311:
473:
327:
531:
129:
355:
482:
104:
722:
623:, and (4) are acellular and black, unlike true trichomes of the species that are multicellular. Overall, the sum-total of these experimental results supports the postulate for dynamic molecular self-assembly. For this reason the term "extracuticular deposit" is proposed, reflecting the origin and emergent nature of such hair-like structures in the abaxial pinnule.
766:
752:
can be quite large. The largest recorded was 10 cm and has been noted as the largest ovule produced by a non-angiosperm seed-plant. Some have noted that the large size of these seeds may have allowed them to float, like small coconuts, to be distributed in these coastal mangrove-like areas as
673:
The fossil tree has a sharply tapering trunk surrounded in its lower part by a large number of downward-recurved senescent petioles, which form a skirt. Petioles borne in an upright or horizontal position, interpreted as fronds that were still photosynthetically active when buried, are confined to
678:
probably acted to prop up the trunk while additionally trapping large mounds of mud around the base of the tree and stabilizing coastal wetlands. The tree had a sprawling habit and a maximum height of about 2 m. Similar, but smaller, trees found in adjacent beds probably represent juvenile
562:
of
Illinois, these leaflets are one of the most commonly found plant fossils. The leaves have thick cuticles, sunken stomata, dense trichomes, and large hair-like structures. These foliar characteristics combined with the spiny stem structure where the leaflets drop, and the potential deciduous
557:
pinnules were the largest of any seed plant of the
Carboniferous Period. Individual pinnules are typically lanceolate with a round base. They have been found to be as long as 12 cm. These individual leaflets are often found fossilized by themselves separated from the frond. They have been
619:(1) are not organically attached to the abaxial surface; (2) differ spectrochemically from the organic material of the lamina; (3) are composed, in contrast with the trichomes, of relatively long, unbranched aliphatic (polymythelinic) hydrocarbon chains
668:
tree was found in growth position in Nova Scotia that differs from the idealized reconstruction. This fossil tree was extensively studied by Howard Falcon-Lang who found many characteristics that differed from the previous reconstructions.
1825:
Moore, Lillien C.; Wittry, Jack; DiMichele, William A. (2014). "The
Okmulgee, Oklahoma fossil flora, a Mazon Creek equivalent: Spatial conservatism in the composition of Middle Pennsylvanian wetland vegetation over 1100 km".
545:
species consists of very large frond-like leaves that are bipartite (divided in two) near the base, forming two large bipinnately compound parts (see illustration). These compound fronds can be as large as several meters.
823:
and other beetles in their pollination. This form of pollination is now known to be present as far back as the
Cretaceous. A similar relationship may have occurred between these seed ferns and some Carboniferous insects.
801:
and other seed ferns suggests that they may not have been well adapted to wind dispersal. This raises speculation about the possibility of insect pollination. One of those possibilities is
785:
foliage. In 1907, E.H. Sellards further noted this connection. In the late 1960s, both
Laveine (1967) and Darrah (1969) reinforced this association. The pollen found in the fossilized
1653:. Études Géologiques pour l'Atlas de Topographie Souterraine. Service Géologique des Houillères du Bassin du Nord et du Pas-de-Calais, 1(5):1–344, plus Atlas I to LXXXIV pls.
511:
to refer to just the foliage of these trees. And in other cases, it is used to refer to the entire tree. The genus is associated with the stems and trunks of the wood
1962:
954:, however, the genus was able to recover quicker than other species after this event and became a dominant part of a new forest ecosystems alongside the tree fern
653:. Early attempts to reconstruct the entire tree were somewhat limited by this fragmentary material. One well-known reconstruction was illustrated for Stewart and
1094:
Cleal, C. J.; Zodrow, E. L. (1989). "Epidermal structure of some medullosan
Neuropteris foliage from the Middle and Upper Carboniferous of Canada and Germany".
819:, a modern seed plant with some similar affinities to seed ferns, were previously thought to only be pollinated by wind. New studies have confirmed the role of
2015:
591:
on the leaves and may have been used to help the plant conserve water. Recent molecular studies by Erwin L. Zodrow have discovered that although there are
2020:
2005:
1949:
1766:
Peñalver, Enrique; Labandeira, Conrad C.; Barrón, Eduardo; Delclòs, Xavier; Nel, Patricia; Nel, André; Tafforeau, Paul; Soriano, Carmen (2012).
1325:
903:
It is commonly found in the fossils above coal seams. It has been noted that the coal that formed during an evenly wet climate is dominated by
753:
well as inland wetland forests. Their three-part symmetry gives them their name. A tube-like opening at the top brought pollen into the ovule.
