1438:
3865:
1382:
1410:
49:
1354:
1424:
1368:
450:
504:). This locally secreted factor gives rise to a series of outside-in and inside-out positive feedback between these two types of cells, so that mammary bud epithelial cells can proliferate and sprout down into the mesenchymal layer until they reach the fat pad to begin the first round of branching. At the same time, the embryonic mesenchymal cells around the epithelial bud receive secreting factors activated by
1452:
458:
1396:
1323:. One theory proposes that mammary glands evolved from glands that were used to keep the eggs of early mammals moist and free from infection (monotremes still lay eggs). Other theories suggest that early secretions were used directly by hatched young, or that the secretions were used by young to help them orient to their mothers.
556:(ER) expression in mammary gland tissue, which is a downstream effect of mammary gland GHR activation. In any case, unlike IGF-1, GH itself is not essential for mammary gland development, and IGF-1 in conjunction with estrogen can induce normal mammary gland development without the presence of GH. In addition to IGF-1, other
357:) hanging from it. For instance, cows and buffalo udders have two pairs of mammary glands and four teats, whereas sheep and goat udders have one pair of mammary glands with two teats protruding from the udder. Each gland produces milk for a single teat. These mammary glands are evolutionarily derived from sweat glands.
349:. In the case of prototherians, both males and females have functional mammary glands, but their mammary glands are without nipples. These mammary glands are modified sebaceous glands. Concerning metatherians and eutherians, only females have functional mammary glands. Their mammary glands can be termed as breasts or
1342:
973:
in mammary glands can be induced biochemically by abnormal expression level of circulating hormones or local ECM components, or from a mechanical change in the tension of mammary stroma. Under either of the two circumstances, mammary epithelial cells would grow out of control and eventually result in
940:
of alveolar structures after weaning, in humans there is only partial involution and the level of involution in humans appears to be highly individual. The glands in the breast do secrete fluid also in nonlactating women. In some other species (such as cows), all alveoli and secretory duct structures
905:
secreted from mammary epithelial cells act paracrinely to induce more neighboring cells' branching. When the lactiferous duct tree is almost ready, "leaves" alveoli are differentiated from luminal epithelial cells and added at the end of each branch. In late pregnancy and for the first few days after
926:
on epithelial surface again, is essential in this process. Their binding ensures correct placement of prolactin receptors on the basal lateral side of alveoli cells and directional secretion of milk into lactiferous ducts. Suckling of the baby causes release of the hormone oxytocin, which stimulates
722:
By the pubertal stage, the mammary ducts have invaded to the end of the mammary fat pad. At this point, the terminal end buds become less proliferative and decrease in size. Side branches form from the primary ducts and begin to fill the mammary fat pad. Ductal development decreases with the arrival
586:
During embryonic development, IGF-1 levels are low, and gradually increase from birth to puberty. At puberty, the levels of GH and IGF-1 reach their highest levels in life and estrogen begins to be secreted in high amounts in females, which is when ductal development mostly takes place. Under the
935:
During weaning, decreased prolactin, missing mechanical stimulation (baby suckling), and changes in osmotic balance caused by milk stasis and leaking of tight junctions cause cessation of milk production. It is the (passive) process of a child or animal ceasing to be dependent on the mother for
852:
and luminal (duct) epithelial cells, and the increased amount of activated MMPs can degrade surrounding ECM helping duct buds to reach further in the fat pads. On the other hand, basement membrane along the mature mammary ducts is thicker, with strong adhesion to epithelial cells via binding to
412:
All the milk-secreting tissue leading to a single lactiferous duct is collectively called a "simple mammary gland"; in a "complex mammary gland", all the simple mammary glands serve one nipple. Humans normally have two complex mammary glands, one in each breast, and each complex mammary gland
857:
and non-integrin receptors. When side branches develop, it is a much more "pushing-forward" working process including extending through myoepithelial cells, degrading basement membrane and then invading into a periductal layer of fibrous stromal tissue. Degraded basement membrane fragments
495:
Mammary glands develop during different growth cycles. They exist in both sexes during the embryonic stage, forming only a rudimentary duct tree at birth. In this stage, mammary gland development depends on systemic (and maternal) hormones, but is also under the (local) regulation of
816:(TEB), secondary branches sprouting from primary ducts and proper duct lumen formation. These processes are tightly modulated by components of mammary epithelial ECM interacting with systemic hormones and local secreting factors. However, for each mechanism the epithelial cells' "
680:
mammary gland development can be divided into a series of specific stages. Initially, the formation of the milk lines that run between the fore and hind limbs bilaterally on each side of the midline occurs around embryonic day 10.5 (E10.5). The second stage occurs at E11.5 when
539:
component of mammary gland development, and act synergistically to mediate it. Neither estrogen nor GH are capable of inducing ductal development without the other. The role of GH in ductal development has been found to be mostly mediated by its induction of the secretion of
991:
The breasts of female humans vary from most other mammals that tend to have less conspicuous mammary glands. The number and positioning of mammary glands varies widely in different mammals. The protruding teats and accompanying glands can be located anywhere along the two
719:. Terminal end buds, the highly proliferative structures found at the tips of the invading ducts, expand and increase greatly during this stage. This developmental period is characterized by the emergence of the terminal end buds and lasts until an age of about 7–8 weeks.
1948:
Wysolmerski, J. J.; Philbrick, W. M.; Dunbar, M. E.; Lanske, B.; Kronenberg, H.; Broadus, A. E. (1998). "Rescue of the parathyroid hormone-related protein knockout mouse demonstrates that parathyroid hormone-related protein is essential for mammary gland development".
