Paleogene - Knowledge (XXG)

1653: 1398: 1915: 1886:. Originally thought to be stationary within the mantle, the hotspot is now considered to have drifted south during the Paleocene to early Eocene, as the Pacific Plate moved north. At c. 47 Ma, movement of the hotspot ceased and the Pacific Plate motion changed from northward to northwestward in response to the onset of subduction along its western margin. This resulted in a 60 degree bend in the seamount chain. Other seamount chains related to hotspots in the South Pacific show a similar change in orientation at this time. 1541:

to several models for Greater India: 1) A Late Cretaceous to early Paleocene subduction zone may have lain between India and Eurasia in the Neotethys, dividing the region into two plates, subduction was followed by collision of India with Eurasia in the middle Eocene. In this model Greater India would have been less than 900 km wide; 2) Greater India may have formed a single plate, several thousand kilometres wide, with the Tethyan Himalaya microcontinent separated from the Indian continent by an

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Ocean and became part of the cold circumpolar current. Dense polar waters sank into the deep oceans and moved northwards, reducing global ocean temperatures. This cooling may have occurred over less than 100,000 years and resulted in a widespread extinction in marine life. By the Eocene-Oligocene boundary, sediments deposited in the ocean from glaciers indicate the presence of an ice sheet in western Antarctica that extended to the ocean.

1545:. The microcontinent collided with southern Eurasia c. 58 Ma (late Paleocene), whilst the velocity of the plate did not decrease until c. 50 Ma when subduction rates dropped as young, oceanic crust entered the subduction zone; 3) This model assigns older dates to parts of Greater India, which changes its paleogeographic position relative to Eurasia and creates a Greater India formed of extended continental crust 2000 - 3000 km wide. 5708: 110: 1621:(c. 57 Ma), and, by the early Eocene (c. 54 Ma), into the northeastern Atlantic between Greenland and Eurasia. Extension between North America and Eurasia, also in the early Eocene, led to the opening of the Eurasian Basin across the Arctic, which was linked to the Baffin Bay Ridge and Mid-Atlantic Ridge to the south via major strike slip faults. 2095:

Changes in deep ocean currents, as Australia and South America moved away from Antarctica opening the Drake and Tasmanian passages, were responsible for the drop in global temperatures. The warm waters of the South Atlantic, Indian and South Pacific oceans extended southward into the opening Southern

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During the Eocene (c. 45 Ma), subduction of the Farallon Plate along the Central American subduction zone was (re)established. Subduction along the northern section of the Caribbean volcanic arc ceased as the Bahamas carbonate platform collided with Cuba and was replaced by strike-slip movements as a

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After c. 33 Ma seafloor spreading in Labrador Sea and Baffin Bay gradually ceased and seafloor spreading focused along the northeast Atlantic. By the late Oligocene, the plate boundary between North America and Eurasia was established along the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, with Greenland attached to the North

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The relatively cool conditions were brought to an end by the Thanetian Thermal Event, and the beginning of the PETM. This was one of the warmest times of the Phanerozoic eon, during which global mean surface temperatures increased to 31.6 °C. According to a study published in 2018, from about 56 to

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Debate about the amount of deformation seen in the geological record in the India–Eurasia collision zone versus the size of Greater India, the timing and nature of the collision relative to the decrease in plate velocity, and explanations for the unusually high velocity of the Indian plate have led

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Meredith, R. W.; Janecka, J. E.; Gatesy, J.; Ryder, O. A.; Fisher, C. A.; Teeling, E. C.; Goodbla, A.; Eizirik, E.; Simao, T. L. L.; Stadler, T.; Rabosky, D. L.; Honeycutt, R. L.; Flynn, J. J.; Ingram, C. M.; Steiner, C.; Williams, T. L.; Robinson, T. J.; Burk-Herrick, A.; Westerman, M.; Ayoub, N.

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in the British and Northwest Atlantic volcanic provinces occurred mainly in the early Palaeocene, the latter associated with an increased spreading rate in the Labrador Sea, whilst northeast Atlantic magmatism occurred mainly during the early Eocene and is associated with a change in the spreading

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The Izanagi-Pacific spreading ridge lay nearly parallel to the East Asian subduction zone and between 60–50 Ma the spreading ridge began to be subducted. By c. 50 Ma, the Pacific Plate was no longer surrounded by spreading ridges, but had a subduction zone along its western edge. This changed the

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The arrival of the proto-Iceland plume has been considered the driving mechanism for rifting in the North Atlantic. However, that rifting and initial seafloor spreading occurred prior to the arrival of the plume, large scale magmatism occurred at a distance to rifting, and that rifting propagated

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that formed during the Late Cretaceous. During the Late Cretaceous to Paleocene, subduction of Atlantic crust was established along its northern margin, whilst to the southwest, an island arc collided with the northern Andes forming an east dipping subduction zone where Caribbean lithosphere was

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data place the present day Indian continent further south at the time of collision and decrease in plate velocity, indicating the presence of a large region to the north of India that has now been subducted beneath the Eurasian Plate or incorporated into the mountain belt. This region, known as

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plates. The central Pacific Plate grew by seafloor spreading as the other three plates were subducted and broken up. In the southern Pacific, seafloor spreading continued from the Late Cretaceous across the Pacific–Antarctic, Pacific-Farallon and Farallon–Antarctic mid ocean ridges.

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of ocean crust onto the Arabian margin in the Late Cretaceous to Paleocene, with break-off of the subducted oceanic plate close to the Arabian margin occurring during the Eocene. Continental collision began during the Eocene c. 35 Ma and continued into the Oligocene to c. 26 Ma.

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zones, rather than one long system. In the western Mediterranean, the European Plate was subducted southwards beneath the African Plate, whilst in the eastern Mediterranean, Africa was subducted beneath Eurasia along a northward dipping subduction zone. Convergence between the

1971:(PETM). By the middle Eocene, temperatures began to drop again and by the late Eocene (c. 37 Ma) had decreased sufficiently for ice sheets to form in Antarctica. The global climate entered icehouse conditions at the Eocene-Oligocene boundary and the present day 1685:

direction in the Labrador Sea and the northward drift of Greenland. The locations of the magmatism coincide with the intersection of propagating the rifts and large-scale, pre-existing lithospheric structures, which acted as channels to the surface for the

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towards, rather than away from the plume, has led to the suggestion the plume and associated magmatism may have been a result, rather than a cause, of the plate tectonic forces that led to the propagation of rifting from the Central to the North Atlantic.

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with volcanic arc was accreted during the latest Cretaceous and Paleocene, whilst the Central Andes were dominated by the subduction of oceanic crust and the Southern Andes were impacted by the subduction of the Farallon-East Antarctic ocean ridge.

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Steininger, Fritz F.; M. P. Aubry; W. A. Berggren; M. Biolzi; A. M. Borsetti; Julie E. Cartlidge; F. Cati; R. Corfield; R. Gelati; S. Iaccarino; C. Napoleone; F. Ottner; F. Rögl; R. Roetzel; S. Spezzaferri; F. Tateo; G. Villa; D. Zevenboom (1997).

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Schmid, Stefan M.; Fügenschuh, Bernhard; Kounov, Alexandre; Maţenco, Liviu; Nievergelt, Peter; Oberhänsli, Roland; Pleuger, Jan; Schefer, Senecio; Schuster, Ralf; Tomljenović, Bruno; Ustaszewski, Kamil; van Hinsbergen, Douwe J. J. (2020-02-01).

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Collision between India and the West Burma block was complete by the late Oligocene. As the India-Eurasia collision continued, movement of material away from the collision zone was accommodated along, and extended, the already existing major

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into organic-rich sediments during volcanic activity in the North Atlantic Igneous Province, between about 56 and 54 Ma, which rapidly released large amounts of greenhouse gases into the atmosphere. This warming led to melting of frozen

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Map showing the northwards drift of the Indian continent between 71 and 0 Ma. The leading edge of Greater India (not shown on the map) collided with the Eurasian plate c. 55 Ma, whilst India itself still lay to the south. (From: Dèzes,

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Subduction of the Farallon Plate beneath the American plates continued from the Late Cretaceous. The Kula-Farallon spreading ridge lay to its north until the Eocene (c. 55 Ma), when the northern section of the plate split forming the

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from the cooler oceans also reduced moisture in the atmosphere and increased aridity. By the early Oligocene, the North American and Eurasian tropical and subtropical forests were replaced by dry woodlands and widespread grasslands.

2155:, mammals began to evolve from a few small and generalized forms into most of the modern varieties we see presently. Some of these mammals evolved into large forms that dominated the land, while others became capable of living in 2107:, and the cooler waters reduced the rate of bacterial decay of organic matter and promoted the growth of methane hydrates in marine sediments. This created a positive feedback cycle where global cooling reduced atmospheric CO 2053:

The (relatively) sudden climatic changes associated with the PETM resulted in the extinction of some groups of fauna and flora and the rise of others. For example, with the warming of the Arctic Ocean, around 70% of deep sea

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at c. 83 Ma and drifted rapidly (c. 18 cm/yr in the Paleocene) northwards towards the southern margin of Eurasia. A rapid decrease in velocity to c. 5 cm/yr in the early Eocene records the collision of the Tethyan (Tibetan)

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began to build across the Antarctica continent that now lay isolated in the south polar region and surrounded by cold ocean waters. These changes contributed to the fall in global temperatures and the beginning of icehouse

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During the Late Cretaceous to Paleogene, the northward movement of the Indian Plate led to the highly oblique subduction of the Neotethys along the edge of the West Burma block and the development of a major north-south

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The collision of Adria with Eurasia in the early Palaeocene was followed by a  c.10 million year pause in the convergence of Africa and Eurasia, connected with the onset of the opening of the North Atlantic Ocean as

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48 Ma, annual air temperatures over land and at mid-latitude averaged about 23–29 °C (± 4.7 °C). For comparison, this was 10 to 15 °C higher than the current annual mean temperatures in these areas.

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in hot, humid conditions. Tropical and subtropical forests flourished and extended into polar regions. Water vapour (a greenhouse gas) associated with these forests also contributed to the greenhouse conditions.

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Over the Paleogene, changes in plate motion and episodes of regional slab shallowing and steepening resulted in variations in the magnitude of crustal shortening and amounts of magmatism along the length of the

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Brombin, Valentina; Bonadiman, Costanza; Jourdan, Fred; Roghi, Guido; Coltorti, Massimo; Webb, Laura E.; Callegaro, Sara; Bellieni, Giuliano; De Vecchi, Giampaolo; Sedea, Roberto; Marzoli, Andrea (2019-05-01).

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from the atmosphere by the plants. From this time until about 34 Ma, there was a slow cooling trend known as the Middle-Late Eocene Cooling. As temperatures dropped at high latitudes the presence of cold water

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Vandenberghe, N.; Hilgen, F. J.; Speijer, R. P.; Ogg, J. G.; Gradstein, F. M.; Hammer, O.; Hollis, C. J.; Hooker, J. J. (2012-01-01), Gradstein, Felix M.; Ogg, James G.; Schmitz, Mark D.; Ogg, Gabi M. (eds.),

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Between about 40 and 30 Ma, subduction began along the western Mediterranean arc of the Tell, Rif, Betic and Apennine mountain chains. The rate of convergence was less than the subduction rate of the dense

1664:. The middle and top sections are two parts of a single basaltic lava flow; each part of the lava flow cooled differently, forming rock with different characteristics. The middle layer shows spectacular 1986:, which was followed by an abrupt period of warming. After temperatures stabilised, the steady cooling and drying of the Late Cretaceous-Early Paleogene Cool Interval that had spanned the last two 1410:

rifted from the Eurasian Plate in the Palaeocene. Convergence rates between Africa and Eurasia increased again in the early Eocene and the remaining oceanic basins between Adria and Europe closed.