705:. For that reason, a variety of fossilized reproductive parts could be possible matches. However, a lot of evidence points toward some type of
1880:
1690:
310:
2010:
1044:
2000:
937:
567:
tendency in the tree. Such adaptations may have allowed the genus to dominate the late
Carboniferous landscape as other plants like
811:
and thought they might have a role in pollination. W. A. Shear and others have noted that this is very unlikely due to the size of
472:
1666:
A Critical Review of the Upper
Pennsylvanian Floras of Eastern United States with Notes on the Mazon Creek Flora of Illinois
587:, which has abundant epicuticular hair that can reach a maximum length of 1000 mm. It had been assumed that these were
326:
128:
1277:
Gregory W. Stull; William A. DiMichele; Howard J. Falcon-Lang; W. John Nelson & Scott Elrick (2012). "Palaeoecology of
439:. The genus was taxonomically refined in 1989 through epidermal research led by C. J. Cleal. Based on that work, the genus
1995:
1990:
773:. This specimen was identified and named by E. H. Sellards in 1903. Sellards illustration of the specimen is on the right.
971:
disappeared from the fossil record for the most part. It was limited to isolated wet areas. It continued into the early
649:
trees have been based on various separate fossil parts. As noted above, the stems and trunks are usually referred to as
736:
In 1938, W. A. Bell studied the Sydney
Coalfield in Nova Scotia, and suggested that the large fossilized seeds called
522:
seed fern tree that was likely about 8–10 meters tall with an upright trunk with large compound frond-like leaves.
493:
leaves and reconstruction of a generalized medullosalean tree. On right, an illustration showing the large leaf of
883:
807:, a very large millipede of the Carboniferous. Scott and Taylor (1983) studied seed-fern pollen on the plates of
603:
and may not be directly attached to the leaves. He suggests that these structures are material in the wax of the
674:
the uppermost preserved part of the tree. Adapted to growth in rapidly aggrading coastal wetlands, the skirt of
887:
559:
396:
361:
345:
115:
936:
continued to be common and even became a dominant element in these forests. An extinction event called the
1917:
1449:
tree preserved in growth position in the Middle
Pennsylvanian Sydney Mines Formation, Nova Scotia, Canada"
375:, has had a long taxonomic history since it was first recognized in fossils found near Oxford, England by
847:
is found in many of the same locations. Because of their similarities, the two are easily misidentified.
583:
has been noted since the mid 1800s. It has become an important taxonomic characteristic particularly for
553:, each individual leaflet or pinnule of the compound frond were also notably large. In fact, the species
1706:
Scott, Andrew C.; Taylor, Thomas N. (1983). "Plant/animal interactions during the upper carboniferous".
1444:
192:
1154:
1080:
Deutschland geognostisch-geologisch Dargestellt und mit Charten und Durchschmittszeichnungen erlautert
1779:
1590:
1290:
1281:, and its implications for resolving the paradox of 'xeromorphic' plants in Pennsylvanian wetlands".
267:
166:
909:, and the layer above the coal formed during a transitional and more varied climate is dominated by
835:
is a very recognizable species in the Late Carboniferous, and is found throughout what was known as
744:. Erwin Zodrow in 2002 also noted that this ovule fossil was commonly in physical association with
654:
530:
1890:
1731:
1581:
Sellards, E. H. (1903). "Codonotheca, a new type of spore-bearing organ from the coal measures".
1563:
1524:
1425:
1359:
1130:
404:
123:
1492:. Memoir (Geological Survey of Canada), 215. International Journal of Coal Geology. p. 334.
1233:
José A. D'Angelo; Paul C. Lyons; Maria Mastalerz & Erwin L. Zodrow (2013). "Fossil cutin of
878:. A range that is approximately 18 million years (approximately 298 to 316 million years ago).
1967:
1876:
1807:
1723:
1686:
1680:
1470:
1306:
1254:
1180:
1040:
1036:
1029:
1113:
Cleal, C. J.; Zodrow, E. L. (1990). "A revised taxonomy for Palaeozoic neuropterid foliage".
1868:
1843:
1835:
1797:
1787:
1715:
1629:
1598:
1555:
1516:
1460:
1417:
1390:
1349:
1341:
1298:
1246:
1215:
1170:
1122:
859:
had a worldwide distribution over the tropical equatorial world of the late Carboniferous.
