vermin, invasive.

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Sussman, R. W.; Tattersall, I. (1981). "Behavior and ecology ofmacaca fascicularis in Mauritius: A preliminary study".

7053: 7008: 6998: 6988: 6983: 6808: 6756: 6665: 6101: 6092: 4623:"Monetary value of live trade in a commonly traded primate, the Long-tailed Macaque, based on global trade statistics" 818: 600:

The macaque originated in northeastern Africa some 7 million years ago and spread through most of continental Asia by

533: 503: 6891: 3251:"A model for the noninvasive, habitat-inclusive estimation of upper limit abundance for synanthropes, exemplified by 5371: 1424:

for the significant decrease in crab-eating macaque exports in 2019, the drivers of this decline are still unclear.

7003: 6579: 1695: 1502: 1438: 1153: 471:) is under dispute and is tentatively removed from IUCN Red List assessments, with those individuals included with 5198: 4742:

Fan, Z.; Song, Y. (2002). "Chinese primate status and primate captive breeding for biomedical research in China".

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Nakashima, Y.; Lagan, P.; Kitayama, K. (2008). "A study of fruit–frugivore interactions in two species of durian (

543: 513: 7073: 7068: 7063: 7018: 6826: 5912: 5885: 1091: 607:, and subdivided into four groups (sylvanus, sinica, silenus, and fascicularis). The earliest split in the genus 562: 493: 409: 1027:

Direct encounters between adjacent non-provisioned troops are relatively rare which suggests mutual avoidance.

483: 7058: 7028: 5957: 5267:

Normile, D. (2018). "These monkey twins are the first primate clones made by the method that developed Dolly".

1208: 553: 85: 5027: 6945: 6633: 4361:"Cohort dominance rank and "robbing and bartering" among subadult male long-tailed macaques at Uluwatu, Bali" 3191: 1376:

is likely of important biological significance and has been recommended as a candidate for protection in the

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Hansen, M. F.; Gill, M.; Nawangsari, V. A.; Sanchez, K. L.; Cheyne, S. M.; Nijman, V.; Fuentes, A. (2021).

6595: 6313: 5699: 1337: 1301: 390:, who gave the animal its scientific name in 1821, did not specify what he meant by the use of this word. 5817: 3774: 2602:"Conservation of long-tailed macaques: Implications of the updated iucn status and the covid-19 pandemic" 6860: 6670: 6453: 6304: 6272: 6209: 5966: 5758: 5681: 5476: 1617: 1204: 922: 674:

while the subsequent lowering of sea levels facilitated the secondary contact needed for hybridization.

200: 6020: 5948: 5939: 5921: 2484:

Subramaniam, B. (2001). "The Aliens Have Landed! Reflections on the Rhetoric of Biological Invasions".

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In 2014, 21,768 crab-eating macaques were imported in the United States to be used in experimentation.

4769:"Illegal primate trade in Indonesia exemplified by surveys carried out over a decade in North Sumatra" 2868: 2118: 1169:

nonkin. The remaining three did, in fact, give more food to their kin. The results suggest it was not

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In Indonesia and Malaysia, the crab-eating macaque and other macaque species are known generically as

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Primates in Anthropogenic Landscapes: Exploring Primate Behavioural Flexibility Across Human Contexts

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Sussman, R. W.; Tattersall, I. (1986). "Distribution, Abundance, and Putative Ecological Strategy of

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Monkeys on the Edge: Ecology and Management of Long-tailed Macaques and their Interface with Humans

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