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along the northern margin of India during the opening of the Neotethys. The Tethyan Himalaya block lay along its northern edge, with the Neotethys Ocean lying between it and southern Eurasia.

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Tropical taxa diversified faster than those at higher latitudes after the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event, resulting in the development of a significant latitudinal diversity gradient.

1593:. During the middle Eocene, north-dipping subduction resumed along the southern edge of Southeast Asia, from west Sumatra to West Sulawesi, as the Australian Plate drifted slowly northwards. 2314:

Molina, Eustoquio; Alegret, Laia; Arenillas, Ignacio; José A. Arz; Gallala, Njoud; Hardenbol, Jan; Katharina von Salis; Steurbaut, Etienne; Vandenberghe, Noel; Dalila Zaghibib-Turki (2006).

4656: 3056:"Detrital zircon provenance record of the Zagros mountain building from the Neotethys obduction to the Arabia–Eurasia collision, NW Zagros fold–thrust belt, Kurdistan region of Iraq" 2316:"The Global Boundary Stratotype Section and Point for the base of the Danian Stage (Paleocene, Paleogene, "Tertiary", Cenozoic) at El Kef, Tunisia - Original definition and revision" 5088: 1636:. From c. 47 Ma, the eastern margin of Greenland was cut by the Reykjanes Ridge (the northeastern branch of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge) propagating northwards and splitting off the 4520:

Naafs, B. D. A.; Rohrssen, M.; Inglis, G. N.; Lähteenoja, O.; Feakins, S. J.; Collinson, M. E.; Kennedy, E. M.; Singh, P. K.; Singh, M. P.; Lunt, D. J.; Pancost, R. D. (2018).

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forces acting on the Pacific Plate and led to a major reorganisation of plate motions across the entire Pacific region. The resulting changes in stress between the Pacific and

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During the mid to late Eocene (50–35 Ma), plate convergence rates decreased and the dip of the Farallon slab began to steepen. Uplift ceased and the region largely levelled by

4618:"Carbon isotope and mammal recovery from extreme greenhouse warming at the Paleocene–Eocene boundary in astronomically-calibrated fluvial strata, Bighorn Basin, Wyoming, USA" 1902:

and opened the Southern Ocean also during this time, completing the breakup of Gondwana. The opening of these passages and the creation of the Southern Ocean established the

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transform fault, extending from the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, connected with the northern boundary of the Caribbean Plate. Subduction now focused along the southern Caribbean arc (

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settled, a period of cool and dry conditions continued from the Late Cretaceous. At the Paleocene-Eocene boundary global temperatures rose rapidly with the onset of the

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along the margin of Southeast Asia to the south. Between c. 60 and 50 Ma, the leading northeastern edge of Greater India collided with the West Burma block resulting in

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American plate again, and the Jan Mayen microcontinent part of the Eurasian Plate, where its remains now lie to the east and possibly beneath the southeast of Iceland.

1124:, which would have been deposited over only a few days. Similar layers are seen in marine and continental deposits worldwide. These layers include the iridium anomaly, 3329:

Meng, Jun; Gilder, Stuart A.; Tan, Xiaodong; Li, Xin; Li, Yalin; Luo, Hui; Suzuki, Noritoshi; Wang, Zihao; Chi, Yuchen; Zhang, Chunyang; Wang, Chengshan (2023-08-15).

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From the Eocene and into the early Oligocene, Greenland acted as an independent plate moving northwards and rotating anticlockwise. This led to compression across the

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Ocean-continent convergence accommodated by east dipping subduction zone of the Farallon Plate beneath the western edge of South America continued from the Mesozoic.

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Martin, Craig R.; Jagoutz, Oliver; Upadhyay, Rajeev; Royden, Leigh H.; Eddy, Michael P.; Bailey, Elizabeth; Nichols, Claire I. O.; Weiss, Benjamin P. (2020-11-24).

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Peace, Alexander L.; Phethean, J. J. J.; Franke, D.; Foulger, G. R.; Schiffer, C.; Welford, J. K.; McHone, G.; Rocchi, S.; Schnabel, M.; Doré, A. G. (2020-07-01).

3753:"Integrating structural, paleomagnetic, and thermo/geochronologic studies to understand evolution of the Sevier and Laramide belts, northern Utah to Wyoming" 1898:

in the Eocene and deep ocean routes opening from the mid Oligocene. Rifting between the Antarctic Peninsula and the southern tip of South America formed the

1073: 2878:"Late Cretaceous-Cenozoic basin inversion and palaeostress fields in the North Atlantic-western Alpine-Tethys realm: Implications for intraplate tectonics" 1475:

developed on the Eurasia margin as the Neotethys crust was subducted beneath it. A separate intra-oceanic subduction zone in the Neotethys resulted in the

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From the Late Cretaceous into the early Paleocene, Africa began to converge with Eurasia. The irregular outlines of the continental margins, including the

1855:. At the Paleogene-Neogene boundary, spreading ceased between the Pacific and Farallon plates and the Farallon Plate split again forming the present date 4956: 4616:

van der Meulen, Bas; Gingerich, Philip D.; Lourens, Lucas J.; Meijer, Niels; van Broekhuizen, Sjors; van Ginneken, Sverre; Abels, Hemmo A. (2020-03-15).

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Sauermilch, Isabel; Whittaker, Joanne M.; Klocker, Andreas; Munday, David R.; Hochmuth, Katharina; Bijl, Peter K.; LaCasce, Joseph H. (9 November 2021).

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Seton, M.; Müller, R. D.; Zahirovic, S.; Gaina, C.; Torsvik, T.; Shephard, G.; Talsma, A.; Gurnis, M.; Turner, M.; Maus, S.; Chandler, M. (2012-07-01).

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A.; Springer, M. S.; Murphy, W. J. (28 October 2011). "Impacts of the Cretaceous Terrestrial Revolution and KPg Extinction on Mammal Diversification".

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The Early Oligocene Glacial Maximum lasted for about 200,000 years, and the global mean surface temperature continued to decrease gradually during the

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Period was used to define the time now covered by the Paleogene Period and subsequent Neogene Period; despite no longer being recognized as a formal

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Fu, Xiaofei; Feng, Zhiqiang; Zhang, Faqiang; Zhang, Zhongmin; Guo, Jinrui; Cao, Zhe; Kor, Ting; Cheng, Ming; Yan, Jianzhao; Zhou, Yu (2024-03-01).

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suggests sea ice was able to form in winter in the Arctic Ocean, and by the late Eocene (c. 37 Ma) there is evidence of glaciation in Antarctica.

1064:: the Paleocene, Eocene, and Oligocene. These stratigraphic units can be defined globally or regionally. For global stratigraphic correlation, the 3556:

Abdelmalak, M. M.; Planke, S.; Polteau, S.; Hartz, E. H.; Faleide, J. I.; Tegner, C.; Jerram, D. A.; Millett, J. M.; Myklebust, R. (2019-06-05).

2006: 1894:

Slow seafloor spreading continued between Australia and East Antarctica. Shallow water channels probably developed south of Tasmania opening the

1680:, which rose beneath the Greenland lithosphere at c. 65 Ma. There were two main phases of volcanic activity with peaks at c. 60 Ma and c. 55 Ma. 1401:

Present day tectonic map of southern Europe, North Africa and the Middle East, showing structures of the western Alpine-Himalayan orogenic belt.

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Sprong, M.; Youssef, J. A.; Bornemann, André; Schulte, P.; Steurbaut, E.; Stassen, P.; Kouwenhoven, T. J.; Speijer, Robert P. (September 2011).

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adding further greenhouses gases. It also reduced the rate of burial of organic matter as higher temperatures accelerated the rate of bacterial

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The Oligocene is the third and youngest series/epoch of the Paleogene, and lasted from 33.9 Ma to 23.03 Ma. It is divided into two stages: the

1043:, through global cooling during the Eocene to the first appearance of permanent ice sheets in the Antarctic at the beginning of the Oligocene. 2774:"Cenozoic detrital suites from the Internal Betic-Rif Cordilleras (S Spain and N Morocco): implications for paleogeography and paleotectonics" 4846: 3732: 2697: 2622: 1120:

impact, and is associated with the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event. The boundary is defined as the rusty colored base of a 50 cm thick

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beneath the North American Plate. Along the central section of the North American margin, crustal shortening of the Cretaceous to Paleocene

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is the key marker for the Eocene-Oligocene boundary, which was a time of climate cooling that led to widespread changes in fauna and flora.

1040: 490: 5074: 1879: 4521: 1847:. In the Oligocene (c. 28 Ma), the first segment of the Pacific–Farallon spreading ridge entered the North American subduction zone near 1927:

Extensional stresses from the subduction zone along the northern Neotethys resulted in rifting between Africa and Arabia, forming the

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University of Bristol (30 July 2018). "Ever-increasing CO2 levels could take us back to the tropical climate of Paleogene period".

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Montes, Camilo; Rodriguez-Corcho, Andres Felipe; Bayona, German; Hoyos, Natalia; Zapata, Sebastian; Cardona, Agustin (2019-11-01).

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Zachos, J. C.; Kump, L. R. (2005). "Carbon cycle feedbacks and the initiation of Antarctic glaciation in the earliest Oligocene".

1870:. Spreading between the Kula and Pacific and Farallon plates ceased c. 40 Ma and the Kula Plate became part of the Pacific Plate. 1092:

The Paleocene is the first series/epoch of the Paleogene and lasted from 66.0 Ma to 56.0 Ma. It is divided into three stages: the

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This rapid rise in global temperatures and intense greenhouse conditions were due to a sudden increase in levels of atmospheric

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The Eocene is the second series/epoch of the Paleogene, and lasted from 56.0 Ma to 33.9 Ma. It is divided into four stages: the

1673: 1010: 866: 2077:. This change of climate at about 48.5 Ma, is believed to have been caused by a proliferation of aquatic ferns from the genus 1652: 4949: 1836: 1832: 1668:

resulting from relatively slow cooling; the top layer has very irregular closely-spaced joints caused by more rapid cooling.

2073:(c. 53.69 Ma), and the Eocene Thermal Maximum 3 (c. 53 Ma). The early Eocene warm conditions were brought to an end by the 4389: 4273:"Paleoceanographic changes across the Latest Danian Event in the South Atlantic Ocean and planktic foraminiferal response" 3272:

van Hinsbergen, Douwe J. J.; Lippert, Peter C.; Li, Shihu; Huang, Wentao; Advokaat, Eldert L.; Spakman, Wim (2019-06-05).

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The Kula Plate lay between Pacific Plate and North America. To the north and northwest it was being subducted beneath the

2127:. A drop in global sea levels during the mid Oligocene indicates major growth of the Antarctic glacial ice sheet. In the 1955:

began in the mid Oligocene, and across the central and northern Red Sea regions in the late Oligocene and early Miocene.

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and Eurasian plates as the Neotethys Ocean closed and is composed sediments scrapped from the descending Arabian Plate.

4329:"The Impact of the Latest Danian Event on Planktic Foraminiferal Faunas at ODP Site 1210 (Shatsky Rise, Pacific Ocean)" 2131:, global temperatures began to warm slightly, though they continued to be significantly lower than during the previous 5747: 5097: 595: 4063:

Seton, Maria; Flament, Nicolas; Whittaker, Joanne; Müller, R. Dietmar; Gurnis, Michael; Bower, Dan J. (2015-03-28).