1902:
1618:"Notes on the spore-bearing organ Codonotheca and its relationship with the Cycadofilices"
905:
568:
1783:
1594:
1294:
354:
1802:
1767:
1634:
840:
153:
481:
387:, an early manuscript on English fossils published in 1699 with the financial help of
1984:
1847:
1363:
946:
928:
867:
608:
604:
279:
264:
61:
1735:
1528:
1429:
1345:
1861:
Pfefferkorn, H. W.; Gastaldo, R. A.; DiMichele, William A.; Phillips, T.L. (2008).
1839:
993:
803:
726:
701:
Seed and pollen organs have not yet been found directly attached to the foliage of
657:
paper in 1956. The illustration has been the basis for many reconstructions of the
519:
388:
376:
271:
179:
1864:
Pennsylvanian Tropical Floras of the United States as a Record of Changing Climate
1061:
1940:
1750:
1302:
411:. In the 1800s, similar fossilized foliage was found in North America. The names
988:
512:
508:
36:
1394:
1250:
1872:
1377:
Zodrow, Erwin L. (2014). "Molecular self-assembly: Hypothesized for "hair" of
964:
941:
863:
836:
282:
81:
46:
1727:
1474:
1465:
1310:
1258:
1184:
1792:
1602:
1505:"Wetland-Dryland Vegetational Dynamics In The Pennsylvanian Ice Age Tropics"
956:
915:
896:
815:. Other insects of the Carboniferous however may have been pollinators. The
600:
592:
588:
564:
103:
86:
1862:
1811:
721:
919:. The foliar adaptations described earlier in this article may have given
1934:
972:
871:
399:. Nearly hundred years after Scheuchzer's death, the species was renamed
76:
71:
56:
51:
41:
1078:
765:
1954:
1719:
1567:
1421:
1408:
Stewart, W. N.; Delevoryas, T. (1956). "The medullosan pteridosperms".
1354:
1134:
976:
875:
91:
66:
886:
stage. In two Moscovian-age (approximately 309 mya) fossil locations,
843:
that included present-day North America, Europe, and northern Africa.
628:
Erwin L. Zodrow, "Molecular self-assembly: Hypothesized for 'hair' of
1546:, a new species from the Middle Pennsylvanian of southern Illinois".
820:
816:
1911:
1752:
The Ecology of Paleozoic Terrestrial Arthropods: The Fossil Evidence
1617:
1559:
1219:
1126:
1520:
1504:
764:
720:
529:
140:
1175:
599:, the more noticeable dark 'hair-like' structures are likely not
537:
specimen clearly showing the hair-like structures on the leaves.
118:
in the collection at the Yale Peabody Museum of Natural History
1915:
435:
were used for these but are now all considered to be forms of
900:, it comprises nearly 60% of the flora in these fossil beds.
1679:
Taylor, Thomas N; Taylor, Edith L; Krings, Michael (2009).
1511:. Special Issue: Dynamics of Coal-Age Tropical Vegetation.
777:
As early a 1903, the fossilized male pollen organs called
497:
dividing at the base into two bipinnately compound halves.
1198:
Beeler, H. E. (1983). "Anatomy and frond architecture of
757:
is a term that is also used for this type of seed/ovule.
278:, a medium-size tree that was common throughout the late
1340:(4–6). Schweizerbart'sche Verlagsbuchhandlung: 141–153.
1206:
from the Upper Pennsylvanian of the Appalachian Basin".
789:
are monolete and exceptionally large (200–550 μm).
579:
The presence of hair-like structures on the pinnules of
1682:
Paleobotany: The biology and evolution of fossil plants
1159:(Pennsylvanian, Sydney Coalfield, Nova Scotia, Canada)"
890:
in Illinois, U.S.A and Okmulgee in Oklahoma, U.S.A.,
963:
Toward the end of the Carboniferous, the climate of
894:
is exceptionally abundant. Along with the leaves of
360:
The most common species of the genus is named after
1924:
1028:
1283:Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology
316:This 1699 illustration is the first depiction of
1668:. Privately published, Gettysburg, Pennsylvania.
558:inferred by some to be deciduous. In the famous
409:Deutschland, geognostisch-geologisch dargestellt
1326:"Hair-trichomes-files, and spectrochemistry of
671:
613:
1490:Fossil flora of Sydney Coal Field, Nova Scotia
923:an advantage during these transitional times.
1383:International Journal of Coal Geology Journal
1330:(Basal Cantabrian, Sydney Coalfield, Canada)"
563:nature have led to many authors suggesting a
518:. Together these fossils describe parts of a
8:
1768:"Thrips pollination of Mesozoic gymnosperms"
391:. The species was further described in the
1912:
1031:Never at rest" A biography of Isaac Newton
781:were speculated to be from plants bearing
274:. The genus is best known for the species
102:
20:
1801:
1791:
1633:
1464:
1353:
1324:Zodrow, Erwin L.; D'Angelo, José (2014).
