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into the amino acid sequence of proteins, as evidenced by the messenger RNA molecules present within every cell, and the RNA genomes of a large number of viruses. The single-stranded nature of RNA, together with tendency for rapid breakdown and a lack of repair systems means that RNA is not so well
748:
DNA has three primary attributes that allow it to be far better than RNA at encoding genetic information. First, it is normally double-stranded, so that there are a minimum of two copies of the information encoding each gene in every cell. Second, DNA has a much greater stability against breakdown
744:
DNA and RNA are both capable of encoding genetic information, because there are biochemical mechanisms which read the information coded within a DNA or RNA sequence and use it to generate a specified protein. On the other hand, the sequence information of a protein molecule is not used by cells to
773:
The single-stranded nature of protein molecules, together with their composition of 20 or more different amino acid building blocks, allows them to fold in to a vast number of different three-dimensional shapes, while providing binding pockets through which they can specifically interact with all
816:
In addition, RNA is a single-stranded polymer that can, like proteins, fold into a very large number of three-dimensional structures. Some of these structures provide binding sites for other molecules and chemically active centers that can catalyze specific chemical reactions on those bound
557:
in the case of proteins). In general, they are all unbranched polymers, and so can be represented in the form of a string. Indeed, they can be viewed as a string of beads, with each bead representing a single nucleotide or amino acid monomer linked together through
749:
than does RNA, an attribute primarily associated with the absence of the 2'-hydroxyl group within every nucleotide of DNA. Third, highly sophisticated DNA surveillance and repair systems are present which monitor damage to the DNA and
370:
as used in polymer science refers only to a single molecule. For example, a single polymeric molecule is appropriately described as a "macromolecule" or "polymer molecule" rather than a "polymer," which suggests a
1078:
753:
the sequence when necessary. Analogous systems have not evolved for repairing damaged RNA molecules. Consequently, chromosomes can contain many billions of atoms, arranged in a specific chemical structure.
774:
manner of molecules. In addition, the chemical diversity of the different amino acids, together with different chemical environments afforded by local 3D structure, enables many proteins to act as
817:
molecules. The limited number of different building blocks of RNA (4 nucleotides vs >20 amino acids in proteins), together with their lack of chemical diversity, results in catalytic RNA (
714:
In contrast, both RNA and proteins are normally single-stranded. Therefore, they are not constrained by the regular geometry of the DNA double helix, and so fold into complex
1670:
238:
565:
In most cases, the monomers within the chain have a strong propensity to interact with other amino acids or nucleotides. In DNA and RNA, this can take the form of
718:
dependent on their sequence. These different shapes are responsible for many of the common properties of RNA and proteins, including the formation of specific
1167:
1567:
Roland E. Bauer; Volker
Enkelmann; Uwe M. Wiesler; Alexander J. Berresheim; Klaus Müllen (2002). "Single-Crystal Structures of Polyphenylene Dendrimers".
1149:
778:, catalyzing a wide range of specific biochemical transformations within cells. In addition, proteins have evolved the ability to bind a wide range of
386:. Complicated biomacromolecules, on the other hand, require multi-faceted structural description such as the hierarchy of structures used to describe
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alone. The structure of simple macromolecules, such as homopolymers, may be described in terms of the individual monomer subunit and total
38:
987:
in arthropods and fungi). Many carbohydrates contain modified monosaccharide units that have had functional groups replaced or removed.
467:
Another common macromolecular property that does not characterize smaller molecules is their relative insolubility in water and similar
770:
that sustain life. Proteins carry out all functions of an organism, for example photosynthesis, neural function, vision, and movement.
543:
911:
Some lipids are held together by ester bonds; some are huge aggregates of small molecules held together by hydrophobic interactions.
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451:
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1065:. The incorporation of inorganic elements enables the tunability of properties and/or responsive behavior as for instance in
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unlike the other macromolecules, lipids are not defined by chemical
Structure. Lipids are any organic nonpolar molecule.
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801:, according to the instructions within a cell's DNA. They control and regulate many aspects of protein synthesis in
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Walter, Peter; Alberts, Bruce; Johnson, Alexander S.; Lewis, Julian; Raff, Martin C.; Roberts, Keith (2008).
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1266:"Über Isopren und Kautschuk. 5. Mitteilung. Über die Hydrierung des Kautschuks und über seine Konstitution"
37:"Macromolecular chemistry" redirects here. For the journal formerly known as Macromolecular Chemistry, see
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1641:. Cached HTML version of a missing PDF file. Retrieved March 10, 2010. The article is based on the book,
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538:. Each of these molecules is required for life since each plays a distinct, indispensable role in the
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Because of the double-stranded nature of DNA, essentially all of the nucleotides take the form of
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Inventing
Polymer Science: Staudinger, Carothers, and the Emergence of Macromolecular Chemistry
1025:
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Macromolecules often have unusual physical properties that do not occur for smaller molecules.