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forests developed in mountainous areas. This cooling trend continued, with major fluctuation, until the end of the

1998:(c. 62.2 Ma) when global temperatures rose. There is no evidence for ice sheets at the poles during the Paleocene. 1425:

In the eastern Mediterranean, c. 35 Ma, the Anatolide-Tauride platform (northern part of Adria) began to enter the

1753:. By the Oligocene, convergence gave way to extension, rifting and widespread volcanism across the Laramide belt. 4942: 3805:"Tectonic Regimes of the Central and Southern Andes: Responses to Variations in Plate Coupling During Subduction" 1731: 1707: 1515: 1200:

ratios, produced by a major period of global warming. The change in climate was due to a rapid release of frozen

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The development of the circumpolar current led to changes in the oceans, which in turn reduced atmospheric CO

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and the opening of the Central Atlantic Ocean. The result was a series of arcuate mountain ranges, from the

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59.2 - 56.0 Ma. The GSSP for the base of the Cenozoic, Paleogene and Paleocene is at Oued Djerfane, west of

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during this period. After the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event, which saw the demise of the non-avian

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that lay to the east of the Sevier belt, and more than 700km from the trench. With the Laramide uplift the

4720: 4161: 4114: 3967: 3917: 3642: 3557: 3499: 3452: 3400: 3273: 3156: 3109: 2993: 2935: 2877: 2876:

Stephenson, Randell; Schiffer, Christian; Peace, Alexander; Nielsen, Søren Bom; Jess, Scott (2020-11-01).

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stretches across the Greenland and northwest European margins and is associated with the proto-Icelandic

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developed in response to the collision between the African and Eurasian plates during the closing of the

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Jehle, Sofie; Bornemann, André; Lägel, Anna Friederike; Deprez, Arne; Speijer, Robert P. (1 July 2019).

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Jiang, Zhaoxia; Li, Sanzhong; Liu, Qingsong; Zhang, Jianli; Zhou, Zaizheng; Zhang, Yuzhen (2021-04-01).

2936:"Intraplate magmatism at a convergent plate boundary: The case of the Cenozoic northern Adria magmatism" 2723: 2527: 1972: 1598: 1586: 1534: 1057: 1009:, "Tertiary" still sometimes remains in informal use. Paleogene is often abbreviated "Pg", although the 662: 640: 3968:"Continental margin response to multiple arc-continent collisions: The northern Andes-Caribbean margin" 3852:"Mesozoic–Cenozoic Evolution of the Western Margin of South America: Case Study of the Peruvian Andes" 2521:

Scotese, Christopher Robert; Song, Haijun; Mills, Benjamin J.W.; van der Meer, Douwe G. (April 2021).

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lessened and deformation moved eastward. The decreasing dip of the subducting Farallon Plate led to a

741: 4879: 4801: 4729: 4670: 4558: 4538: 4468: 4404: 4342: 4286: 4225: 4173: 4126: 4076: 4026: 3979: 3929: 3863: 3816: 3764: 3654: 3569: 3511: 3464: 3412: 3342: 3285: 3218: 3168: 3121: 3067: 3005: 2947: 2889: 2785: 2735: 2536: 2468: 2271: 2159:, specialized terrestrial, and airborne environments. Those that adapted to the oceans became modern 1828: 1722:

segment that increased friction between this and the base of the North American Plate. The resulting

1719: 1519: 1355: 1278: 1266: 1077: 1069: 1021: 4065:"Ridge subduction sparked reorganization of the Pacific plate-mantle system 60–50 million years ago" 2403: 2066:

between North America and Eurasia allowing the movement of land animals between the two continents.

5701: 4064: 3804: 1661: 1310: 5742: 4903: 4819: 4761: 4696: 4562: 4420: 4302: 4014: 2552: 2522: 2492: 2180: 2039: 1844: 1739: 1625: 1610: 1359: 1306: 1262: 1197: 5718: 3643:"A review of Pangaea dispersal and Large Igneous Provinces – In search of a causative mechanism" 3564:. Linking Plate Tectonics and Volcanism to Deep Earth Dynamics – a tribute to Trond H. Torsvik. 3506:. Linking Plate Tectonics and Volcanism to Deep Earth Dynamics – a tribute to Trond H. Torsvik. 3280:. Linking Plate Tectonics and Volcanism to Deep Earth Dynamics – a tribute to Trond H. Torsvik. 2297: 1397: 4657:"High-resolution deep-sea carbon and oxygen isotope records of Eocene Thermal Maximum 2 and H2" 2523:"Phanerozoic paleotemperatures: The earth's changing climate during the last 540 million years" 5499: 5463: 4895: 4852: 4842: 4753: 4745: 4661: 4637: 4529: 4502: 4484: 4370: 4253: 4189: 4142: 4092: 4042: 3995: 3945: 3881: 3832: 3782: 3728: 3680: 3618: 3595: 3527: 3480: 3428: 3376: 3358: 3311: 3254: 3236: 3184: 3137: 3085: 3031: 2973: 2915: 2855: 2811: 2751: 2693: 2618: 2484: 2216: 2035: 1951:

mantle plume began to impact the base of the African lithosphere. Rifting across the southern

1895: 1852: 1665: 1347: 1201: 1145: 839: 630: 2062:, appeared. Fluctuating sea levels meant, during low stands, a land bridge formed across the 5593: 5468: 5437: 5234: 4887: 4809: 4737: 4686: 4678: 4629: 4554: 4546: 4492: 4476: 4412: 4360: 4350: 4294: 4243: 4233: 4181: 4134: 4084: 4034: 3987: 3937: 3871: 3824: 3772: 3670: 3662: 3585: 3577: 3519: 3500:"Global Eocene tectonic unrest: Possible causes and effects around the North American plate" 3472: 3420: 3366: 3350: 3301: 3293: 3244: 3226: 3207:"Paleocene latitude of the Kohistan–Ladakh arc indicates multistage India–Eurasia collision" 3176: 3129: 3075: 3055: 3021: 3013: 2963: 2955: 2905: 2897: 2845: 2801: 2793: 2743: 2544: 2476: 2364: 2327: 2279: 1983: 1964: 1918:

Paleogene flood basalts on the Ethiopian Plateau with the Afar Depression in the background.

1723: 1523: 1449: 1371: 1274: 1141: 1140:, all indicators of a major extraterrestrial impact. The remains of the crater are found at 872: 4599:"Ever-increasing CO2 levels could take us back to the tropical climate of Paleogene period" 1613:

propagated from the Central Atlantic northwards between North America and Greenland in the

1429:

leading to the development of the Dinarides, Hellenides and Tauride mountain chains as the

5562: 5458: 5396: 5291: 5260: 5229: 4714:

Zachos, James C.; Lohmann, Kyger C.; Walker, James C. G.; Wise, Sherwood W. (March 1993).

2369: 2332: 2315: 2210:

resulted in a massive floral shift, and many extant modern plants arose during this time.

2132: 1991: 1963:

Climatic conditions varied considerably during the Paleogene. After the disruption of the

1867: 1848: 1783: 1770: 1735: 1727: 1633: 1582: 1437: 1407: 1282: 1113: 967: 956: 4716:"Abrupt Climate Change and Transient Climates during the Paleogene: A Marine Perspective" 4655:

Stap, L.; Lourens, L.J.; Thomas, E.; Sluijs, A.; Bohaty, S.; Zachos, J.C. (1 July 2010).

1814:

At the beginning of the Paleogene, the Pacific Ocean consisted of the Pacific, Farallon,

1660:, Scotland (person standing on cliff top for scale). The bottom section of this cliff is 1204:

from seafloor sediments at the beginning of the Paleocene-Eocene thermal maximum (PETM).

4883: 4805: 4733: 4674: 4542: 4472: 4408: 4390:"A multi-proxy record of the Latest Danian Event at Gebel Qreiya, Eastern Desert, Egypt" 4346: 4290: 4229: 4177: 4130: 4080: 4030: 3983: 3933: 3867: 3820: 3768: 3658: 3573: 3515: 3468: 3416: 3371: 3346: 3330: 3289: 3222: 3172: 3125: 3071: 3009: 2951: 2893: 2789: 2747: 2739: 2540: 2472: 2275: 5712: 5531: 5401: 5296: 5265: 4715: 4497: 4454: 4365: 4328: 3274:"Reconstructing Greater India: Paleogeographic, kinematic, and geodynamic perspectives" 3249: 3206: 2200: 2030: 2014: 1883: 1715: 1711: 1554: 1529: 1430: 1378: 1327: 1286: 1270: 1255: 1234: 1137: 829: 5736: 5432: 5422: 5391: 5354: 5286: 5255: 4823: 4566: 4327:

Jehle, Sofie; Bornemann, André; Deprez, Arne; Speijer, Robert P. (25 November 2015).

4306: 4113:

Wright, Nicky M.; Seton, Maria; Williams, Simon E.; Müller, R. Dietmar (2016-03-01).

2994:"Tectonic units of the Alpine collision zone between Eastern Alps and western Turkey" 2556: 2433: 2220:, began to proliferate, at the expense of tropical plants, which began to decrease. 2104: 2063: 2043: 1987: 1979: 1899: 1819: 1574: 1562: 1542: 1507: 1465: 1387: 1343: 1302: 1290: 68: 4907: 4814: 4787: 4765: 4700: 4424: 4185: 4138: 3991: 3941: 3666: 3476: 2959: 2901: 2797: 2548: 2496: 2283: 1381:

that extended north from the African Plate, led to the development of several short

5723: 5707: 5654: 5504: 5427: 2196: 2148: 2074: 2055: 1932: 1928: 1677: 1614: 1590: 1472: 1363: 1331: 1294: 1239: 1006: 737: 2384: 1394:

and, as Adria pushed northwards the Alps and Carpathian orogens began to develop.

114:

Map of Earth as it appeared 50 million years ago during the Eocene, Ypresian stage

4355: 4298: 3133: 2029:

The initial rise in global temperatures was related to the intrusion of magmatic

5649: 5518: 5494: 5339: 5134: 4522:"High temperatures in the terrestrial mid-latitudes during the early Palaeogene" 3581: 3523: 3297: 2225: 2116: 1948: 1860: 1856: 1415: 1298: 43: 4633: 4480: 4428: 3876: 3851: 2434:"Divisions of Geologic Time—Major Chronostratigraphic and Geochronologic Units" 5644: 5604: 5547: 5447: 5344: 5218: 5118: 5066: 5034: 4550: 4238: 4213: 3777: 2724:"Subduction Orogeny and the Late Cenozoic Evolution of the Mediterranean Arcs" 2229: 2176: 2022: 1815: 1618: 1498: 1426: 1422:

of the subducting slab led to the arcuate structure of these mountain ranges.

1419: 1382: 1335: 1221: 1188:

37.71 Ma to 33.9 Ma. The GSSP for the base of the Eocene is at Dababiya, near

1185: 1157: 1081: 1033: 971: 730: 434: 263: 88: 53: 4899: 4749: 4641: 4488: 4257: 4193: 4146: 4096: 4046: 3999: 3949: 3885: 3836: 3786: 3684: 3599: 3531: 3484: 3432: 3424: 3362: 3315: 3240: 3188: 3180: 3141: 3089: 3035: 3017: 2977: 2919: 2859: 2815: 2755: 2349: 781: 768: 699: 686: 5659: 5609: 5583: 5542: 5489: 5334: 5310: 5191: 5181: 5029: 5008: 5003: 4988: 4978: 4856: 4416: 3354: 3231: 3080: 2480: 2350:"The Global Stratotype Section and Point (GSSP) for the base of the Neogene" 2221: 2207: 2184: 2172: 2103:

further. Increasing upwellings of cold water stimulated the productivity of

2018: 1681: 1503: 1476: 1181: 1164:

and many other groups of organisms, are also used for correlation purposes.