1237:(Late Pennsylvanian seed fern, Canada)".
1174:
1148:
1146:
1144:
797:The large size of the monolete pollen of
371:The most abundant species of this genus,
1542:Gastaldo, R. A.; Matten, L. C. (1978). "
1272:
1270:
1268:
1083:. Verlag des Landes-Industrie-Comptoirs.
1016:. London. pp. 144 plus pls. I–XVII.
944:stage. This event decimated many of the
855:are found mostly in Europe. In general,
379:in 1669. He referred to these leaves as
1749:Shear, W.A.; Kukalova-Peck, J. (1990).
1651:Les Neuroptéridées du Nord de la France
1509:International Journal of Plant Sciences
1014:Lithophylacii Britannici Ichonographica
1004:
383:It is illustrated and noted in Lhuyd's
1898:
1888:
1755:. National Research Council of Canada.
1828:Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology
1239:International Journal of Coal Geology
634:International Journal of Coal Geology
413:Neuropteris cordata var. angustifolia
385:Lythophylacii Britannici Ichnographia
7:
932:declined in the late carboniferous,
688:tree preserved in growth position",
2016:Prehistoric plants of North America
1867:. Vol. 441. pp. 305–316.
1635:10.1111/j.1469-8137.1907.tb06055.x
882:became particularly common in the
607:demonstrating a dynamic molecular
574:
14:
938:Carboniferous Rainforest Collapse
725:Trigonocarpus, the seed/ovule of
407:'s 1826 atlas of German Geology,
1381:(Pennsylvanian-age seed-fern)".
1027:Westfall, Richard (1983-04-29).
507:is used in some cases as a leaf
480:
471:
395:written in 1723 by the botanist
353:
325:
309:
297:are also included in the genus.
127:
2021:Carboniferous genus extinctions
2006:Carboniferous first appearances
1840:10.1016/j.revpalbo.2013.08.002
1503:DiMichele, William A. (2014).
679:specimens of the same species.
645:Reconstructions of the entire
443:was divided into four genera,
1:
1334:Palaeontographica Abteilung B
979:in these isolated locations.
769:The male pollen organ called
1447:Macroneuropteris scheuchzeri
1443:Falcon-Lang, Howard (2009).
1379:Macroneuropteris scheuchzeri
1328:Macroneuropteris scheuchzeri
1303:10.1016/j.palaeo.2012.03.019
1279:Macroneuropteris scheuchzeri
1235:Macroneuropteris scheuchzeri
1157:Macroneuropteris scheuchzeri
833:Macroneuropteris scheuchzeri
783:Macroneuropteris scheuchzeri
742:Macroneuropteris scheuchzeri
686:Macroneuropteris scheuchzeri
676:Macroneuropteris scheuchzeri
630:Macroneuropteris scheuchzeri
615:The hair-like structures of
535:Macroneuropteris scheuchzeri
495:Macroneuropteris scheuchzeri
491:Macroneuropteris scheuchzeri
437:Macroneuropteris scheuchzeri
373:Macroneuropteris scheuchzeri
338:Macroneuropteris scheuchzeri
276:Macroneuropteris scheuchzeri
112:Macroneuropteris scheuchzeri
1583:American Journal of Science
967:became increasingly dryer.
793:Possible insect pollination
2037:
1548:American Journal of Botany
1395:10.1016/j.coal.2013.11.002
1251:10.1016/j.coal.2012.10.012
1208:Canadian Journal of Botany
1060:Scheuchzer, J. J. (1723).
862:The genus ranges from the
713:as the male pollen organ.
2011:Carboniferous extinctions
1848:10088/21841?show=full
1346:10.1127/palb/290/2014/141
403:by professor Hoffmann in
285:. Three similar species,
222:
217:
124:Scientific classification
122:
110:
101:
23:
2001:Prehistoric plant genera
1616:Sellards, E. H. (1907).
1466:10.4138/atlgeol.2009.004
738:Trigonocarpus noeggerati
417:Neuropteris angustifolia
1793:10.1073/pnas.1120499109
1649:Laveine, J. P. (1967).
1603:10.2475/ajs.s4-16.91.87
1077:Keferstein, C. (1831).
888:Mazon Creek fossil beds
740:could be the ovules of
709:as the seed/ovlule and
684:Howard Falcon-Lang, "A
560:Mazon Creek Fossil Beds
433:Odontopteris subcuneata
401:Neuropteris scheuchzeri
397:Johann Jakob Scheuchzer
362:Johann Jakob Scheuchzer
346:Johann Jakob Scheuchzer
116:Mazon Creek fossil beds
16:Extinct genus of plants
1664:Darrah, W. C. (1969).