343:
Usage of the term to describe large molecules varies among the disciplines. For example, while
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979:). Polysaccharides perform numerous roles in living organisms, acting as energy stores (e.g.
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composed of core of glucose units surrounded by gallic acid esters and ellagic acid units
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821:) being generally less-effective catalysts than proteins for most biological reactions.
549:
DNA, RNA, and proteins all consist of a repeating structure of related building blocks (
506:
other molecules from a large part of the volume of the solution, thereby increasing the
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2. If a part or the whole of the molecule fits into this definition, it may be described
17:
1727:
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Nucleotides (a phosphate, ribose, and a base- adenine, guanine, thymine, or cytosine)
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Nucleotides (a phosphate, ribose, and a base- adenine, guanine, uracil, or cytosine)
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491:
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179:
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569:(G–C and A–T or A–U), although many more complicated interactions can and do occur.
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few of the units has a negligible effect on the molecular properties. This statement
1123:
719:
328:
in 1832, had a different meaning from that of today: it simply was another form of
210:
202:
194:
175:
347:
refers to macromolecules as the four large molecules comprising living things, in
316:
in the 1920s, although his first relevant publication on this field only mentions
256:
comprises the multiple repetition of units derived, actually or conceptually, from
378:
Because of their size, macromolecules are not conveniently described in terms of
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741:) that are required to assemble, maintain, and reproduce every living organism.
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as having a high relative molecular mass if the addition or removal of one or a
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1. In many cases, especially for synthetic polymers, a molecule can be regarded
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A molecule of high relative molecular mass, the structure of which essentially
222:
198:
1404:"How can biochemical reactions within cells differ from those in test tubes?"
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351:, the term may refer to aggregates of two or more molecules held together by
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1057:. Polymers may be prepared from inorganic matter as well as for instance in
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fails in the case of certain macromolecules for which the properties may be
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10.1002/1521-3765(20020902)8:17<3858::AID-CHEM3858>3.0.CO;2-5
1208:"Glossary of basic terms in polymer science (IUPAC Recommendations 1996)"
1050:
976:
733:
is an information storage macromolecule that encodes the complete set of
535:
519:
472:
387:
163:
1615:
Several (free) introductory macromolecule related internet-based courses
1353:
Jenkins, A. D.; Kratochvíl, P.; Stepto, R. F. T.; Suter, U. W. (1996).
1038:
994:
775:
468:
436: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
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if the solute concentration of their solution is too high or too low.
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of the reactions of other macromolecules, through an effect known as
1648:
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1206:
Jenkins, A. D; Kratochvíl, P; Stepto, R. F. T; Suter, U. W (1996).
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suited for the long-term storage of genetic information as is DNA.
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940:
490:
High concentrations of macromolecules in a solution can alter the
363:
214:
182:
1496:. Fourth edition is available online through the NCBI Bookshelf:
1079:
List of biophysically important macromolecular crystal structures
274:
critically dependent on fine details of the molecular structure.
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794:
730:
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527:
480:
405:
43:
1610:
Lecture notes on the structure and function of macromolecules
1478:
Molecular
Biology of the Cell (5th edition, Extended version)
1443:
Berg, Jeremy Mark; Tymoczko, John L.; Stryer, Lubert (2010).
707:
between nucleotides on the two complementary strands of the
1463:
Fifth edition available online through the NCBI Bookshelf:
1037:
Some examples of macromolecules are synthetic polymers (
762:
Proteins are functional macromolecules responsible for
225:. Synthetic fibers and experimental materials such as
30:"Macromolecules" redirects here. For the journal, see
722:, and the ability to catalyse biochemical reactions.
483:
to dissolve in water. Similarly, many proteins will
74:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
1510:
997:subunits. They can perform structural roles (e.g.
320:(in excess of 1,000 atoms). At that time the term
1605:Synopsis of Chapter 5, Campbell & Reece, 2002
1156:. Americanchemistry.com. Retrieved on 2011-07-01.
971:, polysaccharides can form linear polymers (e.g.
797:is multifunctional, its primary function is to
394:, the word "macromolecule" tends to be called "
243:
1664:
1509:Golnick, Larry; Wheelis, Mark. (1991-08-14).
1298:(2008). "The Origin of the Polymer Concept".