1101: 1097: 998: 990: 975: 510: 425: 398: 388: 354: 308: 20: 4929: 4870:

Muller, Jan (January 1981). "Fossil pollen records of extant angiosperms".

4757: 4506: 4374: 4115:"The Late Cretaceous to recent tectonic history of the Pacific Ocean basin" 3380: 3258: 2772:

Martín-Martín, Manuel; Perri, Francesco; Critelli, Salvatore (2023-08-01).

2488: 2115:

lead to changes which further lowered global temperatures. The decrease in

1488: 109: 3110:"Wilson cycles of the Zagros fold and thrust belt: A comprehensive review" 5619: 5614: 5578: 5478: 5411: 5380: 5275: 5244: 5205: 5155: 5129: 5105: 5050: 5045: 5024: 5019: 4455:"Gateway-driven weakening of ocean gyres leads to Southern Ocean cooling" 4333: 4088: 3828: 2968: 2160: 2152: 2128: 2124: 1936: 1629: 1433: 1391: 1217: 1213: 1177: 1173: 1161: 1153: 1117: 1002: 983: 756: 452: 443: 416: 407: 239: 226: 83: 78: 63: 58: 48: 4248: 3675: 3054:

Koshnaw, Renas I.; Schlunegger, Fritz; Stockli, Daniel F. (2021-11-03).

2832:

Brunsmann, Quentin; Rosenberg, Claudio Luca; Bellahsen, Nicolas (2024).

2806: 5633: 5573: 5323: 5160: 5144: 4891: 4691: 4038: 3306: 3026: 2850: 2211: 2192: 2188: 2164: 2059: 1952: 1907: 1750: 1566: 1558: 1251: 1125: 1109: 979: 678: 661:

enriched layer associated with a major meteorite impact and subsequent

658: 299: 98: 73: 4013:

van Benthem, Steven; Govers, Rob; Spakman, Wim; Wortel, Rinus (2013).

3590: 2910: 5669: 5552: 5186: 4998: 4983: 4682: 2144: 2089: 2079: 1995: 1657: 1457: 1367: 1225: 1149: 1133: 1129: 1105: 1093: 1025: 994: 812: 674: 379: 335: 2058:

species went extinct, whilst on land many modern mammals, including

4934: 4741: 2404:"FGDC Digital Cartographic Standard for Geologic Map Symbolization" 3453:"Late Cretaceous–Early Palaeogene tectonic development of SE Asia" 2168: 2156: 2017:. An accompanying rise in humidity is reflected in an increase in 1944: 1940: 1913: 1766: 1686: 1651: 1511: 1487: 1396: 1229: 1193: 1189: 1061: 1024:

from relatively small, simple forms into a large group of diverse

760: 3918:"Global continental and ocean basin reconstructions since 200 Ma" 2577: 1522:

rocks scraped off the now subducted Indian continental crust and

1039:

The Period is marked by considerable changes in climate from the

5693: 5689: 5685: 4788:"Early Cenozoic evolution of the latitudinal diversity gradient" 4212:

Boone, Samuel C.; Balestrieri, Maria-Laura; Kohn, Barry (2021).

1851:

leading to major strike-slip movements and the formation of the

1570: 1464:. It formed as a result of the convergence and collision of the 1461: 1453: 1351: 1258: 1196:

and is marked by the start of a significant variation in global

1121: 37: 5070: 4938: 1220:

27.82 - 23.03 Ma. The GSSP for the base of the Oligocene is at

1339: 986: 899: 126: 4593: 4591: 2228:

period. This evidence for this floral shift is found in the

935: 917: 911: 893: 887: 881: 4162:"The trials and tribulations of the Hawaii hot spot model" 4015:"Tectonic evolution and mantle structure of the Caribbean" 3558:"Breakup volcanism and plate tectonics in the NW Atlantic" 3401:"Multiple Tethyan ocean basins and orogenic belts in Asia" 3157:"Multiple Tethyan ocean basins and orogenic belts in Asia" 2834:"The Western Alpine arc: a review and new kinematic model" 2688:

Torsvik, Trond H.; Cocks, Leonard Robert Morrison (2017).

2183:

as they took over the skies left empty by the now extinct

1518:. To the south of this zone, the Himalaya are composed of 1452:

belt stretches for c. 2000 km from the eastern border of

896: 16:

First period of the Cenozoic Era (66–23 million years ago)

1931:

in the late Eocene. To the west, in the early Oligocene,

929: 3751:

Yonkee, W. A.; Weil, A. B.; Wells, M. L. (2024-07-01).

3331:"Strengthening the argument for a large Greater India" 2175:

which were already well established by the end of the

2083:, resulting in the sequestering of large amounts of CO 944: 902: 1017:" for the Paleogene on the Survey's geologic maps. 932: 926: 908: 884: 878: 5668: 5632: 5592: 5561: 5530: 5517: 5477: 5446: 5410: 5379: 5353: 5322: 5309: 5274: 5243: 5217: 5204: 5169: 5143: 5117: 5104: 4925:

Paleogene Microfossils: 180+ images of Foraminifera

3727:(4th ed.). New York: W.H.Freeman and Company. 3617:(2nd ed.). Edinburgh: Dunedin Academic Press. 2385:"GeoWhen Database – What Happened to the Tertiary?" 1994:continued, with only the brief interruption of the 1806:began to collide with northwestern South American. 1656:A Paleogene-aged basaltic lava flow on the Isle of 1609:During the Paleocene, seafloor spreading along the 923: 875: 847: 827: 810: 805: 797: 751: 723: 715: 669: 654: 646: 636: 626: 621: 613: 601: 591: 586: 578: 570: 565: 119: 28: 3850:Pfiffner, O. Adrian; Gonzalez, Laura (June 2013). 1738:extending to mid-crustal depths and the uplift of 4278:Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 2244: – Geological boundary between time periods 1978:The Paleogene began with the brief but intense " 970:that spans 43 million years from the end of the 4214:"Tectono-Thermal Evolution of the Red Sea Rift" 3649:. A new paradigm for the North Atlantic Realm. 3335:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 3211:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 2722:Royden, Leigh; Faccenna, Claudio (2018-05-30). 1084:) identifying the lower boundary of the stage. 982:Period 23.03 Ma. It is the first period of the 2516: 2514: 2512: 2510: 2508: 2506: 1506:, the leading edge of Greater India, with the 1301:mountain chains and the western margin of the 547:Subdivision of the Paleogene according to the 5082: 4950: 3498:Gaina, Carmen; Jakob, Johannes (2019-06-05). 2728:Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 1791:subducted beneath the South American margin. 8: 1786:is largely composed of oceanic crust of the 1557:extends from the Himalayas in India through 1436:of Adria were scrapped off onto the Eurasia 1074:Global Boundary Stratotype Section and Point 978:(million years ago) to the beginning of the 4019:Journal of Geophysical Research Solid Earth 2303:. International Commission on Stratigraphy. 2163:, while those that adapted to trees became 914: 890: 5527: 5319: 5214: 5114: 5089: 5075: 5067: 4974: 4957: 4943: 4935: 2578:"International Commission on Stratigraphy" 554:Vertical axis scale: millions of years ago 4813: 4690: 4559:1983/82e93473-2a5d-4a6d-9ca1-da5ebf433d8b 4496: 4364: 4354: 4247: 4237: 3875: 3776: 3674: 3589: 3370: 3305: 3248: 3230: 3079: 3025: 2967: 2909: 2849: 2805: 2692:. Cambridge: Cambridge university press. 2368: 2331: 2298:"International Chronostratigraphic Chart" 2135:of the Paleogene and polar ice remained. 2069:The PETM was followed by the less severe 1526:lithosphere as the collision progressed. 1632:and northern Greenland resulting in the 1066:International Commission on Stratigraphy 3718: 3716: 3714: 2254: 4207: 4205: 4203: 4108: 4106: 4058: 4056: 3961: 3959: 3911: 3909: 3907: 3905: 3903: 3901: 3899: 3897: 3895: 3798: 3796: 3746: 3744: 3723:Stanley, Steven; Luczaj, John (2015). 3712: 3710: 3708: 3706: 3704: 3702: 3700: 3698: 3696: 3694: 3636: 3634: 3615:"Volcanoes and the Making of Scotland" 3551: 3549: 3547: 3545: 3543: 3541: 3446: 3444: 3442: 2683: 2681: 2679: 2677: 2675: 2673: 2671: 2669: 2667: 2665: 2663: 2661: 2659: 2617:, Boston: Elsevier, pp. 855–921, 1831:plates initiated subduction along the 1706:Mountain building continued along the 1553:The Alpine-Himalayan Orogenic Belt in 1514:(southern Eurasian margin), along the 25: 3394: 3392: 3390: 3200: 3198: 3103: 3101: 3099: 3049: 3047: 3045: 2871: 2869: 2827: 2825: 2767: 2765: 2717: 2715: 2713: 2711: 2709: 2657: 2655: 2653: 2651: 2649: 2647: 2645: 2643: 2641: 2639: 2603: 2601: 2599: 2597: 1726:, which began the development of the 1648:North Atlantic Large Igneous Province 1030:Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event 7: 4930:Paleogene (chronostratigraphy scale) 2167:, the group to which humans belong. 1802:By the Oligocene, the intra-oceanic 1265:extended northwards, separating the 1056:The Paleogene is divided into three 519: 498: 480: 5688:= kiloannum (thousands years ago); 4622:Earth and Planetary Science Letters 2748:10.1146/annurev-earth-060115-012419 2611:"Chapter 28 - The Paleogene Period" 2402:Federal Geographic Data Committee. 1250:The final stages of the breakup of 5692:= megaannum (millions years ago); 3803:Horton, Brian K. (February 2018). 2411:The National Geologic Map Database 1297:collided with Eurasia forming the 853:(4.5 °C above pre-industrial) 14: 5696:= gigaannum (billions years ago). 4786:Crame, J. Alistair (March 2020). 2690:Earth history and palaeogeography 2439:. United States Geological Survey 2413:. United States Geological Survey 1710:in response to subduction of the 1497:The Indian continent rifted from 1418:of the western Mediterranean and 1254:occurred during the Paleogene as 5717: 5706: 2187:. Some flightless birds such as 1969:Paleocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum 1788:Caribbean Large Igneous Province 1746:was divided and then retreated. 1516:Indus-Yarling-Zangbo suture zone 1041:Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum 871: 108: 4815:10.1016/j.earscirev.2020.103090 4186:10.1016/j.earscirev.2021.103544 4139:10.1016/j.earscirev.2015.11.015 3992:10.1016/j.earscirev.2019.102903 3942:10.1016/j.earscirev.2012.03.002 3667:10.1016/j.earscirev.2019.102902 3477:10.1016/j.earscirev.2012.08.002 3114:Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 2960:10.1016/j.earscirev.2019.03.016 2902:10.1016/j.earscirev.2020.103252 2798:10.1016/j.earscirev.2023.104498 2549:10.1016/j.earscirev.2021.103503 2432:Orndorff, R.C. (20 July 2010). 2370:10.18814/epiiugs/1997/v20i1/005 2333:10.18814/epiiugs/2006/v29i4/004 2284:10.1016/j.gloplacha.2005.01.001 2199:also filled niches left by the 1880:Hawaiian-Emperor seamount chain 1674:North Atlantic Igneous Province 1390:and European plates led to the 1011:United States Geological Survey 1022:mammals continued to diversify 948:-lee-ə-jeen, -⁠lee-oh-, 1: 5135:Pleistocene (11.7 ka–2.58 Ma) 4397:Journal of Micropalaeontology 3757:Journal of Structural Geology 2242:Cretaceous–Paleogene boundary 2203:and other extinct dinosaurs. 2021:in sediments, which forms by 1904:Antarctic Circumpolar Current 1804:Central American volcanic arc 1020:During the Paleogene period, 806:Atmospheric and climatic data 736:Near first appearance of the 4356:10.1371/journal.pone.0141644 4299:10.1016/j.palaeo.2019.03.024 4069:Geophysical Research Letters 3451:Morley, C. K. (2012-10-01). 3399:Metcalfe, Ian (2021-12-01). 3155:Metcalfe, Ian (2021-12-01). 3134:10.1016/j.jseaes.2023.105993 1845:Vancouver/Juan de Fuca Plate 1769:. In the Northern Andes, an 1471:From the Late Cretaceous, a 5098:Geological history of Earth 3582:10.1016/j.tecto.2018.08.002 3524:10.1016/j.tecto.2018.08.010 3298:10.1016/j.tecto.2018.04.006 2264:Global and Planetary Change 1626:Canadian Arctic Archipelago 1379:Adriatic promontory (Adria) 5764: 5371:Mississippian (323–359 Ma) 5366:Pennsylvanian (299–323 Ma) 5130:Holocene (present–11.7 ka) 4634:10.1016/j.epsl.2019.116044 4481:10.1038/s41467-021-26658-1 4218:Frontiers in Earth Science 3877:10.3390/geosciences3020262 2838:Comptes Rendus. Géoscience 2206:Pronounced cooling in the 1346:cordillera in the western 1317:Alpine - Himalayan Orogeny 1216:33.9 Ma to 27.82 Ma; and, 1184:41.2 Ma to 37.71 Ma; and, 968:geologic period and system 843:(1.8 times pre-industrial) 729:Base of magnetic polarity 18: 5683: 5655:Paleoarchean (3.2–3.6 Ga) 5505:Terreneuvian (521–539 Ma) 4972: 4837:Traverse, Alfred (1988). 4551:10.1038/s41561-018-0199-0 4239:10.3389/feart.2021.713448 3778:10.1016/j.jsg.2024.105104 3407:. SPECIAL ISSUE: GR-100. 3163:. SPECIAL ISSUE: GR-100. 1732:thick-skinned deformation 1533:Greater India, formed by 1032:that ended the preceding 1001:epochs. The earlier term 724:Upper boundary definition 655:Lower boundary definition 544: 124: 107: 33: 5650:Mesoarchean (2.8–3.2 Ga) 5495:Miaolingian (497–509 Ma) 5340:Guadalupian (260–272 Ma) 5192:Paleocene (56.0–66.0 Ma) 5182:Oligocene (23.0–33.9 Ma) 3425:10.1016/j.gr.2021.01.012 3181:10.1016/j.gr.2021.01.012 3018:10.1016/j.gr.2019.07.005 2111:and this reduction in CO 2071:Eocene Thermal Maximum 2 1708:North America Cordillera 1638:Jan Mayen microcontinent 1160:and dramatic changes in 1152:. The extinction of the 989:and is divided into the 848:Mean surface temperature 755:Lemme-Carrosio Section, 742:Paragloborotalia kugleri 738:Planktonic foraminiferan 19:Not to be confused with 5645:Neoarchean (2.5–2.8 Ga) 5610:Orosirian (1.8–2.05 Ga) 5605:Statherian (1.6–1.8 Ga) 5548:Cryogenian (635–720 Ma) 5438:Llandovery (433–444 Ma) 5345:Cisuralian (272–299 Ma) 5156:Pliocene (2.59–5.33 Ma) 4417:10.1144/0262-821X10-023 3355:10.1073/pnas.2305928120 3232:10.1073/pnas.2009039117 3081:10.5194/se-12-2479-2021 2615:The Geologic Time Scale 2481:10.1126/science.1211028 1923:Red Sea and East Africa 1744:Western Interior Seaway 1601:systems of the region. 1013:uses the abbreviation " 5615:Rhyacian (2.05–2.3 Ga) 5584:Calymmian (1.4–1.6 Ga) 5543:Ediacaran (539–635 Ma) 5490:Furongian (485–497 Ma) 5335:Lopingian (252–260 Ma) 5161:Miocene (5.33–23.0 Ma) 4721:The Journal of Geology 2050:back into the oceans. 