1153:Zodrow, Ervin (2003).
774:
748:foliage. Specimens of
733:
694:
638:
538:
421:Neuropteris acutifolia
1873:10.1130/2008.2441(21)
1012:Luyd, Edward (1699).
768:
724:
575:'Hairs' on the leaves
533:
429:Neuropteris decipiens
193:Neurodontopteridaceae
1996:Pennsylvanian plants
1991:Pteridospermatophyta
1708:The Botanical Review
1544:Trigonocarpus leanus
1488:Bell, W. A. (1938).
1063:Herbarium diluvianum
940:occurred during the
664:However, a complete
405:Christian Keferstein
393:Herbarium Diluvianum
381:Phyllites mineralis.
342:Herbarium Diluvianum
167:Pteridospermatophyta
1784:2012PNAS..109.8623P
1595:1903AmJS...16...87S
1295:2012PPP...331..162S
1066:. Petrus Vander Aa.
950:. It also affected
571:steadily declined.
541:The foliage of the
425:Neuropteris hirsuta
334:Phyllites mineralis
332:An illustration of
1720:10.1007/bf02861089
1685:. Academic Press.
1422:10.1007/bf02872456
913:and the tree fern
787:Codonotheca caduca
779:Codonotheca caduca
775:
761:Male pollen organs
734:
711:Codonotheca caduca
595:on the species of
539:
212:Cleal et al., 1990
1978:
1977:
1918:Taxon identifiers
1882:978-0-8137-2441-6
1692:978-0-12-373972-8
1200:Neuropteris ovata
1155:"Foliar forms of
301:Taxonomic history
256:
255:
213:
2028:
1971:
1970:
1958:
1957:
1945:
1944:
1943:
1926:Macroneuropteris
1913:
1907:
1906:
1900:
1896:
1894:
1886:
1858:
1852:
1851:
1822:
1816:
1815:
1805:
1795:
1763:
1757:
1756:
1746:
1740:
1739:
1703:
1697:
1696:
1676:
1670:
1669:
1661:
1655:
1654:
1646:
1640:
1639:
1637:
1628:(6–7): 175–178.
1613:
1607:
1606:
1578:
1572:
1571:
1539:
1533:
1532:
1500:
1494:
1493:
1485:
1479:
1478:
1468:
1453:Atlantic Geology
1440:
1434:
1433:
1410:Botanical Review
1405:
1399:
1398:
1374:
1368:
1367:
1357:
1321:
1315:
1314:
1274:
1263:
1262:
1230:
1224:
1223:
1214:(9): 2352–2368.
1195:
1189:
1188:
1178:
1163:Atlantic Geology
1150:
1139:
1138:
1110:
1104:
1103:
1091:
1085:
1084:
1074:
1068:
1067:
1057:
1051:
1050:
1034:
1024:
1018:
1017:
1009:
969:Macroneuropteris
952:Macroneuropteris
934:Macroneuropteris
921:Macroneuropteris
911:Macroneuropteris
892:Macroneuropteris
857:Macroneuropteris
853:M. subauriculata
799:Macroneuropteris
731:Macroneuropteris
703:Macroneuropteris
692:
690:Atlantic Geology
666:Macroneuropteris
647:Macroneuropteris
636:
597:Macroneuropteris
581:Macroneuropteris
555:M. scheuchzeri's
551:Macroneuropteris
543:Macroneuropteris
505:Macroneuropteris
484:
475:
453:Neurocallipteris
449:Macroneuropteris
357:
329:
318:Macroneuropteris
313:
295:M. subauriculata
260:Macroneuropteris
248:M. subauriculata
211:
207:Macroneuropteris
204:
191:
178:
165:
132:
131:
114:, specimen from
106:
96:
33:
29:Temporal range:
25:Macroneuropteris
21:
2036:
2035:
2031:
2030:
2029:
2027:
2026:
2025:
1981:
1980:
1979:
1974:
1966:
1961:
1953:
1948:
1939:
1938:
1933:
1920:
1910:
1897:
1887:
1883:
1860:
1859:
1855:
1824:
1823:
1819:
1765:
1764:
1760:
1748:
1747:
1743:
1705:
1704:
1700:
1693:
1678:
1677:
1673:
1663:
1662:
1658:
1648:
1647:
1643:
1622:New Phytologist
1615:
1614:
1610:
1580:
1579:
1575:
1560:10.2307/2442184
1541:
1540:
1536:
1502:
1501:
1497:
1487:
1486:
1482:
1442:
1441:
1437:
1407:
1406:
1402:
1376:
1375:
1371:
1323:
1322:
1318:
1276:
1275:
1266:
1232:
1231:
1227:
1220:10.1139/b83-259
1197:
1196:
1192:
1152:
1151:
1142:
1127:10.2307/1223109
1112:
1111:
1107:
1093:
1092:
1088:
1076:
1075:
1071:
1059:
1058:
1054:
1047:
1026:
1025:
1021:
1011:
1010:
1006:
1002:
985:
906:lepidodendrales
830:
795:
763:
719:
699:
693:
683:
643:
637:
627:
622:
577:
569:Lepidodendrales
528:
501:
500:
499:
498:
487:
486:
485:
477:
476:
465:
369:
368:
367:
366:
365:
358:
350:
349:
330:
322:
321:
314:
303:
210:
202:
189:
176:
163:
126:
97:
95:
94:
89:
84:
79:
74:
69:
64:
59:
54:
49:
44:
39:
31:
30:
27:
17:
12:
11:
5:
2034:
2032:
2024:
2023:
2018:
2013:
2008:
2003:
1998:
1993:
1983:
1982:
1976:
1975:
1973:
1972:
1959:
1946:
1930:
1928:
1922:
1921:
1916:
1909:
1908:
1899:|journal=
1881:
1853:
1817:
1778:(22): 8623–8.
