Pyu city-states - Knowledge

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River Valley than the Nawin River Valley at Sri Ksetra, because they proved their skills of water control using irrigation systems depended on their good knowledge of the conditions in each locality and area. According to Stargardt in “From the Iron Age to early cities at Srikestra and Beikthano, Myanmar” Journal of Southeast Asian Studies, all the archaeology found a lot of major inscriptions on stone in phy language survive at Sri Kestra (Pyu), Hanlin and near Pinle (Hmainmaw), and Pagan (Bagan). They have strong evidence on the people were living in that century between the third-fourth and fifth-sixth centuries CE. All the record was nominated by World Heritage UNESCO and other historians. In this article, it mentioned and written also "Pyu" were among the earlies people in Southeast Asia. As Stargardt acknowledges in that article, "Sri Kestra" contained fields, irrigation canals, water tanks and iron-working sites, as well as monuments, markets (and elusive habitation areas) both inside and outside walls, all these halls also provide evidence of a powerful belief system in the elaborate provision of the dead”. In that article, the author adds upon his research in other's article, they also recorded old photo of founded place which is already surveyed in nine major burial terraces outside the southern city walls, old Buddhist monuments including the complex at "Beikthano" city and the queen "Panhtwar" cemetery.

1352:(Pyay) at present-day Hmawza village, was the last and southernmost Pyu capital. The city was founded between the 5th and 7th centuries,although during two of the recent excavations, January to February 2015 and December 2015 to February 2016, led by Janice Stargardt in Yahanda mound at Sri Ksetra, sherds stamped with Buddhist motifs were found, dated from c. 340 +/- 30 CE. and Pyu culture cremation burials around 270 +/- 30 CE. Sri Ksetra likely overtook Halin as the premier Pyu city by the 7th or 8th century, and retained that status until the Mranma arrived in the 9th century. The city was home to at least two dynasties, and maybe three. The first dynasty, called the Vikrama Dynasty, is believed to have launched the Pyu calendar, which later became the Burmese calendar, on 22 March 638. The second dynasty was founded by King Duttabaung on 25 March 739 (11th waxing of Tagu 101 ME). 1293:. For example, the number of gates and configuration was also found in subsequent major Burmese capitals such as the 11th century Pagan and 19th century Mandalay. The city's configuration was also found at other contemporary cities such as Maingmaw and Beikthano in the Pyu realm and Danyawaddy and Wethali in Arakan as well as later cities such as Sukhothai, which emerged over a millennium later. Structural remains of temples at Halin show that the design of city's temples influenced the 11th to 13th century temples at Pagan. Excavated artefacts point to Halin's Pyu script to be the earliest writing in the Pyu realm (and in Burma). It was based on an earlier version of the Brahmi script (Mauryan and Guptan). Inscriptions at Sri Ksetra show a later version of the same script. 1286:), located in the Mu valley, one of the largest irrigated regions of precolonial Burma, is the northernmost Pyu city so far discovered. The earliest artefacts of Halin—city's wooden gates—are radiocarbon dated to 70 CE. The city was rectangular but with curved corners, and brick-walled. Excavated walls are approximately 3.2 km (2.0 mi) long on the north–south axis and 1.6 km (0.99 mi) on the east–west. At 664 hectares, the city was nearly twice the size of Beikthano. It has four main gates at the cardinal points, and a total of 12 gates, based on the zodiac. A river or canal ran through the city. Traces of a moat exist on all sides except the south, where it was probably not needed, as land was dammed there to create reservoirs. 1206:

one is circular. The plan of a circle within a square suggest a zodiac sign which represents a view of the heavens from the perspective of the sun, the manner in which 19th century Mandalay was also conceptualised. At almost dead centre, a 19th-century temple called Nandawya Paya, which was probably built upon the ruins of an ancient one. The city is bisected by a canal, thought to be contemporary to the city, though no scientific dating has confirmed it. Excavations—the first of which was carried out in 1979—have unearthed many artefacts, including jewellery, silver coins, and funerary urns. Many of the artefacts such as the coins and funerary urns are virtually identical to those found Beikthano and Binnaka.

1323: 1364: 1261: 1171:, the city may be the first capital of a culturally and perhaps even politically uniform state in the history of Burma. It was a large fortified settlement, measuring approximately 300 hectares inside the rectangular (3 km × 1 km (1.86 mi × 0.62 mi)) walls. The walls and fortifications along it measured 6 metres (20 ft) thick, and are radiocarbon dated to a period between 180 BCE and 610 CE. Like most subsequent cities, the main entrance of the walls led to the palace, which faced east. Stupas and monastic buildings have also been excavated within the city walls. 1433:) where Pyu artefacts including funerary urns have been excavated. Tagaung pottery is similar in size and cluster positions to other Pyu vessels but is otherwise very different to those further south. This may indicate a degree of influence from other sources or that it is markedly different from the central Pyu culture. The significance of Tagaung is due to the fact that the Burmese chronicles identify Tagaung as the home of the first Burmese kingdom. Aside from Beikthano and Sri Ksetra, most Pyu sites have not seen extensive or any excavation. 431: 58: 1777: 1101:

violent overthrow. It is more likely that these raids significantly weakened the Pyu states, enabling the Burmans to move into Pyu territories. At any rate, evidence shows that the actual pace of Burman migration into the Pyu realm was gradual. Radiocarbon dating shows that human activity existed until c. 870 at Halin, the subject of the 832 Nanzhao raid. The Burmese chronicles claim the Burmans founded the fortified city of

3913: 1234:) too was located in the Kyaukse region, and virtually identical to its neighbour Maingmaw in numerous ways. Its brick structures shared the same floor plan as those found at Beikthano and other Pyu sites. Excavations have recovered pre-Buddhist artefacts, gold necklaces, precious stone images of elephants, turtles and lions, distinctive Pyu pottery, terracotta tablets with writing that strongly resembled the 1624: 1117:

kings of Sri Ksetra and Tagaung as far back as 850 BCE—a claim dismissed by most modern scholars. Pyu settlements remained in Upper Burma for the next three centuries but the Pyu gradually were absorbed and assimilated into the expanding Pagan Empire. The Pyu language still existed until the late 12th century but by the 13th century, the Pyu had assumed the Burman ethnicity and disappeared into history.

3937: 2017: 734: 1238:, and various kinds of acid-etched onyx beads along with others made of amber and jade. Also excavated are distinctive silver coins identical to those found at Beikthano and Binnaka, stone moulds for casting silver and gold ornamental flowers, a gold armlet in association with a silver bowl that has Pyu writing on it, and funerary urns virtually identical to those found Beikthano and Binnaka. 1126: 1501:'s fourth period records also indicates that the city likely fell into ruin well before the 11th century AD. However, more evidence and investigation is required to analyze the ancient artifacts found in the site. Finds from another site nearby include paleolithic tools and fossilized footprints, indicate that the overall area may be older than other Pyu sites. 3925: 1893: 1097:

century, with the Nanzhao raiding in 800–802, and again in 808–809. Finally, according to the Chinese, in 832, the Nanzhao warriors overran the Pyu country, and took away 3000 Pyu prisoners from Halin. (In 835, the Chinese records say the Nanzhao also raided a state, generally identified by some but not universally accepted to be a Pyu state.)