1919: 1730:, was a broad zone of 1669: 1494: 1402: 823:(125 % of modern) 212:−25 — 202:−30 — 192:−35 — 182:−40 — 172:−45 — 162:−50 — 152:−55 — 142:−60 — 132:−65 — 5620:Siderian (2.3–2.5 Ga) 5579:Ectasian (1.2–1.4 Ga) 5500:Series 2 (509–521 Ma) 5187:Eocene (33.9–56.0 Ma) 4793:Earth-Science Reviews 4603:University of Bristol 4460:Nature Communications 4166:Earth-Science Reviews 4119:Earth-Science Reviews 3972:Earth-Science Reviews 3922:Earth-Science Reviews 3647:Earth-Science Reviews 3613:Upton, Brian (2015). 3457:Earth-Science Reviews 2940:Earth-Science Reviews 2882:Earth-Science Reviews 2778:Earth-Science Reviews 2528:Earth-Science Reviews 1973:Late Cenozoic ice age 1917: 1655: 1491: 1400: 1232:. The extinction the 1112:. It is marked by an 1100:61.6 - 59.2 Ma; and, 1076:(GSSP) from a single 663:K-Pg extinction event 582:Palaeogene, Palæogene 579:Alternate spelling(s) 5660:Eoarchean (3.6–4 Ga) 5553:Tonian (720 Ma–1 Ga) 5433:Wenlock (427–433 Ma) 5423:Pridoli (419–423 Ma) 4872:The Botanical Review 4089:10.1002/2015GL063057 3829:10.1002/2017TC004624 3725:Earth System Science 2389:www.stratigraphy.org 1180:47.8 Ma to 41.2 Ma; 1176:56.0 Ma to 47.8 Ma; 1068:(ICS) ratify global 511:permanent ice-sheets 5715: • 5704: • 5702:Geologic time scale 5464:Middle (458–470 Ma) 5428:Ludlow (423–427 Ma) 5397:Middle (383–393 Ma) 5292:Middle (237–247 Ma) 5261:Middle (164–174 Ma) 4884:1981BotRv..47....1M 4806:2020ESRv..20203090C 4734:1993JG....101..191Z 4675:2010Geo....38..607S 4543:2018NatGe..11..766N 4473:2021NatCo..12.6465S 4409:2011JMicP..30..167S 4347:2015PLoSO..1041644J 4291:2019PPP...525....1J 4230:2021FrEaS...9..588B 4178:2021ESRv..21503544J 4131:2016ESRv..154..138W 4081:2015GeoRL..42.1732S 4031:2013JGRB..118.3019V 3984:2019ESRv..19802903M 3934:2012ESRv..113..212S 3868:2013Geosc...3..262P 3821:2018Tecto..37..402H 3769:2024JSG...18405104Y 3659:2020ESRv..20602902P 3574:2019Tectp.760..267A 3516:2019Tectp.760..136G 3469:2012ESRv..115...37M 3417:2021GondR.100...87M 3347:2023PNAS..12005928M 3341:(33): e2305928120. 3290:2019Tectp.760...69V 3223:2020PNAS..11729487M 3217:(47): 29487–29494. 3173:2021GondR.100...87M 3126:2024JAESc.26205993F 3072:2021SolE...12.2479K 3010:2020GondR..78..308S 2952:2019ESRv..192..355B 2894:2020ESRv..21003252S 2790:2023ESRv..24304498M 2740:2018AREPS..46..261R 2541:2021ESRv..21503503S 2473:2011Sci...334..521M 2276:2005GPC....47...51Z 2214:and herbs, such as 2179:, also experienced 2023:chemical weathering 1996:Latest Danian Event 1662:volcaniclastic rock 1440:during subduction. 1154:non-avian dinosaurs 1028:in the wake of the 798:Upper GSSP ratified 778: / 752:Upper boundary GSSP 716:Lower GSSP ratified 696: / 670:Lower boundary GSSP 647:Time span formality 5748:Geological periods 5713:Geology portal 5574:Stenian (1–1.2 Ga) 5469:Early (470–485 Ma) 5402:Early (393–419 Ma) 5297:Early (247–252 Ma) 5266:Early (174–201 Ma) 5235:Early (100–145 Ma) 5230:Late (66.0–100 Ma) 4892:10.1007/bf02860537 4039:10.1002/jgrb.50235 2851:10.5802/crgeos.253 2181:adaptive radiation 2040:continental slopes 1920: 1670: 1611:Mid-Atlantic Ridge 1495: 1460:coast in southern 1403: 1263:seafloor spreading 1202:methane clathrates 1007:stratigraphic term 782:44.6589°N 8.8364°E 700:36.1537°N 8.6486°E 637:Stratigraphic unit 627:Chronological unit 614:Time scale(s) used 5730: 5729: 5628: 5627: 5594:Paleoproterozoic 5513: 5512: 5459:Late (444–458 Ma) 5392:Late (359–383 Ma) 5305: 5304: 5287:Late (201–237 Ma) 5256:Late (145–164 Ma) 5200: 5199: 5121:(present–2.58 Ma) 5109:(present–66.0 Ma) 5064: 5063: 5059: 5058: 4848:978-0-04-561001-3 4530:Nature Geoscience 3734:978-1-319-15402-8 3405:Gondwana Research 3161:Gondwana Research 3066:(11): 2479–2501. 2998:Gondwana Research 2699:978-1-107-10532-4 2624:978-0-444-59425-9 2467:(6055): 521–524. 2046:which released CO 1896:Tasmanian Passage 1882:formed above the 1853:San Andreas Fault 1833:Izu-Bonin-Mariana 1666:columnar jointing 1484:Himalayan Orogeny 1146:Yucatan Peninsula 857: 856: 828:Mean atmospheric 811:Mean atmospheric 587:Usage information 560: 559: 540: 539: 518: 517: 497: 496: 5755: 5724:World portal 5722: 5721: 5711: 5710: 5673: 5637: 5597: 5566: 5563:Mesoproterozoic 5535: 5528: 5523: 5482: 5451: 5415: 5384: 5358: 5327: 5320: 5315: 5279: 5248: 5222: 5215: 5210: 5174: 5148: 5122: 5115: 5110: 5091: 5084: 5077: 5068: 4975: 4966:Paleogene Period 4959: 4952: 4945: 4936: 4912: 4911: 4867: 4861: 4860: 4834: 4828: 4827: 4817: 4783: 4777: 4776: 4774: 4772: 4711: 4705: 4704: 4694: 4683:10.1130/G30777.1 4652: 4646: 4645: 4613: 4607: 4606: 4595: 4586: 4585: 4577: 4571: 4570: 4526: 4517: 4511: 4510: 4500: 4450: 4444: 4443: 4441: 4439: 4433: 4427:. Archived from 4394: 4385: 4379: 4378: 4368: 4358: 4341:(11): e0141644. 4324: 4318: 4317: 4315: 4313: 4268: 4262: 4261: 4251: 4241: 4209: 4198: 4197: 4157: 4151: 4150: 4110: 4101: 4100: 4075:(6): 1732–1740. 4060: 4051: 4050: 4025:(6): 3019–3036. 4010: 4004: 4003: 3963: 3954: 3953: 3913: 3890: 3889: 3879: 3847: 3841: 3840: 3800: 3791: 3790: 3780: 3748: 3739: 3738: 3720: 3689: 3688: 3678: 3638: 3629: 3628: 3610: 3604: 3603: 3593: 3553: 3536: 3535: 3495: 3489: 3488: 3448: 3437: 3436: 3396: 3385: 3384: 3374: 3326: 3320: 3319: 3309: 3269: 3263: 3262: 3252: 3234: 3202: 3193: 3192: 3152: 3146: 3145: 3105: 3094: 3093: 3083: 3051: 3040: 3039: 3029: 2988: 2982: 2981: 2971: 2930: 2924: 2923: 2913: 2873: 2864: 2863: 2853: 2829: 2820: 2819: 2809: 2769: 2760: 2759: 2719: 2704: 2703: 2685: 2634: 2633: 2632: 2631: 2605: 2592: 2591: 2589: 2588: 2582:stratigraphy.org 2574: 2568: 2567: 2565: 2563: 2518: 2501: 2500: 2455: 2449: 2448: 2446: 2444: 2438: 2429: 2423: 2422: 2420: 2418: 2408: 2399: 2393: 2392: 2381: 2375: 2374: 2372: 2354: 2344: 2338: 2337: 2335: 2311: 2305: 2304: 2302: 2294: 2288: 2287: 2259: 2036:methane hydrates 2015:greenhouse gases 1984:Chicxulub impact 1982:" caused by the 1965:Chicxulub impact 1884:Hawaiian hotspot 1724:Laramide Orogeny 1563:West Burma block 1444:Zagros Mountains 1392:Pyrenean Orogeny 1313:plate boundary. 1299:Alpine-Himalayan 1096:66.0 - 61.6 Ma; 1016: 951: 947: 942: 941: 938: 937: 934: 931: 928: 925: 920: 919: 916: 913: 910: 905: 904: 901: 898: 895: 892: 889: 886: 883: 880: 877: 870: 861:Paleogene Period 821:c. 26 vol % 793: 792: 790: 789: 788: 783: 779: 776: 775: 774: 771: 711: 710: 708: 707: 706: 701: 697: 694: 693: 692: 689: 673:El Kef Section, 535: 525: 520: 513: 509:First Antarctic 504: 499: 486: 481: 455: 446: 437: 428: 419: 410: 401: 392: 382: 373: 348: 329: 293: 257: 232: 218: 213: 208: 203: 198: 193: 188: 183: 178: 173: 168: 163: 158: 153: 148: 143: 138: 133: 127: 112: 103: 40: 26: 5763: 5762: 5758: 5757: 5756: 5754: 5753: 5752: 5733: 5732: 5731: 5726: 5716: 5705: 5697: 5679: 5671: 5664: 5635: 5624: 5595: 5588: 5564: 5557: 5533: 5532:Neoproterozoic 5522:(539 Ma–2.5 Ga) 5521: 5520: 5519:Proterozoic Eon 5509: 5480: 5473: 5449: 5442: 5413: 5406: 5382: 5375: 5356: 5349: 5325: 5313: 5312: 5301: 5277: 5270: 5246: 5239: 5220: 5208: 5207: 5196: 5172: 5165: 5146: 5139: 5120: 5108: 5107: 5100: 5095: 5065: 5060: 5055: 5039: 5013: 4989:Oligocene Epoch 4979:Paleocene Epoch 4968: 4963: 4921: 4916: 4915: 4869: 4868: 4864: 4849: 4841:. Unwin Hyman. 4839:Paleopalynology 4836: 4835: 4831: 4785: 4784: 4780: 4770: 4768: 4713: 4712: 4708: 4654: 4653: 4649: 4615: 4614: 4610: 4597: 4596: 4589: 4579: 4578: 4574: 4537:(10): 766–771. 4524: 4519: 4518: 4514: 4452: 4451: 4447: 4437: 4435: 4434:on 28 June 2023 4431: 4392: 4387: 4386: 4382: 4326: 4325: 4321: 4311: 4309: 4270: 4269: 4265: 4211: 4210: 4201: 4159: 4158: 4154: 4112: 4111: 4104: 4062: 4061: 4054: 4012: 4011: 4007: 3965: 3964: 3957: 3915: 3914: 3893: 3849: 3848: 3844: 3802: 3801: 3794: 3750: 3749: 3742: 3735: 3722: 3721: 3692: 3640: 3639: 3632: 3625: 3612: 3611: 3607: 3555: 3554: 3539: 3497: 3496: 3492: 3450: 3449: 3440: 3398: 3397: 3388: 3328: 3327: 3323: 3271: 3270: 3266: 3204: 3203: 3196: 3154: 3153: 3149: 3107: 3106: 3097: 3053: 3052: 3043: 2990: 2989: 2985: 2932: 2931: 2927: 2875: 2874: 2867: 2844:(S2): 231–263. 