1758:
1741:
1714:(3): 259–307.
1698:
1691:
1671:
1656:
1641:
1608:
1573:
1554:(8): 882–890.
1534:
1521:10.1086/675235
1515:(2): 123–164.
1495:
1480:
1435:
1400:
1369:
1316:
1264:
1225:
1204:N. scheuchzeri
1190:
1140:
1121:(3): 486–492.
1105:
1086:
1069:
1052:
1046:978-0521274357
1045:
1019:
1003:
1001:
998:
997:
996:
991:
984:
981:
947:Lepidodendrons
929:Lepidodendrons
880:M. scheuchzeri
845:M. macrophylla
841:supercontinent
829:
826:
794:
791:
762:
759:
746:M. scheuchzeri
718:
715:
698:
695:
681:
659:Medullosa noei
651:Medullosa noei
642:
641:Reconstruction
639:
625:
620:
617:M. scheuchzeri
585:M. scheuchzeri
576:
573:
527:
524:
516:Medullosa noei
489:
488:
479:
478:
470:
469:
468:
467:
466:
464:
461:
457:Laveineopteris
359:
352:
351:
331:
324:
323:
320:(lower right).
315:
308:
307:
306:
305:
304:
302:
299:
287:M. macrophylla
263:is a genus of
254:
253:
252:
251:
244:
237:
234:M. macrophylla
230:
227:M. scheuchzeri
220:
219:
215:
214:
200:
196:
195:
187:
183:
182:
174:
170:
169:
161:
157:
156:
151:
144:
143:
138:
134:
133:
120:
119:
108:
107:
99:
98:
90:
85:
80:
75:
70:
65:
60:
55:
50:
45:
40:
35:
34:
28:
15:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2033:
2022:
2019:
2017:
2014:
2012:
2009:
2007:
2004:
2002:
1999:
1997:
1994:
1992:
1989:
1988:
1986:
1969:
1964:
1960:
1956:
1951:
1947:
1942:
1936:
1932:
1931:
1929:
1927:
1923:
1919:
1914:
1904:
1892:
1884:
1878:
1874:
1870:
1866:
1865:
1857:
1854:
1849:
1845:
1841:
1837:
1833:
1829:
1821:
1818:
1813:
1809:
1804:
1799:
1794:
1789:
1785:
1781:
1777:
1773:
1769:
1762:
1759:
1754:
1753:
1745:
1742:
1737:
1733:
1729:
1725:
1721:
1717:
1713:
1709:
1702:
1699:
1694:
1688:
1684:
1683:
1675:
1672:
1667:
1660:
1657:
1652:
1645:
1642:
1636:
1631:
1627:
1623:
1619:
1612:
1609:
1604:
1600:
1596:
1592:
1589:(91): 87–95.