1964:, especially in the south. In the north, trickles of Burmans may have entered the Pyu realm from Yunnan as early as the 7th century. (Modern scholarship however holds that Burmans did not arrive in large numbers until the mid-to-late 9th century, and perhaps as late as the 10th century, according to radiocarbon dating of Pagan's walls.) 1497:, Bago Region further up the Irrawaddy River. The ancient site itself was built symmetrically on a mountain ridge designed around stupas and water features. Based on its scale and the administrative societal structures of the Pyu period, the city would have been built by a monarch, rather than a feudal lord. Its absence in the 1853:. There were two eras in use. The first was the Sakra Era, which was adopted in the Pyu realm in 80 CE, just two years after the new era had come into use in India. A second calendar was adopted at Sri Ksetra in 638, superseding the Sakra Era. The calendar, the first day of which was 22 March 638, later became the 1388:. Religious art suggests several distinct occupations with earlier influences stemming from Southeast India and later influences from Southwest India while 9th century influences include those from the Nanzhao Kingdom. Much of the Chinese account of the Pyu states was through Sri Ksetra. Chinese pilgrims 1980:

were fully adopted due to the presence of Theravada Buddhism. It is not clear if a vassalage-overlord relationship existed between the larger city-states and smaller towns. The Burmese chronicles mention alliances between the states such as one between Beikthano and Sri Ksetra. By and large, each Pyu

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derived like Sri Ksetra (Thaye Khittaya) and Vishnu (Beikthano). The kings at Sri Ksetra titled themselves as Varmans and Varma. It was not just a southern phenomenon. To varying degrees, northern Pyu cities and towns also became under the sway of Indian culture. The Burmese chronicles claim that the

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Sri Ksetra is the largest Pyu site discovered thus far. (Only Beikthano and Sri Ksetra have been extensively excavated. Other important Pyu cities as Maingmaw and Binnaka could yield more artefacts with more extensive excavations.) It occupied a larger area than that of the 11th century Pagan or 19th

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Non-Theravada practices such as ceremonial cattle sacrifice and alcohol consumption were main stays of the Pyu life. Likewise, the greater prominence of nuns and female students than in the later eras may point to pre-Buddhist notions of female autonomy. In melding of their pre-Buddhist practices to

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is one such site comparable to Tagaung. Archaeological excavations in 2001 revealed several artifacts including terracotta urns in rice fields southeast of the walled site. Near Sagara, the site of Mokti has also revealed similar artifacts. The stupa in Sagara and votive tablets found at the site of

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and should not the confused with Pinle Pyu, a speculated Pyu city in Southern Myanmar. At 2.5 km (1.6 mi) in diameter and 222 hectares, Maingmaw is one of the largest ancient cities on the entire Kyaukse plains. It has two inner enclosure walls, the outer of which is square while the inner

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in order to record their tonal language, inventing tonal markers. The Pyu shared a type of urbanism on a wide variety of scales. They had walled spaces with one side sealed by a water tank or a tank outside of the walls. In late prehistory, the Pyu settled for quite some time in Beikthano in the Yin

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By the 4th century, most of the Pyu had become predominantly Buddhist, though archaeological finds prove that their pre-Buddhist practices remained firmly entrenched in the following centuries. According to the excavated texts, as well as the Chinese records, the predominant religion of the Pyu was

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in the middle of the 11th century, unifying the Irrawaddy valley and its periphery for the first time. Nonetheless, the Pyu had left an indelible mark on Pagan whose Burman rulers would incorporate the histories and legends of the Pyu as their own. The Burman kings of Pagan claimed descent from the

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The Pyu city plans, consisted of square/rectangles and circles, were a mix of indigenous and Indian designs. It is believed that circular patterns inside the cities were Pyu while the rectangle or square shape of the outer walls and the use of 12 gates were Indian in origin. According to historian

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The Pyu-era architectural practices greatly influenced later Pagan and Burmese architecture. The techniques of building dams, canals and weirs found in pre-colonial Upper Burma trace their origins to the Pyu era and the Pagan era. (Burmans likely introduced new water management methods, especially

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A notable feature of the Pyu states is the minting and use of silver coinage. Originated in the Pegu area, these coins date from the 5th century and were the model for most first millennium coinage in mainland Southeast Asia. The earliest type of these coins is not inscribed and depicts a conch on

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The Pyu realm was an important trading centre between China and India in the first millennium CE. Two main trading routes passed through the Pyu states. As early as 128 BCE, an overland trade route between China and India existed across the northern Burma. An embassy from the Roman Empire to China

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The large size of the Pyu cities (660 to 1400 hectares) vis-a-vis Pagan (only 140 hectares) suggests that much of the population resided within the walls, as corroborated by the Chinese records. Archaeology in Pagan produced Pyu artefacts across a number of the settlements in the enclosed complex

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Though their religious beliefs was a syncretic mix of many backgrounds, probably like in the early Pagan period, the outlook of the Pyu reportedly was largely peaceful. Tang Chinese records describe the Pyu as a humane and peaceful people to whom war was virtually unknown and who wore silk cotton

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The economy of the Pyu city states was based on agriculture and trade. All important Pyu settlements were located in the three main irrigated regions of Upper Burma, centred on the confluence of the Irrawaddy and Chindwin rivers: Halin in the Mu valley, Maingmaw and Binnaka in the Kyaukse plains,

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between China and India. It was located on the Irrawaddy, not far from the sea as the Irrawaddy delta had not yet been formed. Ships from the Indian Ocean could come up to Prome to trade with the Pyu realm and China. Trade with India brought deep cultural contacts. Sri Ksetra has yielded the most

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To be sure, the Pyu and their culture did not disappear just because 3000 of them were taken away. The size of the Pyu realm and its many walled cities throughout the land indicates a population many times over. Indeed, no firm indications at Sri Ksetra or at any other Pyu site exist to suggest a

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entered the upper Irrawaddy valley through a series of raids. According to the Tang Dynasty chronicles, the Nanzhao began their raids of Upper Burma starting as early as 754 or 760. By 763, the Nanzhao king Ko-lo-feng had conquered the upper Irrawaddy Valley. Nanzhao raids intensified in the 9th

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instead of actually silk so that they would not have to kill silk worms, and that many Pyu boys entered the monastic life at seven to the age of 20. To be sure, this peaceful description by the Chinese was a snapshot of the Pyu realm, and may not represent the life in the city-states in general.