2831: 2830: 2823: 2771: 2770: 2763: 2721: 2720: 2707: 2700: 2687: 2686: 2637: 2629: 2627: 2625: 2607: 2606: 2595: 2586: 2584: 2576: 2575: 2571: 2561: 2559: 2520: 2519: 2504: 2457: 2456: 2452: 2442: 2440: 2436: 2431: 2430: 2426: 2416: 2414: 2406: 2401: 2400: 2396: 2383: 2382: 2378: 2352: 2346: 2345: 2341: 2313: 2312: 2308: 2300: 2296: 2295: 2291: 2261: 2260: 2256: 2251: 2238: 2149:diversification 2141: 2139:Flora and fauna 2114: 2110: 2102: 2086: 2049: 2012: 1992:Late Cretaceous 1961: 1935:erupted across 1925: 1892: 1876: 1868:Aleutian trench 1849:Baja California 1812: 1797:Lesser Antilles 1784:Caribbean Plate 1780: 1771:oceanic plateau 1759: 1728:Rocky Mountains 1704: 1699: 1650: 1617:(c. 62 Ma) and 1607: 1583:transform fault 1551: 1549:South East Asia 1520:metasedimentary 1486: 1450:Zagros mountain 1446: 1332:Neotethys Ocean 1324: 1319: 1305:changed from a 1248: 1246:Palaeogeography 1210: 1170: 1162:marine plankton 1116:produced by an 1114:iridium anomaly 1090: 1054: 1049: 1014: 949: 945: 922: 907: 874: 865: 864: 852: 842: 833: 822: 816: 787:44.6589; 8.8364 786: 784: 780: 777: 772: 769: 767: 765: 764: 763: 705:36.1537; 8.6486 704: 702: 698: 695: 690: 687: 685: 683: 682: 681: 561: 556: 555: 553: 536: 532: 529: 523: 514: 508: 502: 493: 484: 477: 476: 472: 471: 467: 466: 462: 461: 457: 456: 451: 448: 447: 442: 439: 438: 433: 430: 429: 424: 421: 420: 415: 412: 411: 406: 403: 402: 397: 394: 393: 391: 387: 384: 383: 378: 375: 374: 370: 368: 366: 364: 362: 360: 358: 356: 353: 350: 349: 345: 343: 341: 339: 337: 334: 331: 330: 328: 327: 324: 322: 320: 318: 316: 314: 312: 310: 307: 304: 303: 295: 294: 289: 287: 285: 283: 281: 279: 277: 275: 271: 268: 267: 259: 258: 253: 251: 249: 247: 245: 243: 241: 237: 234: 233: 228: 224: 219: 216: 214: 211: 209: 206: 204: 201: 199: 196: 194: 191: 189: 186: 184: 181: 179: 176: 174: 171: 169: 166: 164: 161: 159: 156: 154: 151: 149: 146: 144: 141: 139: 136: 134: 131: 115: 102: 101: 96: 91: 86: 81: 76: 71: 66: 61: 56: 51: 46: 36:66.0 – 23.03 35: 34: 24: 17: 12: 11: 5: 5761: 5759: 5751: 5750: 5745: 5735: 5734: 5728: 5727: 5684: 5681: 5680: 5677: 5675: 5666: 5665: 5663: 5662: 5657: 5652: 5647: 5641: 5639: 5630: 5629: 5626: 5625: 5623: 5622: 5617: 5612: 5607: 5601: 5599: 5590: 5589: 5587: 5586: 5581: 5576: 5570: 5568: 5559: 5558: 5556: 5555: 5550: 5545: 5539: 5537: 5525: 5515: 5514: 5511: 5510: 5508: 5507: 5502: 5497: 5492: 5486: 5484: 5475: 5474: 5472: 5471: 5466: 5461: 5455: 5453: 5444: 5443: 5441: 5440: 5435: 5430: 5425: 5419: 5417: 5408: 5407: 5405: 5404: 5399: 5394: 5388: 5386: 5377: 5376: 5374: 5373: 5368: 5362: 5360: 5355:Carboniferous 5351: 5350: 5348: 5347: 5342: 5337: 5331: 5329: 5317: 5307: 5306: 5303: 5302: 5300: 5299: 5294: 5289: 5283: 5281: 5272: 5271: 5269: 5268: 5263: 5258: 5252: 5250: 5241: 5240: 5238: 5237: 5232: 5226: 5224: 5212: 5202: 5201: 5198: 5197: 5195: 5194: 5189: 5184: 5178: 5176: 5173:(23.0–66.0 Ma) 5167: 5166: 5164: 5163: 5158: 5152: 5150: 5147:(2.58–23.0 Ma) 5141: 5140: 5138: 5137: 5132: 5126: 5124: 5112: 5102: 5101: 5096: 5094: 5093: 5086: 5079: 5071: 5062: 5061: 5057: 5056: 5054: 5053: 5048: 5042: 5040: 5038: 5037: 5032: 5027: 5022: 5016: 5014: 5012: 5011: 5006: 5001: 4995: 4992: 4991: 4986: 4981: 4973: 4970: 4969: 4964: 4962: 4961: 4954: 4947: 4939: 4933: 4932: 4927: 4920: 4919:External links 4917: 4914: 4913: 4862: 4847: 4829: 4778: 4742:10.1086/648216 4728:(2): 191–213. 4706: 4669:(7): 607–610. 4647: 4608: 4587: 4572: 4512: 4445: 4403:(2): 167–182. 4380: 4319: 4263: 4199: 4152: 4102: 4052: 4005: 3955: 3928:(3): 212–270. 3891: 3862:(2): 262–310. 3842: 3815:(2): 402–429. 3792: 3740: 3733: 3690: 3630: 3623: 3605: 3562:Tectonophysics 3537: 3504:Tectonophysics 3490: 3438: 3386: 3321: 3278:Tectonophysics 3264: 3194: 3147: 3095: 3041: 2983: 2925: 2865: 2821: 2761: 2734:(1): 261–289. 2705: 2698: 2635: 2623: 2593: 2569: 2502: 2450: 2424: 2394: 2376: 2339: 2326:(4): 263–278. 2306: 2289: 2253: 2252: 2250: 2247: 2246: 2245: 2237: 2234: 2201:hesperornithes 2147:began a rapid 2140: 2137: 2129:Late Oligocene 2112: 2108: 2100: 2084: 2064:Bering Straits 2047: 2010: 2007:carbon dioxide 1960: 1957: 1943:and southwest 1924: 1921: 1891: 1888: 1875: 1874:Hawaii hotspot 1872: 1837:Tonga-Kermadec 1829:Philippine Sea 1811: 1808: 1779: 1776: 1758: 1755: 1740:basement rocks 1712:Farallon plate 1703: 1700: 1698: 1695: 1649: 1646: 1634:Eureka Orogeny 1606: 1605:Atlantic Ocean 1603: 1555:Southeast Asia 1550: 1547: 1530:Palaeomagnetic 1485: 1482: 1445: 1442: 1431:passive margin 1328:Alpine Orogeny 1323: 1322:Alpine Orogeny 1320: 1318: 1315: 1287:Southern Ocean 1285:, opening the 1256:Atlantic Ocean 1247: 1244: 1209: 1206: 1198:carbon isotope 1169: 1166: 1138:shocked quartz 1089: 1086: 1053: 1050: 1048: 1045: 855: 854: 849: 845: 844: 836: 831: 825: 824: 819: 814: 808: 807: 803: 802: 799: 795: 794: 753: 749: 748: 747: 746: 734: 725: 721: 720: 717: 713: 712: 671: 667: 666: 656: 652: 651: 648: 644: 643: 638: 634: 633: 628: 624: 623: 619: 618: 617:ICS Time Scale 615: 611: 610: 603: 602:Regional usage 599: 598: 593: 592:Celestial body 589: 588: 584: 583: 580: 576: 575: 572: 571:Name formality 568: 567: 563: 562: 558: 557: 545: 542: 541: 538: 537: 528: 526: 516: 515: 507: 505: 495: 494: 489: 487: 478: 474: 473: 469: 468: 464: 463: 459: 458: 450: 449: 441: 440: 432: 431: 423: 422: 414: 413: 405: 404: 396: 395: 386: 385: 377: 376: 352: 351: 333: 332: 306: 305: 297: 296: 270: 269: 261: 260: 236: 235: 223: 222: 220: 215: 210: 205: 200: 195: 190: 185: 180: 175: 170: 165: 160: 155: 150: 145: 140: 135: 130: 125: 122: 121: 117: 116: 113: 105: 104: 97: 92: 87: 82: 77: 72: 67: 62: 57: 52: 47: 42: 41: 31: 30: 15: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 5760: 5749: 5746: 5744: 5741: 5740: 5738: 5725: 5720: 5714: 5709: 5703: 5700: 5695: 5691: 5687: 5682: 5676: 5674: 5667: 5661: 5658: 5656: 5653: 5651: 5648: 5646: 5643: 5642: 5640: 5638: 5631: 5621: 5618: 5616: 5613: 5611: 5608: 5606: 5603: 5602: 5600: 5598: 5591: 5585: 5582: 5580: 5577: 5575: 5572: 5571: 5569: 5567: 5560: 5554: 5551: 5549: 5546: 5544: 5541: 5540: 5538: 5536: 5534:(539 Ma–1 Ga) 5529: 5526: 5524: 5516: 5506: 5503: 5501: 5498: 5496: 5493: 5491: 5488: 5487: 5485: 5483: 5476: 5470: 5467: 5465: 5462: 5460: 5457: 5456: 5454: 5452: 5445: 5439: 5436: 5434: 5431: 5429: 5426: 5424: 5421: 5420: 5418: 5416: 5409: 5403: 5400: 5398: 5395: 5393: 5390: 5389: 5387: 5385: 5378: 5372: 5369: 5367: 5364: 5363: 5361: 5359: 5352: 5346: 5343: 5341: 5338: 5336: 5333: 5332: 5330: 5328: 5321: 5318: 5316: 5311:Paleozoic Era 5308: 5298: 5295: 5293: 5290: 5288: 5285: 5284: 5282: 5280: 5273: 5267: 5264: 5262: 5259: 5257: 5254: 5253: 5251: 5249: 5242: 5236: 5233: 5231: 5228: 5227: 5225: 5223: 5221:(66.0–145 Ma) 5216: 5213: 5211: 5209:(66.0–252 Ma) 5203: 5193: 5190: 5188: 5185: 5183: 5180: 5179: 5177: 5175: 5168: 5162: 5159: 5157: 5154: 5153: 5151: 5149: 5142: 5136: 5133: 5131: 5128: 5127: 5125: 5123: 5116: 5113: 5111: 5103: 5099: 5092: 5087: 5085: 5080: 5078: 5073: 5072: 5069: 5052: 5049: 5047: 5044: 5043: 5041: 5036: 5033: 5031: 5028: 5026: 5023: 5021: 5018: 5017: 5015: 5010: 5007: 5005: 5002: 5000: 4997: 4996: 4994: 4993: 4990: 4987: 4985: 4982: 4980: 4977: 4976: 4971: 4967: 4960: 4955: 4953: 4948: 4946: 4941: 4940: 4937: 4931: 4928: 4926: 4923: 4922: 4918: 4909: 4905: 4901: 4897: 4893: 4889: 4885: 4881: 4877: 4873: 4866: 4863: 4858: 4854: 4850: 4844: 4840: 4833: 4830: 4825: 4821: 4816: 4811: 4807: 4803: 4799: 4795: 4794: 4789: 4782: 4779: 4767: 4763: 4759: 4755: 4751: 4747: 4743: 4739: 4735: 4731: 4727: 4723: 4722: 4717: 4710: 4707: 4702: 4698: 4693: 4688: 4684: 4680: 4676: 4672: 4668: 4664: 4663: 4658: 4651: 4648: 4643: 4639: 4635: 4631: 4627: 4623: 4619: 4612: 4609: 4604: 4600: 4594: 4592: 4588: 4583: 4576: 4573: 4568: 4564: 4560: 4556: 4552: 4548: 4544: 4540: 4536: 4532: 4531: 4523: 4516: 4513: 4508: 4504: 4499: 4494: 4490: 4486: 4482: 4478: 4474: 4470: 4466: 4462: 4461: 4456: 4449: 4446: 4430: 4426: 4422: 4418: 4414: 4410: 4406: 4402: 4398: 4391: 4384: 4381: 4376: 4372: 4367: 4362: 4357: 4352: 4348: 4344: 4340: 4336: 4335: 4330: 4323: 4320: 4308: 4304: 4300: 4296: 4292: 4288: 4284: 4280: 4279: 4274: 4267: 4264: 4259: 4255: 4250: 4245: 4240: 4235: 4231: 4227: 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2883: 2879: 2872: 2870: 2866: 2861: 2857: 2852: 2847: 2843: 2840:(in French). 2839: 2835: 2828: 2826: 2822: 2817: 2813: 2808: 2803: 2799: 2795: 2791: 2787: 2783: 2779: 2775: 2768: 2766: 2762: 2757: 2753: 2749: 2745: 2741: 2737: 2733: 2729: 2725: 2718: 2716: 2714: 2712: 2710: 2706: 2701: 2695: 2691: 2684: 2682: 2680: 2678: 2676: 2674: 2672: 2670: 2668: 2666: 2664: 2662: 2660: 2658: 2656: 2654: 2652: 2650: 2648: 2646: 2644: 2642: 2640: 2636: 2626: 2620: 2616: 2612: 2604: 2602: 2600: 2598: 2594: 2583: 2579: 2573: 2570: 2558: 2554: 2550: 2546: 2542: 2538: 2534: 2530: 2529: 2524: 2517: 2515: 2513: 2511: 2509: 2507: 2503: 2498: 2494: 2490: 2486: 2482: 2478: 2474: 2470: 2466: 2462: 2454: 2451: 2435: 2428: 2425: 2412: 2405: 2398: 2395: 2390: 2386: 2380: 2377: 2371: 2366: 2362: 2358: 2351: 2343: 2340: 2334: 2329: 2325: 2321: 2317: 2310: 2307: 2299: 2293: 2290: 2285: 2281: 2277: 2273: 2269: 2265: 2258: 2255: 2248: 2243: 2240: 2239: 2235: 2233: 2231: 2230:palynological 2227: 2223: 2219: 2218: 2213: 2209: 2204: 2202: 2198: 2194: 2190: 2186: 2182: 2178: 2174: 2170: 2166: 2162: 2158: 2154: 2150: 2146: 2138: 2136: 2134: 2130: 2126: 2121: 2118: 2106: 2105:phytoplankton 2097: 2093: 2091: 2082: 2081: 2076: 2072: 2067: 2065: 2061: 2057: 2051: 2045: 2044:decomposition 2041: 2037: 2032: 2027: 2024: 2020: 2016: 2008: 2003: 1999: 1997: 1993: 1989: 1985: 1981: 1980:impact winter 1976: 1974: 1970: 1966: 1958: 1956: 1954: 1950: 1946: 1942: 1938: 1934: 1933:flood basalts 1930: 1922: 1916: 1912: 1909: 1905: 1901: 1900:Drake Passage 1897: 1889: 1887: 1885: 1881: 1873: 1871: 1869: 1864: 1862: 1858: 1854: 1850: 1846: 1840: 1838: 1834: 1830: 1824: 1821: 1817: 1810:Pacific Ocean 1809: 1807: 1805: 1800: 1798: 1792: 1789: 1785: 1777: 1775: 1772: 1768: 1762: 1757:South America 1756: 1754: 1752: 1747: 1745: 1741: 1737: 1733: 1729: 1725: 1721: 1717: 1716:Sevier Orogen 1713: 1709: 1702:North America 1701: 1696: 1694: 1690: 1688: 1683: 1679: 1675: 1667: 1663: 1659: 1654: 1647: 