1111:
1109:
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1103:
8:
1355:"Glossary of Basic Terms in Polymer Science"
993:consist of a branched structure of multiple
808:RNA encodes genetic information that can be
213:) and large non-polymeric molecules such as
1445:Biochemistry, 7th ed. (Biochemistry (Berg))
1671:
1657:
1649:
576:
544:DNA makes RNA, and then RNA makes proteins
258:molecules of low relative molecular mass.
1419:
1168:"Nanotechnology: A Guide to Nano-Objects"
745:functionally encode genetic information.
726:DNA is optimised for encoding information
452:Learn how and when to remove this message
134:Learn how and when to remove this message
1024:
967:. Because monosaccharides have multiple
828:
145:
1116:Stryer L, Berg JM, Tymoczko JL (2002).
1099:
975:) or complex branched structures (e.g.
1029:Structure of an example polyphenylene
27:Very large molecule, such as a protein
1264:Staudinger, H.; Fritschi, J. (1922).
983:) and as structural components (e.g.
359:but which do not readily dissociate.
229:are also examples of macromolecules.
7:
1540:The Manga Guide to Molecular Biology
758:Proteins are optimised for catalysis
434:adding citations to reliable sources
193:. The most common macromolecules in
72:adding citations to reliable sources
39:Macromolecular Chemistry and Physics
1334:Principles of Physical Biochemistry
1166:Gullapalli, S.; Wong, M.S. (2011).
25:
522:are dependent on three essential
502:. This comes from macromolecules
178:. It is composed of thousands of
526:for their biological functions:
410:
340:and had little to do with size.
48:
1147:Life cycle of a plastic product
1122:(5th ed.). San Francisco:
607:Catalyzes biological reactions
421:needs additional citations for
59:needs additional citations for
963:) are formed from polymers of
1:
1569:Chemistry: A European Journal
1513:The Cartoon Guide to Genetics
1300:Journal of Chemical Education
1175:Chemical Engineering Progress
919:carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen
542:. The simple summary is that
593:Encodes genetic information
553:in the case of DNA and RNA,
375:composed of macromolecules.
189:of smaller molecules called
1538:Takemura, Masaharu (2009).
1336:Prentice Hall: New Jersey,
1802:
1449:W.H. Freeman & Company
1362:Pure and Applied Chemistry
1216:Pure and Applied Chemistry
1181:(5): 28–32. Archived from
362:According to the standard
185:. Many macromolecules are
36:
29:
1686:
926:Major protein Complexes?
825:The Major Macromolecules:
674:Stability to degradation
635:Building blocks (number)
1282:10.1002/hlca.19220050517
1067:smart inorganic polymers
1021:Synthetic macromolecules
716:three-dimensional shapes
562:into a very long chain.
508:effective concentrations
318:high molecular compounds
150:Chemical structure of a
32:Macromolecules (journal)
18:Macromolecular chemistry
1374:10.1351/pac199668122287
1332:van Holde, K.E. (1998)
1229:10.1351/pac199668122287
705:Watson–Crick base pairs
621:Building blocks (type)
567:Watson–Crick base pairs
560:covalent chemical bonds
500:macromolecular crowding
1270:Helvetica Chimica Acta
1034:
1001:) as well as roles as
953:
946:Raspberry ellagitannin
790:RNA is multifunctional
292:
155:
1517:. Collins Reference.
1028:
1003:secondary metabolites
944:
848:Bonds that Join them
768:biochemical reactions
496:equilibrium constants
366:definition, the term
353:intermolecular forces
149:
1736:Biomolecular complex
937:Branched biopolymers
510:of these molecules.
430:improve this article
168:biological processes
68:improve this article
1312:2008JChEd..85..624J
830:
573:Structural features
324:, as introduced by
290:used adjectivally.
1633:Winter 2002–2003,
1629:by Ulysses Magee,
1620:2011-07-18 at the
1402:Minton AP (2006).
1296:Jensen, William B.
1152:2010-03-17 at the
1059:inorganic polymers
1035:
954:
829:
514:Linear biopolymers
471:, instead forming
314:Hermann Staudinger
156:
1781:Polymer chemistry
1771:Molecular physics
1753:
1752:
1680:Hierarchy of life
1645:by Yasu Furukawa.
1575:(17): 3858–3864.
1553:978-1-59327-202-9
1524:978-0-06-273099-2
1491:978-0-8153-4111-6
1458:978-1-4292-2936-4
1421:10.1242/jcs.03063
1414:(Pt 14): 2863–9.
1320:10.1021/ed085p624
1223:(12): 2287–2311.