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Both Maingmaw and Binnaka may have been contemporary of Beikthano. The chronicles, which do not mention Beikthano at all, do mention the two, though not specifically as Pyu cities. The chronicles state that the ruler of Binnaka was responsible for the fall of Tagaung, the city identified by the

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of Pagan would build irrigation projects in these three regions in the 1050s to turn them into the main rice granaries of Upper Burma. They would give Upper Burma an enduring economic base from which to dominate the Irrawaddy valley and its periphery in the following centuries.) The Pyu grew

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towns such as Winga, Hsindat-Myindat, Sanpannagon and Mudon where Pyu artefacts have been found. (It is insufficient to conclude however that the Pyu had administrative and military control over these upper Tenasserim coastal towns.) The ports connected the overland trade route to China via

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in present-day southeastern India. Some evidence of Ceylonese contact is seen by the presence of Anuradhapura style "moonstones" discovered at Beikthano and Halin. By perhaps the 7th century, tall cylindrical stupas such as the Bawbawgyi, Payagyi and Payama had emerged at Sri Ksetra.

1376:(horoscope), like in Maingmaw. Only the southern half of the city was taken up by the palace, monasteries and houses; the entire northern half consisted of rice fields. Together with the moats and walls, this arrangement ensured that the city could withstand a long siege by enemies. 1167:) with direct land access to the well-watered Kyaukse plains to its northeast, is the oldest urban site so far discovered and scientifically excavated site. Its remains—the structures, pottery, artefacts, and human skeletons—date from 200 BCE to 100 CE. Named after the Hindu god 1300:, a highly prized commodity in the first millennium, Halin was superseded by Sri Ksetra as the premier Pyu city-state circa 7th century. By the Chinese accounts, Halin remained an important Pyu centre until the 9th century when the Pyu realm came under repeated attacks from the 1568:

passed through this route in 97 CE and again in 120 CE. But the majority of the trade was conducted by sea through the southern Pyu states, which at the time were located not far from the sea as much of the Irrawaddy delta had not yet been formed, and as far south as upper

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on the other. Many of the coins had a small hole along the perimeter, and may have also been used as amulets. Remarkably, after the use of coins ceased at the end of Pyu period in the late 9th century, coins did not reappear in the Burmese kingdoms until the 19th century.

1596:). The Pyu also conducted trade and diplomatic relations with China. In 800 and 801–802, Sri Ksetra sent a formal embassy, along with 35 musicians to the Tang court. According to the Chinese, the Pyu used gold and silver coinage. But only silver coins have survived. 1356:

century Mandalay. Circular in design, Sri Ksetra was more than 13 km (8.1 mi) in circumference and three to four km across, or about 1400 hectares of occupied area. The city's brick walls were 4.5 metres (15 ft) high, and had 12 gates with huge

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It also has curving gateways, such as those found at Halin and Beikthano. In the centre of the city was what most scholars think represented the rectangular palace site, 518 by 343 metres (1,699 ft × 1,125 ft), symbolising both a mandala and a

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About 1500 BCE, people in the region were turning copper into bronze, growing rice, and domesticating chickens and pigs; they were among the first people in the world to do so. By 500 BCE, iron-working settlements emerged in an area south of present-day

858:- and several smaller towns have been excavated throughout the Irrawaddy River basin. Halin, founded in the 1st century AD, was the largest and most important city until around the 7th or 8th century when it was superseded by Sri Ksetra (near modern 1035:

Archaeological surveys have actually so far unearthed 12 walled cities, including five large walled cities, and several smaller non-fortified settlements, located at or near the three most important irrigated regions of precolonial Burma: the

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The Pyu settlements were ruled by independent chiefs. The chiefs at larger city-states later styled themselves as kings, and established courts largely modelled after the Indian (Hindu) concepts of monarchy. Not all Hindu concepts such as

1920:) temples of Pagan. The floor plan of the 13th century Somingyi Monastery at Pagan was largely identical to that of a 4th-century monastery at Beikthano. The solid stupas of Sri Ksetra were in turn prototypes for Pagan's such as the 1880:

Cooler, "the adoption of Indian concepts of city planning incorporated a belief in the efficacy of the world axis that connects the centermost point in a properly constructed Mandala city with the city of the Gods above (

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In addition to religion, the Pyu also imported science and astronomical expertise from India. The Chinese records also report that the Pyu knew how to make astronomical calculations. The Pyu calendar was based on the

960:. Bronze-decorated coffins and burial sites filled with earthenware remains have been excavated. Archaeological evidence at Samon River Valley south of Mandalay suggests rice-growing settlements that traded with 862:) at the southern edge of the Pyu Realm. Twice as large as Halin, Sri Ksetra was eventually the largest and most influential Pyu centre. Only the city-states of Halin, Beikthano and Sri Ksetra are designated as 3988: 3983: 1967:

The size of population of the Pyu realm was probably a few hundred thousand, given that the 17th and 18th century Burma (about the size of present-day Myanmar) only had about 2 million people.

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heaven) in order to assure prosperity throughout the kingdom below". Pyu-era city practices were the forefathers of the latter-day Burmese city and palace designs down to the 19th century Mandalay.

1105:(Bagan) in 849 but the oldest radiocarbon dated evidence at Pagan (old walls) points to 980 CE while the main walls point to circa 1020 CE, just 24 years earlier than the beginning of the reign of 1527:

There were also Pyu settlements in Lower Burma that may have been ignored or overlooked by the historical records aimed at legitimizing Upper Burmese kings' lineage. The Sagara (Thagara) site in

1201:), located in the Kyaukse region, was circular in shape, and has tentatively been dated to the first millennium BCE. It is also sometimes called Pinle after the village near its modern site in 3978: 1520:, near the mouth of the Mu river. One notable site is Ayadawkye Ywa in the Mu valley west of Halin lies south of another recently discovered Bronze Age site called Nyaunggan. Further south in 932:

still existed until the late 12th century. By the 13th century, the Pyu had assumed the Burman ethnicity. The histories and legends of the Pyu were also incorporated to those of the Bamar.

924:(Pagan) at the confluence of the Irrawaddy and Chindwin Rivers. Pyu settlements remained in Upper Burma for the next three centuries but the Pyu gradually were absorbed into the expanding 1308:

warriors in 832 CE, with 3000 of its inhabitants taken away. However, radiocarbon dating reveals human activity to about 870 CE, nearly four decades after the reported sack of the city.

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Based on limited archaeological evidence, it is inferred that the earliest cultures existed in Burma as early as 11,000 BCE, mainly in the central dry zone close to the Irrawaddy. The

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The Pyu architecture greatly influenced later Burmese Buddhist temple designs. For example, temples at Sri Ksetra such as the Bebe and Lemyethna were prototypes for the later hollow (

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in 675 mentioned Sri Ksetra in their accounts of Buddhist kingdoms of Southeast Asia. The Tang histories mention the arrival at the court of an embassy from the Pyu capital in 801.

999:. The Pyu, the earliest inhabitants of Burma of whom records are extant, went on to found settlements throughout the plains region centred on the confluence of the Irrawaddy and 2421: 2567:

Moore, Elizabeth (2011). "The Early Buddhist Archaeology of Myanmar: Tagaung, Thagara and the Mon-Pyu dichotomy". In McCornick, Patrick; Jenny, Mathias; Baker, Chris (eds.).