1588:
1584:
1577:
1574:
1569:
1565:
1561:
1557:
1553:
1549:
1545:
1538:
1535:
1530:
1526:
1522:
1518:
1514:
1510:
1506:
1499:
1496:
1491:
1484:
1481:
1476:
1472:
1467:
1462:
1458:
1454:
1450:
1448:
1439:
1436:
1431:
1427:
1423:
1419:
1415:
1411:
1404:
1401:
1396:
1392:
1388:
1384:
1380:
1373:
1370:
1365:
1361:
1356:
1351:
1347:
1343:
1339:
1335:
1331:
1329:
1320:
1317:
1312:
1308:
1304:
1300:
1296:
1292:
1288:
1284:
1280:
1273:
1271:
1269:
1265:
1260:
1256:
1252:
1248:
1244:
1240:
1236:
1229:
1226:
1221:
1217:
1213:
1209:
1205:
1201:
1194:
1191:
1186:
1182:
1177:
1172:
1168:
1164:
1160:
1158:
1149:
1147:
1145:
1141:
1136:
1132:
1128:
1124:
1120:
1116:
1109:
1106:
1101:
1097:
1096:Palaeontology
1090:
1087:
1082:
1081:
1073:
1070:
1065:
1064:
1056:
1053:
1048:
1042:
1038:
1033:
1032:
1023:
1020:
1015:
1008:
1005:
999:
995:
992:
990:
987:
986:
982:
980:
978:
975:stage of the
974:
970:
966:
961:
959:
958:
953:
949:
948:
943:
939:
935:
931:
930:
924:
922:
918:
917:
912:
908:
907:
901:
899:
898:
893:
889:
885:
881:
877:
874:stage of the
873:
870:to the early
869:
868:Carboniferous
866:stage of the
865:
860:
858:
854:
850:
849:M. britannica
846:
842:
838:
834:
827:
825:
822:
818:
814:
810:
806:
805:
800:
792:
790:
788:
784:
780:
772:
767:
760:
758:
756:
751:
750:Trigonocarpus
747:
743:
739:
732:
728:
723:
716:
714:
712:
708:
707:trigonocarpus
704:
696:
691:
687:
680:
677:
670:
667:
662:
660:
656:
652:
648:
640:
635:
631:
624:
618:
612:
610:
609:Self-assembly
606:
602:
598:
594:
590:
586:
582:
572:
570:
566:
561:
556:
552:
547:
544:
536:
532:
525:
523:
521:
520:medullosalean
517:
514:
510:
506:
496:
492:
483:
474:
462:
460:
458:
454:
450:
446:
442:
438:
434:
430:
426:
422:
418:
414:
410:
406:
402:
398:
394:
390:
386:
382:
378:
374:
363:
356:
347:
343:
339:
335:
328:
319:
312:
300:
298:
296:
292:
291:M. britannica
288:
284:
281:
280:Carboniferous
277:
273:
270:in the order
269:
266:
265:Carboniferous
262:
261:
250:
249:
245:
243:
242:
241:M. britannica
238:
236:
235:
231:
229:
228:
224:
223:
221:
216:
209:
208:
201:
198:
197:
194:
188:
185:
184:
181:
175:
172:
171:
168:
162:
159:
158:
155:
154:Tracheophytes
152:
149:
146:
145:
142:
139:
136:
135:
130:
125:
121:
117:
113:
109:
105:
100:
93:
88:
83:
78:
73:
68:
63:
58:
53:
48:
43:
38:
32:Carboniferous
26:
22:
19:
1925:
1863:
1856:
1831:
1827:
1820:
1775:
1771:
1761:
1751:
1744:
1711:
1707:
1701:
1681:
1674:
1665:
1659:
1650:
1644:
1625:
1621:
1611:
1586:
1582:
1576:
1551:
1547:
1543:
1537:
1512:
1508:
1498:
1489:
1483:
1456:
1452:
1446:
1438:
1413:
1409:
1403:
1386:
1382:
1378:
1372:
1337:
1333:
1327:
1319:
1286:
1282:
1278:
1242:
1238:
1234:
1228:
1211:
1207:
1203:
1199:
1193:
1176:10.4138/1047
1166:
1162:
1156:
1118:
1114:
1108:
1099:
1095:
1089:
1079:
1072:
1062:
1055:
1030:
1022:
1013:
1007:
994:Medullosales
968:
962:
955:
951:
945:
933:
927:
925:
920:
914:
910:
904:
902:
895:
891:
879:
861:
856:
852:
848:
844:
832:
831:
828:Distribution
813:Arthropleura
812:
809:Arthropleura
808:
804:Arthropleura
802:
798:
796:
786:
782:
778:
776:
770:
754:
749:
745:
741:
737:
735:
730:
727:Medullosales
717:Ovules/seeds
710:
706:
702:
700:
697:Reproduction
689:
685:
675:
672:
665:
663:
658:
650:
646:
644:
633:
629:
616:
614:
596:
584:
580:
578:
554:
550:
548:
542:
540:
534:
515:
504:
502:
494:
490:
456:
452:
448:
444:
440:
436:
432:
428:
424:
420:
416:
412:
408:
400:
392:
389:Isaac Newton
384:
380:
377:Edward Lhuyd
372:
370:
341:
337:
333:
317:
294:
290:
286:
275:
272:Medullosales
259:
258:
257:
247:
246:
240:
239:
233:
232:
226:
225:
206:
205:
180:Medullosales
147:
111:
24:
18:
1355:11336/27961
1289:: 162–176.