1133:978-0-7167-4955-4
969:functional groups
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332:for example with
180:covalently bonded
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16:(Redirected from
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959:macromolecules (
897:Monosaccharides
894:Polysaccharides
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842:Building Block
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688:Repair systems
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380:stoichiometry
376:
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246:Macromolecule
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211:carbohydrates
208:
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203:nucleic acids
200:
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166:important to
165:
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160:macromolecule
154:macromolecule
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138:
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85: –
84:
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79:Find sources:
73:
69:
63:
62:
57:This article
55:
51:
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45:
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33:
19:
1776:Biochemistry
1742: >
1739:
1738: >
1734: >
1730: >
1726: >
1722: >
1718: >
1716:Organ system
1714: >
1710: >
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1572:
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1504:
1480:. New York:
1477:
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1386:the original
1368:(12): 2287.
1365:
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1259:
1248:. Retrieved
1241:the original
1220:
1214:
1201:
1190:. Retrieved
1183:the original
1178:
1174:
1161:
1142:
1124:W.H. Freeman
1119:Biochemistry
1118:
1036:
1011:pigmentation
1005:involved in
989:
957:Carbohydrate
955:
856:Amino acids
843:
837:
834:
824:
823:
815:
807:
793:
772:
761:
747:
743:
735:instructions
729:
713:
709:double helix
702:
630:Amino acids
627:Nucleotides
624:Nucleotides
564:
548:
517:
489:
466:
463:
448:
439:
428:Please help
423:verification
420:
396:high polymer
395:
377:
367:
361:
355:rather than
342:
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300:
296:
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283:
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195:biochemistry
176:nucleic acid
170:, such as a
159:
157:
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121:
111:
104:
97:
90:
78:
66:Please help
61:verification
58:
1744:Biomolecule
1704:Biocoenosis
1631:ISSA Review
1408:J. Cell Sci
1089:Soft matter
1063:geopolymers
991:Polyphenols
900:Glycosidic
555:amino acids
551:nucleotides
524:biopolymers
223:macrocycles
199:biopolymers
152:polypeptide
1760:Categories
1708:Population
1306:(5): 624.
1276:(5): 785.
1250:2013-07-27
1192:2015-06-28
1095:References
1007:signalling
844:(Monomer)
838:(Polymer)
810:translated
803:eukaryotes
764:catalysing
660:Structure
402:Properties
278:as either
241:definition
233:Definition
94:newspapers
1732:Organelle
1700:Ecosystem
1692:Biosphere
1639:1540-9864
1031:dendrimer
973:cellulose
853:Proteins
819:ribozymes
784:coenzymes
780:cofactors
683:Variable
680:Variable
588:Proteins
504:excluding
373:substance
349:chemistry
338:acetylene
330:isomerism
326:Berzelius
295:The term
284:polymeric
1786:Polymers
1712:Organism
1618:Archived
1589:12203280
1430:16825427
1382:98774337
1237:98774337
1150:Archived
1073:See also
1051:graphene
1039:plastics
995:phenolic
977:glycogen
859:Peptide
669:Complex
666:Complex
536:proteins
485:denature
473:colloids
469:solvents
442:May 2013
388:proteins
307:molecule
286:, or by
219:nanogels
207:proteins
191:monomers
187:polymers
164:molecule
1308:Bibcode
1015:defense
905:Lipids
776:enzymes
655:Single
652:Double
345:biology
334:benzene
322:polymer
288:polymer
172:protein
108:scholar
1724:Tissue
1637:
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1053:, and
1045:, and
999:lignin
985:chitin
981:starch
950:tannin
751:repair
739:genome
302:macro-
215:lipids
209:, and
110:
103:
96:
89:
81:
1720:Organ
1696:Biome
1389:(PDF)
1378:S2CID
1358:(PDF)
1244:(PDF)
1233:S2CID
1211:(PDF)
1186:(PDF)
1171:(PDF)
737:(the
677:High
492:rates
477:salts
390:. In
364:IUPAC
262:Notes
239:IUPAC
183:atoms
115:JSTOR
101:books
1728:Cell
1635:ISSN
1585:PMID
1548:ISBN
1519:ISBN
1498:link
1486:ISBN
1465:link
1453:ISBN
1426:PMID
1338:ISBN
1128:ISBN
1061:and
1013:and
948:, a
884:RNA
874:DNA
782:and
766:the
691:Yes
616:Yes
613:Yes
599:Yes
596:Yes
585:RNA
582:DNA
540:cell
534:and
518:All
494:and
481:ions
336:and
221:and
197:are
87:news
1577:doi
1416:doi
1412:119
1370:doi
1316:doi
1278:doi
1225:doi
1179:107
1049:),
795:RNA
731:DNA
697:No
694:No
644:20
610:No
602:No
532:RNA
528:DNA
432:by
398:".
282:or
174:or
70:by
1762::
1583:.
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112:·
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20:)
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