1007:. The Pyu realm was longer than wide, stretching from Sri Ksetra in the south to Halin in the north, Binnaka and Maingmaw to the east and probably Ayadawkye to the west. The 1726:, all prominent in Mahayana Buddhism, were very much part of Pyu (and later the Pagan) iconography scene. Various Hindu Brahman iconography ranging from the Hindu trinity, 1857:, and is still in use in present-day Myanmar. (The existence of two Pyu calendars has been cause for dispute among scholars trying interpret the dates on the finds.) 1904:

and other religious buildings. The styles, ground plans, even the brick size and construction techniques of these buildings point to the Andhra region, particularly

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as the court language. The Chinese records state that the 35 musicians that accompanied the Pyu embassy to the Tang court in 800–802 played music and sang in the

1478:) is recorded as being located next to the sea. Unlike many other small Pyu sites, the city is speculated to be large in size located downstream from Sri Ksetra. 1639:. Indian culture was most visible in the southern Pyu realm through which most trade with India was conducted by sea. The names of southernmost cities were in 1489:

may be the location of Pinle Pyu. Historian Phone Tint Kyaw led a team to study the area in 2009 and concluded the site may be a Pyu site based on the use of

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The trading area of the Pyu states spanned across the present-day Southeast Asia, South Asia and China. Artifacts from the 2nd century northwest India to

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Aside from Sri Ksetra and Beikthano, the rest of the Pyu sites have not been extensively excavated. The care of the sites falls under the purview of the

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dating to the first millennium, until approximately 1100 C.E. when a shift to a monument-rich state and diffusion beyond walled boundaries is evident.

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It was a long-lasting civilisation that lasted nearly a millennium to the early 9th century until a new group of "swift horsemen" from the north, the (

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chronicles as the original home of Burmese speakers. Binnaka was inhabited until about the 19th century, according to a Konbaung era palm-leaf

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finally Beikthano and Sri Ksetra at or near the Minbu district. (The irrigation projects of the Pyu were later picked up by the Burmans. King

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Of the 12 walled cities excavated thus far, five are the remains of largest Pyu states: Beikthano, Maingmaw, Binnaka, Halin and Sri Ksetra.

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as well as other cultural, architectural and political concepts, which would have an enduring influence on the political organisation and

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The millennium-old civilisation came crashing down in the 9th century when the city-states were destroyed by repeated invasions from the

3517: 3382: 3022: 2410: 1905: 669: 803:-speaking Pyu people, the earliest inhabitants of Burma of whom records are extant. The thousand-year period, often referred to as the 3620: 3471: 3175: 3002: 1997:'s Department of Archaeology. In November 2011, the Department reportedly was planning a museum at Sri Ksetra, and working with the 663: 657: 1493:, a script that dates towards the third century BC, and the architectural similarities to other Pyu sites, particularly a site in 1322: 3729: 3186: 755: 1363: 1260: 3724: 3084: 944:, Burma's Stone Age, existed around the same time as the lower and middle Paleolithic eras in Europe. Three caves located near 293: 3367: 2595: 262: 237: 3486: 3397: 1750:

Buddhist ones, they placed the remains of their cremated dead in pottery and stone urns and buried them in or near isolated

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At any rate, the Burmans had overtaken the leadership of the Pyu realm by the late 10th century, and went on to found the

57: 3739: 3683: 3591: 3552: 3537: 3491: 3466: 3362: 3337: 3216: 1080:). All these statelets foreshadowed the rise of the "classical kingdoms" of Southeast Asia in the second millennium CE. 681: 637: 595: 379: 1532:

Mokti are considered to have many 'Pyu' cultural traits but other artifacts show evidence of many cultural influences.

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and the Philippines have been found at Beikthano. Likewise, Pyu artefacts have been found along the coasts of

1754:, a practice consistent with early Buddhist practices of interring the remains of holy personages in stupas. 3887: 3759: 3714: 3653: 3542: 3522: 3209: 1808:(Sanskrit) language. Many of the important inscriptions were written in Sanskrit and/or Pali, alongside the 1510: 968: 800: 705: 3648: 3547: 1789: 3812: 3792: 3527: 3357: 3270: 631: 613: 440: 3111:

Strange Parallels: Southeast Asia in Global Context, c. 800–1830, volume 1, Integration on the Mainland

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This design of the city influenced the city planning of later Burmese cities and the Siamese city of

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states the kingdom of Mi-ch'en sent an embassy to China in 805, and was attacked by Nanchao in 835.

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The major Pyu city-states were all located in the three main irrigated regions of Upper Burma: the

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the canal building techniques which became the prevailing method of irrigation in the Pagan era.)

3947: 3857: 3774: 3673: 3636: 3586: 3441: 3387: 3320: 3262: 3236: 3085:"A Pyu Homeland in the Samon Valley: a new theory of the origins of Myanmar's early urban system" 2937: 2261: 1929: 1661: 1494: 1385: 1317: 913: 855: 710: 651: 619: 587: 567: 514: 488: 456: 422: 321: 107: 1719: 3842: 3817: 3734: 3290: 3171: 3152: 3133: 3114: 3047: 2998: 2979: 2334: 1850: 1696: 1688: 1521: 1486: 1348:; lit., "Field of Fortune" or "Field of Glory"), located 8 km (5.0 mi) southeast of 1065: 886: 525: 430: 111: 3026: 3917: 3867: 3862: 3837: 3822: 3802: 3754: 3709: 3559: 3342: 3106: 2927: 2919: 2322: 2253: 2030: 1949: 1933: 1921: 1854: 1821: 1710: 1684: 1569: 1456: 1421: 1344: 1290: 1282: 1230: 1202: 1189: 1159: 1151: 1049: 1041: 906: 890: 882: 827: 780: 601: 179: 115: 1011:'s records report 18 Pyu states, nine of which were walled cities, covering 298 districts. 3847: 3827: 3325: 3300: 2035: 1977: 1715: 1673: 1517: 1405: 1305: 1301: 1093: 1028: 972: 835: 575: 535: 460: 1812:. Recent scholarship, though yet not settled, suggests that the Pyu script, based on the 1776: 3941: 3807: 3782: 3352: 3305: 3280: 2022: 1953: 1909: 1837: 1817: 1665: 1393: 1045: 1024: 1000: 902: 839: 831: 738: 541: 479: 3194: 3014:

Powerful Learning: Buddhist Literati and the Throne in Burma's Last Dynasty, 1752–1885

2497:"Sri Ksetra, Ancient Pyu City - Director Janice Stargardt — Department of Archaeology" 3962: 3832: 3377: 3310: 3295: 3285: 2265: 2040: 1813: 1640: 1585: 1556: 1498: 1490: 1255: 925: 898: 851: 816: 796: 547: 529: 519: 500: 311: 255: 75: 3095: 2941: 1672:. It was the predominant Theravada school in Burma until the late 12th century when 1623: 1048:

in the south and west of the former two. The city-states were contemporaries of the

3787: 3668: 3072: 2591: 1833: 1829: 1164: 1113: 1008: 988: 984: 980: 917: 469: 2360:

Cooler 2002: Chapter II The Pre-Pagan Period: The Urban Age of the Mon and the Pyu

1896:

Shwezigon Pagoda (built in the 11th century) at Pagan, based on earlier Pyu design

1668:

region in southeast India, associated with the famous Theravada Buddhist scholar,

3347: 1948:, who like their cousins Burmans are believed to have migrated from the present 1793: 1664:. The Theravada school prevalent in the Pyu realm was probably derived from the 1380: 1069: 1061: 1004: 866:, where the other sites can be added in the future for an extension nomination. 799:(Burma). The city-states were founded as part of the southward migration by the 561: 2257: 2012: 1961: 1945: 1809: 1771: 1677: 1669: 1235: 1020: 894: 808: 792: 788: 71: 1960:. Extensive external trade attracted sizeable communities of Indians and the 401: 388: 1881: 1723: 1547: 1442: 1142: 1125: 1106: 1073: 1057: 949: 843: 316: 79: 1360:(deities) guarding the entrances and a pagoda at each of the four corners. 2923: 2005:

and the three old cities were recognised as World Heritage Sites in 2014.