1245:: 137–140.
1035:. pp.
989:Coal forest
771:Codonotheca
565:xeromorphic
513:organ taxon
509:organ taxon
463:Description
445:Neuropteris
441:Neuropteris
268:seed plants
1985:Categories
1102:: 837–882.
1000:References
965:Euramerica
942:Kasimovian
864:Bashkirian
839:, a large
837:Euramerica
755:Pachytesta
655:Delevoryas
503:The genus
283:Euramerica
160:Division:
1941:Q18351320
1901:ignored (
1891:cite book
1834:: 24–52.
1728:0006-8101
1475:1718-7885
1459:: 74–80.
1416:: 45–80.
1389:: 14–18.
1364:210635061
1311:0031-0182
1259:0166-5162
1185:1718-7885
957:Psaronius
916:Psaronius
897:Psaronius
884:Moscovian
601:trichomes
593:trichomes
589:trichomes
137:Kingdom:
1935:Wikidata
1812:22615414
1736:34091045
1529:45084239
1430:31155702
983:See also
973:Asselian
872:Asselian
729:such as
682:—
626:—
218:Species
186:Family:
1968:1465162
1955:7856435
1803:3365147
1780:Bibcode
1591:Bibcode
1568:2442184
1291:Bibcode
1135:1223109
977:Permian
876:Permian
605:cuticle
526:Foliage
348:, 1723.
199:Genus:
173:Order:
141:Plantae
1879:
1810:
1800:
1734:
1726:
1689:
1566:
1527:
1473:
1428:
1362:
1309:
1257:
1183:
1133:
1043:
821:Thrips
817:cycads
661:tree.
455:, and
431:, and
1963:IRMNG
1732:S2CID
1564:JSTOR
1525:S2CID
1426:S2CID
1360:S2CID
1169:(1).
1131:JSTOR
1115:Taxon
340:) in
336:(now
148:Clade
1950:GBIF
1903:help
1877:ISBN
1808:PMID
1772:PNAS
1724:ISSN
1687:ISBN
1471:ISSN
1307:ISSN
1255:ISSN
1202:and
1181:ISSN
1041:ISBN
851:and
293:and
37:PreꞒ
1869:doi
1844:hdl
1836:doi
1832:200
1798:PMC
1788:doi
1776:109
1716:doi
1630:doi
1599:doi
1556:doi
1517:doi
1513:175
1461:doi
1445:"A
1418:doi
1391:doi
1387:121
1350:hdl
1342:doi
1338:290
1299:doi
1287:331
1247:doi
1243:105
1216:doi
1171:doi
1123:doi
1037:581
926:As
632:",
549:In
344:by
1987::
1965::
1952::
1937::
1895::
1893:}}
1889:{{
1875:.
1842:.
1830:.
1806:.
1796:.
1786:.
1774:.
1770:.
1730:.
1722:.
1712:49
1710:.
1624:.
1620:.
1597:.
1587:16
1585:.
1562:.
1552:65
1550:.
1523:.
1507:.
1469:.
1457:45
1455:.
1451:.
1424:.
1414:22
1412:.
1385:.
1358:.
1348:.
1336:.
1332:.
1305:.
1297:.
1285:.
1267:^
1253:.
1241:.
1212:61
1210:.
1179:.
1167:39
1165:.
1161:.
1143:^
1129:.
1119:39
1117:.
1100:32
1098:.
1039:.
960:.
611:.
459:.
451:,
447:,
427:,
423:,
419:,
415:,
289:,
150::
87:Pg
1905:)
1885:.
1871::
1850:.
1846::
1838::
1814:.
1790::
1782::
1738:.
1718::
1695:.
1638:.
1632::
1626:6
1605:.
1601::
1593::
1570:.
1558::
1531:.
1519::
1477:.
1463::
1432:.
1420::
1397:.
1393::
1366:.
1352::
1344::
1313:.
1301::
1293::
1261:.
1249::
1222:.
1218::
1187:.
1173::
1137:.
1125::
1049:.
621:n
364:.
203:†
190:†
177:†
164:†
92:N
82:K
77:J
72:T
67:P
62:C
57:D
52:S
47:O
42:Ꞓ
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