1645: 1641: 1639: 1635: 1631: 1627: 1622: 1620: 1616: 1612: 1604: 1602: 1600: 1594: 1592: 1588: 1584: 1578: 1576: 1575:West Sulawesi 1572: 1568: 1564: 1560: 1556: 1548: 1546: 1544: 1543:oceanic basin 1538: 1536: 1531: 1527: 1525: 1521: 1517: 1513: 1509: 1508:Lhasa Terrane 1505: 1500: 1490: 1483: 1481: 1478: 1474: 1469: 1467: 1463: 1459: 1455: 1451: 1443: 1441: 1439: 1435: 1432: 1428: 1423: 1421: 1417: 1411: 1409: 1399: 1395: 1393: 1389: 1384: 1380: 1375: 1374:in the east. 1373: 1369: 1365: 1361: 1357: 1353: 1349: 1348:Mediterranean 1345: 1341: 1337: 1333: 1329: 1321: 1316: 1314: 1312: 1308: 1304: 1303:Pacific Plate 1300: 1296: 1292: 1288: 1284: 1280: 1279:South America 1276: 1272: 1268: 1267:North America 1264: 1260: 1257: 1253: 1245: 1243: 1241: 1237: 1236: 1231: 1227: 1223: 1219: 1215: 1207: 1205: 1203: 1199: 1195: 1191: 1187: 1183: 1179: 1175: 1167: 1165: 1163: 1159: 1155: 1151: 1147: 1143: 1139: 1136:crystals and 1135: 1131: 1127: 1126:microtektites 1123: 1119: 1115: 1111: 1107: 1103: 1099: 1095: 1087: 1085: 1083: 1079: 1075: 1071: 1067: 1063: 1059: 1051: 1046: 1044: 1042: 1037: 1035: 1031: 1027: 1023: 1018: 1012: 1008: 1004: 1000: 996: 992: 988: 985: 981: 977: 973: 969: 965: 961: 958: 954: 953: 940: 868: 862: 851:c. 18 °C 850: 846: 841: 837: 834: 826: 820: 817: 809: 804: 800: 796: 791: 762: 758: 754: 750: 744: 743: 739: 735: 732: 728: 727: 726: 722: 718: 714: 709: 680: 676: 672: 668: 664: 660: 657: 653: 649: 645: 642: 639: 635: 632: 629: 625: 620: 616: 612: 608: 604: 600: 597: 594: 590: 585: 581: 577: 573: 569: 564: 552: 551:, as of 2021. 550: 543: 534: 527: 522: 521: 512: 506: 501: 500: 492: 488: 483: 482: 479: 454: 445: 436: 427: 418: 409: 400: 390: 381: 372: 347: 326: 302: 301: 292: 291: 266: 265: 256: 255: 231: 230: 221: 129: 128: 123: 118: 111: 106: 100: 95: 90: 85: 80: 75: 70: 65: 60: 55: 50: 45: 39: 32: 27: 22: 5698: 5634:Archean Eon 5596:(1.6–2.5 Ga) 5481:(485–539 Ma) 5450:(444–485 Ma) 5414:(419–444 Ma) 5383:(359–419 Ma) 5357:(299–359 Ma) 5326:(252–299 Ma) 5314:(252–539 Ma) 5278:(201–252 Ma) 5247:(145–201 Ma) 5206:Mesozoic Era 5170: 5106:Cenozoic Era 4984:Eocene Epoch 4965: 4878:(1): 1–142. 4875: 4871: 4865: 4838: 4832: 4797: 4791: 4781: 4771:23 September 4769:. Retrieved 4725: 4719: 4709: 4666: 4660: 4650: 4625: 4621: 4611: 4602: 4582:ScienceDaily 4581: 4575: 4534: 4528: 4515: 4464: 4458: 4448: 4436:. Retrieved 4429:the original 4400: 4396: 4383: 4338: 4332: 4322: 4310:. Retrieved 4282: 4276: 4266: 4249:11343/289555 4221: 4217: 4169: 4165: 4155: 4122: 4118: 4072: 4068: 4022: 4018: 4008: 3975: 3971: 3925: 3921: 3859: 3855: 3845: 3812: 3808: 3760: 3756: 3724: 3676:11568/992336 3650: 3646: 3614: 3608: 3565: 3561: 3507: 3503: 3493: 3463:(1): 37–75. 3460: 3456: 3408: 3404: 3338: 3334: 3324: 3281: 3277: 3267: 3214: 3210: 3164: 3160: 3150: 3117: 3113: 3063: 3059: 3001: 2997: 2986: 2943: 2939: 2928: 2885: 2881: 2841: 2837: 2807:10045/136199 2781: 2777: 2731: 2727: 2689: 2628:, retrieved 2614: 2585:. Retrieved 2581: 2572: 2562:23 September 2560:. Retrieved 2532: 2526: 2464: 2460: 2453: 2441:. Retrieved 2427: 2415:. Retrieved 2410: 2397: 2388: 2379: 2363:(1): 23–28. 2360: 2356: 2342: 2323: 2319: 2309: 2292: 2270:(1): 51–66. 2267: 2263: 2257: 2215: 2205: 2197:terror birds 2142: 2122: 2098: 2094: 2078: 2075:Azolla event 2068: 2056:foraminifera 2052: 2028: 2013:) and other 2004: 2000: 1977: 1962: 1939:, northeast 1929:Gulf of Aden 1926: 1893: 1877: 1865: 1841: 1825: 1813: 1801: 1793: 1781: 1763: 1760: 1748: 1705: 1691: 1678:mantle plume 1671: 1642: 1623: 1615:Labrador Sea 1608: 1595: 1591:metamorphism 1579: 1552: 1539: 1528: 1496: 1473:volcanic arc 1470: 1447: 1424: 1412: 1404: 1376: 1350:through the 1325: 1281:rifted from 1273:plates, and 1249: 1240:foraminifera 1233: 1211: 1171: 1091: 1055: 1052:Stratigraphy 1038: 1019: 963: 959: 957:also spelled 860: 858: 740: 546: 298: 273: 272: 262: 238: 225: 93: 5670:Hadean Eon 5448:Ordovician 5219:Cretaceous 5119:Quaternary 4692:1874/385773 4467:(1): 6465. 4438:30 December 4312:30 December 4125:: 138–173. 3856:Geosciences 3568:: 267–296. 3510:: 136–151. 3307:1874/380963 3060:Solid Earth 3027:1874/394073 3004:: 308–374. 2946:: 355–378. 2226:Pleistocene 2117:evaporation 1911:conditions. 1599:strike slip 1587:deformation 1416:lithosphere 1356:Carpathians 1238:planktonic 1235:hantkeninid 1072:based on a 785: / 703: / 5737:Categories 5672:(4–4.6 Ga) 5636:(2.5–4 Ga) 5565:(1–1.6 Ga) 5171:Paleogene 5035:Priabonian 4800:: 103090. 4628:: 116044. 4172:: 103544. 3978:: 102903. 3763:: 105104. 3653:: 102902. 3591:2164/12816 3411:: 87–130. 3167:: 87–130. 3120:: 105993. 2911:2164/16706 2888:: 103252. 2784:: 104498. 2630:2024-07-15 2587:2024-07-15 2535:: 103503. 2443:29 January 2417:29 January 2249:References 2185:pterosaurs 2177:Cretaceous 1890:Antarctica 1619:Baffin Bay 1499:Madagascar 1383:subduction 1368:Hellenides 1311:convergent 1283:Antarctica 1222:Massignano 1186:Priabonian 1082:stratotype 1034:Cretaceous 974:Period 66 972:Cretaceous 960:Palaeogene 770:44°39′32″N 731:chronozone 688:36°09′13″N 622:Definition 533:extinction 435:Priabonian 264:Cretaceous 120:Chronology 5743:Paleogene 5699:See also: 5479:Cambrian 5412:Silurian 5381:Devonian 5276:Triassic 5245:Jurassic 5030:Bartonian 5009:Thanetian 5004:Selandian 4900:0006-8101 4824:214219923 4750:0022-1376 4642:0012-821X 4567:135045515 4489:2041-1723 4307:134929774 4258:2296-6463 4194:0012-8252 4147:0012-8252 4097:0094-8276 4047:2169-9313 4000:0012-8252 3950:0012-8252 3886:2076-3263 3837:0278-7407 3809:Tectonics 3787:0191-8141 3685:0012-8252 3600:0040-1951 3532:0040-1951 3485:0012-8252 3433:1342-937X 3363:0027-8424 3316:0040-1951 3284:: 69–94. 3241:0027-8424 3189:1342-937X 3142:1367-9120 3090:1869-9510 3036:1342-937X 2978:0012-8252 2920:0012-8252 2860:1778-7025 2816:0012-8252 2756:0084-6597 2557:233579194 2217:Artemisia 2208:Oligocene 2173:dinosaurs 2171:, extant 2161:cetaceans 2153:dinosaurs 2019:kaolinite 1778:Caribbean 1720:flat-slab 1682:Magmatism 1535:extension 1504:Himalayas 1434:sediments 1420:roll-back 1408:Greenland 1364:Dinarides 1360:Apennines 1307:divergent 1275:Australia 1208:Oligocene 1182:Bartonian 1158:ammonites 1142:Chicxulub 1102:Thanetian 1098:Selandian 1088:Paleocene 1078:formation 1036:Period. 999:Oligocene 991:Paleocene 964:Palæogene 773:8°50′11″E 691:8°38′55″E 566:Etymology 531:K-Pg mass 426:Bartonian 399:Thanetian 389:Selandian 29:Paleogene 21:Paleocene 5324:Permian 5145:Neogene 5051:Chattian 5046:Rupelian 5025:Lutetian 5020:Ypresian 4908:10574478 4857:17674795 4766:29784731 4758:11537739 4701:41123449 4507:34753912 4425:55038043 4375:26606656 4334:PLOS ONE 4285:: 1–13. 3381:37552758 3372:10433724 3259:33148806 2497:38120449 2489:21940861 2357:Episodes 2320:Episodes 2236:See also 2232:record. 2189:penguins 2165:primates 2125:Rupelian 2060:primates 1937:Ethiopia 1908:Glaciers 1863:plates. 1697:Americas 1630:Svalbard 1477:obuction 1372:Taurides 1271:Eurasian 1218:Chattian 1214:Rupelian 1178:Lutetian 1174:Ypresian 1118:asteroid 1003:Tertiary 984:Cenozoic 757:Carrosio 733:C6Cn.2n. 605:Global ( 453:Chattian 444:Rupelian 417:Lutetian 408:Ypresian 4880:Bibcode 4802:Bibcode 4730:Bibcode 4671:Bibcode 4662:Geology 4605:. 2018. 4539:Bibcode 4498:8578591 4469:Bibcode 4405:Bibcode 4366:4659543 4343:Bibcode 4287:Bibcode 4226:Bibcode 4224:: 588. 4174:Bibcode 4127:Bibcode 4077:Bibcode 4027:Bibcode 3980:Bibcode 3930:Bibcode 3864:Bibcode 3817:Bibcode 3765:Bibcode 3655:Bibcode 3570:Bibcode 3512:Bibcode 3465:Bibcode 3413:Bibcode 3343:Bibcode 3286:Bibcode 3250:7703637 3219:Bibcode 3169:Bibcode 3122:Bibcode 3068:Bibcode 3006:Bibcode 2948:Bibcode 2890:Bibcode 2786:Bibcode 2736:Bibcode 2537:Bibcode 2469:Bibcode 2461:Science 2272:Bibcode 2222:Conifer 2212:Grasses 2193:ratites 2145:Mammals 2090:diatoms 1990:of the 1975:began. 1959:Climate 1953:Red Sea 1947:as the 1820:Izanagi 1751:erosion 1734:, with 1567:Sumatra 1559:Myanmar 1466:Arabian 1456:to the 1388:Iberian 1370:to the 1259:rifting 1252:Pangaea 1224:, near 1144:on the 1110:Tunisia 1047:Geology 1026:animals 980:Neogene 966:) is a 838:c. 500 835:content 818:content 679:Tunisia 659:Iridium 524:← 503:← 485:← 300:Neogene 217:– 207:– 197:– 187:– 177:– 167:– 157:– 147:– 137:– 5678: 4999:Danian 4906: 4898: 4855: 4845: 4822: 4764: 4756: 4748: 4699: 4640: 4565: 4505: 4495: 4487: 4423: 4373: 4363: 4305: 4256: 4192: 4145: 4095: 4045: 3998: 3948: 3884: 3835: 3785: 3731: 3683: 3621: 3598: 3530: 3483: 3431: 3379: 3369: 3361: 3314: 3257: 3247: 3239: 3187: 3140: 3088: 3034: 2976: 2918: 2858: 2814: 2754: 2696: 2621: 2555: 2495: 2487: 2195:, and 2157:marine 2133:epochs 2080:Azolla 1839:arcs. 1736:faults 1658:Staffa 1524:mantle 1458:Makran 1427:trench 1291:Africa 1226:Ancona 1168:Eocene 1150:Mexico 1134:spinel 1132:-rich 1130:nickel 1106:El Kef 1094:Danian 1070:stages 1062:epochs 1058:series 997:, and 995:Eocene 675:El Kef 650:Formal 641:System 631:Period 574:Formal 475: 470: 465: 460: 380:Danian 4904:S2CID 4820:S2CID 4762:S2CID 4697:S2CID 4563:S2CID 4525:(PDF) 4432:(PDF) 4421:S2CID 4393:(PDF) 4303:S2CID 2553:S2CID 2493:S2CID 2437:(PDF) 2407:(PDF) 2353:(PDF) 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