3569: 2974:

Aung-Thwin, Michael (1996). "Kingdom of Pagan". In Gillian Cribbs (ed.).

1797: 1692: 1644: 1606: 1589: 1430: 1389: 1198: 1037: 957: 945: 878: 823: 166: 2242:"From the iron age to early cities at Sri Ksetra and Beikthano, Myanmar" 2166: 2164: 1824:. The Pyu sites have yielded a wide variety of Indian scripts from King 877:. The Pyu culture was heavily influenced by trade with India, importing 17: 3232: 2932: 1743: 1593: 1426: 1215: 1077: 992: 847: 298: 87: 2571:. Institute of Asian Studies, Chulalongkorn University. pp. 7–23. 2091: 1892: 344: 3092:

Myanmar Historical Commission Golden Jubilee International Conference

1998: 1957: 1825: 1739: 1731: 1727: 1653: 1649: 1574: 1482: 1168: 1053: 976: 2241: 1944:

The city-states were mainly populated by the Tibeto-Burman-speaking

3201: 3168:

The Ancient Pyu of Burma: Early Pyu cities in a man-made landscape

1901: 1891: 1775: 1751: 1735: 1636: 1631:, 9th century, CE. The Pyu followed a mix of religious traditions. 1628: 1622: 1528: 1362: 1321: 1259: 1124: 1102: 1089: 996: 961: 921: 874: 870: 83: 2618:"Fossil footprints of early humans found in Ingapu ancient city" 1801: 1683:

The archaeological finds also indicate a widespread presence of

1581: 1552: 1349: 1297: 859: 3205: 2997:(illustrated ed.). Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press. 1648:

founding kings of Tagaung were descended from no less than the

1304:. The Chinese records state that the city was destroyed by the 2672:

Art and Architecture in Pakhan Gyi During the Monarchical Days

1326:

Bawbawgyi Pagoda at Sri Ksetra, prototype of Pagan-era pagodas

2592:"Ancient Irrawaddy Delta City Believed to be 2,300 Years Old" 2569:

The Mon over Two Millennia: Monuments, Manuscripts, Movements

1981:

city-state appeared to have controlled just the city itself.

2644:"Stone Age objects found in ancient site in Ingapu Township" 2001:

to gain recognition for Sri Ksetra, Beikthano and Halin as

1516:

Many Pyu settlements have been found across Upper Burma in

1163:) situated in the irrigated Minbu region (near present-day 3063:

History of Burma: From the Earliest Times to 10 March 1824

869:

The Pyu realm was part of an overland trade route between

3989:

States and territories disestablished in the 11th century

1900:

From the 4th century onward, the Pyu built many Buddhist

1635:

The culture of Pyu city states was heavily influenced by

3984:

States and territories established in the 2nd century BC

2182:

Cooler 2002: Chapter I: Prehistoric and Animist Periods

1129:

Pyu realm circa 800 CE, before the advent of the Mranma

1832:, both dated to the 3rd and 2nd centuries BCE, to the 987:. The original home of the Pyu is reconstructed to be 2995:

The mists of Rāmañña: The Legend that was Lower Burma

2905:"The origins of Pagan: new dates and old inhabitants" 3773: 3696: 3635: 3504: 3418: 3261: 991:, which is located in the present-day provinces of 378: 370: 362: 350: 340: 330: 304: 292: 283: 200: 190: 176: 163: 153: 143: 129: 121: 103: 93: 67: 34: 3979:1st-millennium BC establishments in Southeast Asia 3078:. New York and London: Cambridge University Press. 3071: 1410:A small but politically significant Pyu site is 948:at the foothills of the Shan Hills have yielded 3149:The River of Lost Footsteps--Histories of Burma 3046:(3rd ed.). Hutchinson University Library. 3025:. Northern Illinois University. Archived from 2418:Myanmar Education Research and Learning Portal 3217: 1828:'s edicts written in north Indian Brahmi and 1704: 1450: 1415: 1338: 1276: 1224: 1183: 756: 39: 8: 2853: 2851: 2849: 2776: 2774: 2764: 2762: 2760: 2732: 2730: 2711: 2709: 2532: 2530: 2528: 2526: 2524: 2522: 2455: 2453: 2451: 2411:"Study of Pyu Ancient City Maingmaw (Pinle)" 2283: 2281: 2279: 2277: 2275: 1746:have been found, especially in Lower Burma. 1481:Some archaeologists believe that ruins near 278: 145:• Earliest Pyu presence in Upper Burma 2395: 2393: 2137:"Foreign Influence in the Burmese Language" 2121: 2119: 2117: 2077: 2075: 2073: 2071: 2069: 2067: 2065: 1461: 27:Group of city-states in present-day Myanmar 3702: 3641: 3510: 3424: 3244: 3224: 3210: 3202: 3187:"Pyu burial site discovered at Sri Ksetra" 2208: 2206: 2170: 763: 749: 418: 277: 56: 31: 2931: 2903:Hudson, B.; Nyein, L.; Maung, W. (2001). 2479: 2477: 2317: 2315: 2313: 2311: 1429:, Mandalay Region (about 200-km north of 2562: 2560: 2467: 2465: 2356: 2354: 2352: 2350: 971:-speaking Pyu people began to enter the 791:that existed from about the 2nd century 2978:. Guernsey: Co & Bear Productions. 2491: 2489: 2327:The Indianized States of Southeast Asia 2052: 1627:Avalokiteśvara holding a lotus flower. 795:to the mid-11th century in present-day 421: 2427:from the original on 28 September 2021 1840:dated to the 4th to 6th centuries CE. 192:• 2nd Sri Ksetra Dynasty founded 2685:from the original on 25 December 2022 2650:from the original on 20 November 2022 2624:from the original on 20 November 2022 2598:from the original on 20 November 2022 2507:from the original on 13 November 2017 1709: 1455: 1420: 1343: 1281: 1229: 1188: 1158: 369: 361: 349: 339: 329: 303: 291: 199: 189: 175: 162: 152: 142: 138: 7: 3924: 3016:. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan. 1796:. But it apparently co-existed with 952:artefacts dated to 10,000–6000 BCE. 3383:State Peace and Development Council 3065:. London: Frank Cass & Co. Ltd. 2951:from the original on 14 August 2017 3185:Thein, Cherry (14 November 2011). 2149:from the original on 20 March 2023 1816:, may have been the source of the 1676:led the realignment with Ceylon's 1588:, Lower Burma, and as far east as 1003:that has been inhabited since the 967:In about the 2nd century BCE, the 901:, may have been the source of the 25: 885:. The Pyu calendar, based on the 819:emerged in the late 9th century. 3935: 3923: 3912: 3911: 3170:(illustrated ed.). PACSEA. 2102:from the original on 8 July 2018 2015: 732: 429: 260: 235: 3974:World Heritage Sites in Myanmar 2678:(PhD). University of Mandalay. 2325:(1968). Walter F. Vella (ed.). 1109:, the founder of Pagan Empire. 834:, around the confluence of the 3113:. Cambridge University Press. 3023:"The Art and Culture of Burma" 1: 3151:. Farrar, Straus and Giroux. 62:The Pyu realm in the red zone 3592:State Administration Council 3338:Restored Hanthawaddy Kingdom 3128:Moore, Elizabeth H. (2007). 3012:Charney, Michael W. (2006). 2993:Aung-Thwin, Michael (2005). 2409:Tin Tin Nyo (26 June 2019). 2329:. trans.Susan Brown Cowing. 1956:in north-central China, via 1379:Sri Ksetra was an important 1296:Known for the production of 1023:were the earliest people in 964:between 500 BCE and 200 CE. 842:. Five major walled cities- 374:6,790 ha (16,800 acres) 366:5,809 ha (14,350 acres) 336:Cultural: (ii)(iii)(iv) 202:• Rise of Pagan Empire 3393:2011–2015 political reforms 3130:Early Landscapes of Myanmar 3021:Cooler, Richard M. (2002). 2976:Myanmar Land of the Spirits 2173:, p. 167–178, 197–200. 1989:Current status of the finds 1246:(record) discovered there. 1027:to welcome in and adapt to 864:UNESCO World Heritage Sites 4005: 3166:Stargardt, Janice (1990). 3083:Hudson, Bob (March 2005), 2857:Aung-Thwin 2005: pp. 30–31 2331:University of Hawaii Press 2240:Stargardt, Janice (2016). 1765: 1403: 1315: 1253: 1213: 1140: 1084:Decline of Pyu city-states 920:set up a garrison town at 286:UNESCO World Heritage Site 51:c. 2nd century BCE–c. 1050 3907: 3705: 3644: 3513: 3427: 3249:Myanmar is also known as 3247: 3243: 3070:Htin Aung, Maung (1967). 2420:. Ministry of Education. 2258:10.1017/S0022463416000230 1705: 1592:(in present-day southern 1451: 1416: 1339: 1277: 1225: 1197:(not to be confused with 1184: 1155: 1052:(Cambodia) and (perhaps) 784: 214: 210: 155:• Beikthano founded 139: 55: 50: 40: 3518:Administrative divisions 3132:. Bangkok: River Books. 2669:Tint Lwin (March 2007). 2059:Aung-Thwin (2005), p. 24 811:to the beginning of the 165:• Pyu converted to 3888:Twelve Auspicious Rites 3669:Myanmar kyat (currency) 3147:Myint-U, Thant (2006). 2798:Lieberman 2003: 116–117 2246:Southeast Asian Studies 2135:Jenny, Mathias (2015). 1788:The Pyu language was a 1511:New History of the Tang 785:ပျူ မြို့ပြ နိုင်ငံများ 614:British colonial period 42:ပျူ မြို့ပြ နိုင်ငံများ 3061:Harvey, G. E. (1925). 2825:Aung-Thwin 2005: 35–36 2768:Aung-Thwin 2005: 31–34 2736:Aung-Thwin 2005: 29–30 2715:Aung-Thwin 2005: 26–27 2536:Aung-Thwin 2005: 24–26 2459:Aung-Thwin 2005: 21–23 2369:Aung-Thwin 2005: 36–37 2296:Aung-Thwin 2005: 25–26 2287:Aung-Thwin 2005: 18–19 1932:, and ultimately, the 1897: 1790:Tibeto-Burman language 1785: 1632: 1457:[pɪ̀ɰ̃.lɛ̀pjù] 1368: 1345:[θəjèkʰɪʔtəjà] 1327: 1265: 1130: 973:Irrawaddy River Valley 3042:Hall, D.G.E. (1960). 2924:10.1353/asi.2001.0009 2884:Htin Aung 1967: 15–16 2843:Htin Aung 1967: 18–19 2780:Htin Aung 1967: 15–17 2581:Htin Aung 1967: 7, 16 2554:Htin Aung 1967: 20–21 2545:Htin Aung 1967: 10–11 1895: 1866:Irrigation structures 1779: 1626: 1384:extensive remains of 1366: 1325: 1263: 1128: 588:Nyaungyan Restoration 515:Warring states period 441:Prehistory of Myanmar 402:22.47000°N 95.81861°E 94:Common languages 3725:Environmental issues 3684:Units of measurement 3331:First Toungoo Empire 3107:Lieberman, Victor B. 2646:. 22 December 2016. 2483:Thein, Myanmar Times 2445:Aung-Thwin 2005: 328 2230:Aung-Thwin 2005: 327 2092:"Pyu Ancient Cities" 2003:World Heritage Sites 1768:Pyu language (Burma) 1699:(Lokanatha) (called 1283:[həlɪ́ɰ̃dʑí] 1231:[bèɪɰ̃nəka̰] 1056:(southern Vietnam), 632:Nationalist movement 596:Restored Hanthawaddy 582:First Toungoo Empire 558:1287–1539, 1550–1552 3363:Japanese occupation 3316:Hanthawaddy Kingdom 3197:on 3 February 2012. 3101:on 26 November 2013 3029:on 26 December 2016 2893:Aung-Thwin 2005: 40 2807:Stargardt 1990: 200 2745:Aung-Thwin 2005: 18 2620:. 20 October 2016. 2399:Aung-Thwin 1996: 77 2378:Aung-Thwin 2005: 38 2221:Aung-Thwin 2005: 16 2125:Myint-U 2006: 51–52 1995:Ministry of Culture 1784:c. 1112–1113 in Pyu 1782:Myazedi inscription 1762:Language and script 1711:[lɔ́ka̰naʔ] 1505:Smaller Settlements 1092:) (Burmans) of the 1044:in centre, and the 889:, later became the 664:Ne Win dictatorship 638:Japanese occupation 626:Resistance movement 556:Hanthawaddy Kingdom 507:Early Pagan Kingdom 398: / 280: 243:Prehistory of Burma 134:Classical antiquity 3948:Outline of Myanmar 3664:Telecommunications 3580:commander-in-chief 3373:Socialist Republic 3321:Kingdom of Mrauk U 3074:A History of Burma 2912:Asian Perspectives 2816:Htin Aung 1967: 12 2789:Harvey 1925: 55–56 2754:Htin Aung 1967: 13 2703:Harvey 1925: 24–25 2305:Harvey 1925: 13–15 1936:in modern Yangon. 1898: 1820:used to write the 1786: 1718:, Manusi Buddhas, 1662:Theravada Buddhism 1633: 1386:Theravada Buddhism 1369: 1328: 1318:Sri Ksetra Kingdom 1266: 1190:[máɪɰ̃mɔ́] 1160:[beɪʔθənó] 1131: 1040:in the north, the 914:Kingdom of Nanzhao 905:used to write the 787:) were a group of 739:Myanmar portal 670:SLORC / SPDC junta 620:Anglo-Burmese Wars 568:Kingdom of Mrauk U 489:Arakanese kingdoms 457:Sri Ksetra Kingdom 423:History of Myanmar 407:22.47000; 95.81861 279:Pyu Ancient Cities 149:c. 2nd century BCE 108:Theravada Buddhism 3956: 3955: 3903: 3902: 3740:Human trafficking 3692: 3691: 3631: 3630: 3599:Political parties 3538:Foreign relations 3500: 3499: 3291:Myinsaing Kingdom 3257: 3256: 3191:The Myanmar Times 3158:978-0-374-16342-6 3139:978-974-9863-31-2 3120:978-0-521-80496-7 3053:978-1-4067-3503-1 2985:978-0-9527665-0-6 2724:Htin Aung 1967: 7 2471:Htin Aung 1967: 8 2340:978-0-8248-0368-1 1851:Buddhist calendar 1689:Mahayana Buddhism 1555:, perhaps of the 1522:Myingyan Township 1487:Ayeyarwady Region 1422:[dəɡáʊɰ̃] 975:from present-day 887:Buddhist calendar 773: 772: 676:Political reforms 449:200 BCE – 1050 CE 417: 416: 276: 275: 272: 271: 268: 267: 248: 247: 112:Mahayana Buddhism 16:(Redirected from 3996: 3939: 3927: 3926: 3915: 3914: 3873:National symbols 3703: 3659:Opium production 3642: 3511: 3425: 3343:Konbaung dynasty 3245: 3226: 3219: 3212: 3203: 3198: 3193:. Archived from 3181: 3162: 3143: 3124: 3102: 3100: 3094:, archived from 3089: 3079: 3077: 3066: 3057: 3038: 3036: 3034: 3017: 3008: 2989: 2961: 2960: 2958: 2956: 2950: 2935: 2909: 2900: 2894: 2891: 2885: 2882: 2876: 2873: 2867: 2864: 2858: 2855: 2844: 2841: 2835: 2832: 2826: 2823: 2817: 2814: 2808: 2805: 2799: 2796: 2790: 2787: 2781: 2778: 2769: 2766: 2755: 2752: 2746: 2743: 2737: 2734: 2725: 2722: 2716: 2713: 2704: 2701: 2695: 2694: 2692: 2690: 2684: 2677: 2666: 2660: 2659: 2657: 2655: 2640: 2634: 2633: 2631: 2629: 2614: 2608: 2607: 2605: 2603: 2588: 2582: 2579: 2573: 2572: 2564: 2555: 2552: 2546: 2543: 2537: 2534: 2517: 2516: 2514: 2512: 2493: 2484: 2481: 2472: 2469: 2460: 2457: 2446: 2443: 2437: 2436: 2434: 2432: 2426: 2415: 2406: 2400: 2397: 2388: 2385: 2379: 2376: 2370: 2367: 2361: 2358: 2345: 2344: 2319: 2306: 2303: 2297: 2294: 2288: 2285: 2270: 2269: 2237: 2231: 2228: 2222: 2219: 2213: 2210: 2201: 2198: 2192: 2191:Myint-U 2006: 45 2189: 2183: 2180: 2174: 2168: 2159: 2158: 2156: 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dynasty 536:Sagaing Kingdom 477: 461:Tagaung Kingdom 454: 447:Pyu city-states 406: 404: 400: 397: 392: 389: 387: 385: 384: 326: 285: 261: 236: 203: 193: 183: 169: 156: 146: 63: 46: 41: 37: 36:Pyu city-states 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 4002: 4000: 3992: 3991: 3986: 3981: 3976: 3971: 3961: 3960: 3954: 3953: 3951: 3950: 3945: 3933: 3921: 3908: 3905: 3904: 3901: 3900: 3898: 3897: 3896: 3895: 3885: 3880: 3875: 3870: 3865: 3860: 3855: 3850: 3845: 3840: 3835: 3830: 3825: 3820: 3815: 3810: 3805: 3800: 3795: 3790: 3785: 3779: 3777: 3771: 3770: 3768: 3767: 3762: 3757: 3752: 3747: 3742: 3737: 3732: 3727: 3722: 3717: 3712: 3706: 3700: 3694: 3693: 3690: 3689: 3687: 3686: 3681: 3679:Transportation 3676: 3671: 3666: 3661: 3656: 3651: 3645: 3639: 3633: 3632: 3629: 3628: 3626: 3625: 3624: 3623: 3616:Prime Minister 3613: 3612: 3611: 3601: 3596: 3595: 3594: 3584: 3583: 3582: 3577: 3567: 3562: 3557: 3556: 3555: 3553:Women's rights 3550: 3540: 3535: 3530: 3525: 3520: 3514: 3508: 3502: 3501: 3498: 3497: 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599: 593: 592: 591: 585: 573: 572: 571: 565: 559: 553: 552: 551: 545: 542:Kingdom of Ava 539: 533: 530:Pinya Kingdoms 512: 511: 510: 495: 494: 493: 492: 485: 484: 480:Thaton Kingdom 474: 473: 466: 465: 451: 450: 444: 443:11,000–200 BCE 435: 434: 426: 425: 415: 414: 382: 376: 375: 372: 368: 367: 364: 360: 359: 352: 348: 347: 342: 338: 337: 334: 328: 327: 325: 324: 319: 314: 308: 306: 302: 301: 296: 290: 289: 274: 273: 270: 269: 266: 265: 258: 249: 246: 245: 240: 228: 227: 222: 212: 211: 208: 207: 204: 201: 198: 197: 194: 191: 188: 187: 184: 177: 174: 173: 170: 164: 161: 160: 157: 154: 151: 150: 147: 144: 141: 140: 137: 136: 131: 130:Historical era 127: 126: 123: 119: 118: 105: 101: 100: 95: 91: 90: 69: 65: 64: 61: 53: 52: 48: 47: 38: 35: 26: 24: 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 4001: 3990: 3987: 3985: 3982: 3980: 3977: 3975: 3972: 3970: 3967: 3966: 3964: 3949: 3946: 3944: 3943: 3938: 3934: 3932: 3931: 3922: 3920: 3919: 3910: 3909: 3906: 3894: 3891: 3890: 3889: 3886: 3884: 3881: 3879: 3876: 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3448: 3447:Deforestation 3445: 3443: 3440: 3438: 3435: 3433: 3430: 3429: 3426: 3423: 3421: 3417: 3409: 3406: 3404: 3401: 3400: 3399: 3396: 3394: 3391: 3389: 3388:2007 protests 3386: 3384: 3381: 3379: 3378:8888 Uprising 3376: 3374: 3371: 3369: 3366: 3364: 3361: 3359: 3356: 3354: 3351: 3349: 3346: 3344: 3341: 3339: 3336: 3332: 3329: 3328: 3327: 3324: 3322: 3319: 3317: 3314: 3312: 3311:Prome Kingdom 3309: 3307: 3304: 3302: 3299: 3297: 3296:Pinya Kingdom 3294: 3292: 3289: 3287: 3286:Pagan Kingdom 3284: 3282: 3279: 3277: 3274: 3272: 3269: 3268: 3266: 3264: 3260: 3252: 3246: 3242: 3238: 3234: 3227: 3222: 3220: 3215: 3213: 3208: 3207: 3204: 3196: 3192: 3188: 3183: 3179: 3177:9781873178003 3173: 3169: 3164: 3160: 3154: 3150: 3145: 3141: 3135: 3131: 3126: 3122: 3116: 3112: 3108: 3104: 3097: 3093: 3086: 3081: 3076: 3075: 3068: 3064: 3059: 3055: 3049: 3045: 3040: 3028: 3024: 3019: 3015: 3010: 3006: 3004:9780824828868 3000: 2996: 2991: 2987: 2981: 2977: 2972: 2971: 2967: 2947: 2943: 2939: 2934: 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script 896: 892: 888: 884: 880: 876: 872: 867: 865: 861: 857: 853: 849: 845: 841: 837: 833: 829: 825: 820: 818: 817:Pagan Kingdom 814: 810: 807:, linked the 806: 802: 801:Tibeto-Burman 798: 797:Upper Myanmar 794: 790: 782: 778: 766: 761: 759: 754: 752: 747: 746: 744: 743: 740: 730: 729: 722: 721:Military rule 719: 718: 717: 714: 712: 709: 707: 704: 702: 699: 697: 694: 693: 692: 691: 683: 680: 677: 674: 671: 668: 665: 662: 659: 656: 655: 654:1948–present 653: 650: 649: 648: 647: 639: 636: 633: 630: 627: 624: 621: 618: 617: 615: 612: 611: 610: 609: 603: 600: 597: 594: 589: 586: 583: 580: 579: 577: 574: 569: 566: 563: 560: 557: 554: 549: 548:Prome Kingdom 546: 543: 540: 537: 534: 531: 527: 524: 523: 521: 520:Upper Myanmar 518: 517: 516: 513: 508: 505: 504: 502: 501:Pagan Kingdom 499: 498: 497: 496: 490: 487: 486: 481: 476: 475: 472:825?–1057? CE 471: 468: 467: 462: 458: 453: 452: 448: 445: 442: 439: 438: 437: 436: 432: 428: 427: 424: 420: 411: 383: 381: 377: 373: 365: 357: 353: 346: 343: 335: 333: 323: 320: 318: 315: 313: 310: 309: 307: 300: 297: 295: 288: 282: 259: 257: 256:Pagan Dynasty 254: 253: 250: 244: 241: 234: 233: 230: 229: 226: 223: 221: 218: 217: 213: 209: 205: 195: 185: 181: 171: 168: 158: 148: 135: 132: 128: 124: 120: 117: 113: 109: 106: 102: 99: 96: 92: 89: 85: 81: 77: 73: 70: 66: 59: 54: 49: 33: 30: 19: 3940: 3928: 3916: 3760:Prostitution 3715:Demographics 3654:Central bank 3543:Human rights 3523:Constitution 3358:British rule 3275: 3250: 3195:the original 3190: 3167: 3148: 3129: 3110: 3096:the original 3091: 3073: 3062: 3043: 3031:. Retrieved 3027:the original 3013: 2994: 2975: 2955:12 September 2953:. Retrieved 2918:(1): 48–74. 2915: 2911: 2898: 2889: 2880: 2871: 2862: 2839: 2830: 2821: 2812: 2803: 2794: 2785: 2750: 2741: 2720: 2699: 2687:. Retrieved 2671: 2664: 2652:. Retrieved 2638: 2626:. 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The 916:. The 893:. The 854:, and 852:Hanlin 826:, the 3868:Music 3863:Media 3833:Dance 3755:Women 3710:Crime 3462:Lakes 3251:Burma 3099:(PDF) 3088:(PDF) 3044:Burma 2949:(PDF) 2938:S2CID 2908:(PDF) 2683:(PDF) 2676:(PDF) 2425:(PDF) 2414:(PDF) 2262:S2CID 2147:(PDF) 2140:(PDF) 2047:Notes 1738:, to 1736:Shiva 1637:India 1629:Bihar 1590:Óc Eo 1563:Trade 1529:Dawei 1437:Pinle 1358:devas 1350:Prome 1269:Halin 1264:Halin 1250:Halin 1103:Pagan 997:Gansu 962:China 922:Bagan 875:India 871:China 312:Halin 84:Pinle 76:Halin 3848:Flag 3621:list 3609:list 3548:LGBT 3172:ISBN 3153:ISBN 3134:ISBN 3115:ISBN 3048:ISBN 3035:2011 2999:ISBN 2980:ISBN 2957:2019 2691:2022 2656:2022 2630:2022 2604:2022 2513:2018 2433:2021 2335:ISBN 2155:2023 2108:2018 1952:and 1908:and 1836:and 1802:Pali 1800:and 1780:The 1770:and 1742:and 1734:and 1716:Tara 1691:and 1641:Pali 1582:Java 1553:rice 1509:The 1463:lit. 1441:The 1374:zata 1298:salt 1064:and 1019:The 995:and 983:and 873:and 860:Pyay 838:and 775:The 528:and 363:Area 345:1444 3783:Art 2928:hdl 2920:doi 2254:doi 1962:Mon 1806:Fan 1714:), 1643:or 1333:or 1271:or 1021:Pyu 793:BCE 98:Pyu 3965:: 3189:. 3090:, 2944:. 2936:. 2926:. 2916:40 2914:. 2910:. 2848:^ 2773:^ 2759:^ 2729:^ 2708:^ 2594:. 2559:^ 2521:^ 2503:. 2499:. 2488:^ 2476:^ 2464:^ 2450:^ 2416:. 2392:^ 2349:^ 2333:. 2310:^ 2274:^ 2260:. 2250:47 2248:. 2244:. 2205:^ 2163:^ 2116:^ 2098:. 2094:. 2064:^ 1924:, 1918:gu 1730:, 1695:. 1687:, 1577:. 1485:, 1460:, 1154:: 909:. 850:, 783:: 459:, 114:, 110:, 86:, 82:, 78:, 74:, 3225:e 3218:t 3211:v 3180:. 3161:. 3142:. 3123:. 3056:. 3037:. 3007:. 2988:. 2959:. 2930:: 2922:: 2693:. 2658:. 2632:. 2606:. 2515:. 2435:. 2343:. 2268:. 2256:: 2157:. 2110:. 1476:' 1470:' 1449:( 1414:( 1337:( 1275:( 1223:( 1182:( 1150:( 779:( 764:e 757:t 750:v 482:) 478:( 463:) 455:( 358:) 20:)

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