3638:
Nicholas L. Petrakis; Lynn Mason; Rose Lee; Barbara
Sugimoto; Stella Pawson; Frank Catchpool (1975). "Association of Race, Age, Menopausal Status, and Cerumen Type With Breast Fluid Secretion in Nonlactating Women, as Determined by Nipple Aspiration".
961:
and other growth inhibiting hormones and local factors. This major structural change leads loose fat tissue to fill the empty space afterward. But a functional lactiferous duct tree can be formed again when a female is pregnant again.
512:. These mesenchymal cells can transform into a dense, mammary-specific mesenchyme, which later develop into connective tissue with fibrous threads, forming blood vessels and the lymph system. A basement membrane, mainly containing
996:. In general most mammals develop mammary glands in pairs along these lines, with a number approximating the number of young typically birthed at a time. The number of teats varies from 2 (in most primates) to 18 (in pigs). The
820:" can be delicately unique with different membrane receptor profiles and basement membrane thickness from specific branching area to area, so as to regulate cell growth or differentiation sub-locally. Important players include
440:
and the connective tissue. They not only help to support mammary basic structure, but also serve as a communicating bridge between mammary epithelia and their local and global environment throughout this organ's development.
3408:
Petrakis NL, Barnes S, King EB, Lowenstein J, Wiencke J, Lee MM, Miike R, Kirk M, Coward L (October 1996). "Stimulatory influence of soy protein isolate on breast secretion in pre- and postmenopausal people AFAB".
673:
Developmentally, mammary gland epithelium is constantly produced and maintained by rare epithelial cells, dubbed as mammary progenitors which are ultimately thought to be derived from tissue-resident stem cells.
520:, formed afterward by differentiated myoepithelial cells, keeps the polarity of this primary duct tree. These components of the extracellular matrix are strong determinants of duct morphogenesis.
353:. In the case of breasts, each mammary gland has its own nipple (e.g., human mammary glands). In the case of udders, pairs of mammary glands comprise a single mass, with more than one nipple (or
1311:. Because mammary glands do not fossilize well, supporting such theories with fossil evidence is difficult. Many of the current theories are based on comparisons between lines of living mammals—
927:
contraction of the myoepithelial cells. In this combined control from ECM and systemic hormones, milk secretion can be reciprocally amplified so as to provide enough nutrition for the baby.
731:(proestrus, estrus, metestrus, and diestrus). As a result of estrous cycling, the mammary gland undergoes dynamic changes where cells proliferate and then regress in an ordered fashion.
473:(first milk) when giving birth. Mammary glands can be identified as apocrine because they exhibit striking "decapitation" secretion. Many sources assert that mammary glands are modified
3347:
Muschler, J.; Levy, D.; Boudreau, R.; Henry, M.; Campbell, K.; Bissell, M. J. (2002). "A role for dystroglycan in epithelial polarization: Loss of function in breast tumor cells".
715:, the mammary ducts elongate into the mammary fat pad. Then, starting around four weeks of age, mammary ductal growth increases significantly with the ducts invading towards the
783:, due to much lower levels of estrogen, and due to lower levels of GH and IGF-1, which decrease with age, mammary gland tissue atrophies and the mammary glands become smaller.
1525:
3539:"Control of mammary epithelial differentiation: Basement membrane induces tissue-specific gene expression in the absence of cell-cell interaction and morphological polarity"
3744:
Motyl, T.; Gajkowska, B.; Zarzyńska, J.; Gajewska, M.; Lamparska-Przybysz, M. (2006). "Apoptosis and autophagy in mammary gland remodeling and breast cancer chemotherapy".
4313:
461:
Light micrograph of a human proliferating mammary gland during estrous cycle. Sprouting gland tissue can be seen in the upper left field (haematoxylin eosin staining)
3773:"Normal and tumor-derived myoepithelial cells differ in their ability to interact with luminal breast epithelial cells for polarity and basement membrane deposition"
413:
consists of 10–20 simple glands. The opening of each simple gland on the surface of the nipple is called a "pore." The presence of more than two nipples is known as
1498:
595:
surrounding the ductal system in the mammary glands also grows. After puberty, GH and IGF-1 levels progressively decrease, which limits further development until
848:
cap cells on TEB tips through a thin, leaky layer of basement membrane. These hormones promote specific gene expression. Hence cap cells can differentiate into
1307:
There are many theories on how mammary glands evolved. For example, it is thought that the mammary gland is a transformed sweat gland, more closely related to
231:
918:
and the presence of another important hormone prolactin, which mediates further alveologenesis, milk protein production, and regulates osmotic balance and
633:
expressed in mammary gland tissue, and in conjunction with relatively low estrogen levels, are the cause of the lack of developed mammary glands in males.
901:, serum progesterone remains at a stably high concentration so signaling through its receptor is continuously activated. As one of the transcribed genes,
1000:
has 13, one of the few mammals with an odd number. The following table lists the number and position of teats and glands found in a range of mammals:
685:
formation begins along the mammary milk line. This will eventually give rise to the nipple. Lastly, the third stage occurs at E12.5 and involves the
409:
begins to suck, the oxytocin-mediated "let down reflex" ensues, and the mother's milk is secreted—not sucked—from the gland into the infant's mouth.
4564:
2692:"Breast size in relation to endogenous hormone levels, body constitution, and oral contraceptive use in healthy nulligravid women aged 19–25 years"
870:. These complex "Yin-yang" balancing crosstalks between mammary ECM and epithelial cells "instruct" healthy mammary gland development until adult.
4416:
Lefèvre, C. M.; Sharp, J. A.; Nicholas, K. R. (2010). "Evolution of
Lactation: Ancient Origin and Extreme Adaptations of the Lactation System".
4718:
1437:
4368:
3976:"Conversion of the Nipple to Hair-Bearing Epithelia by Lowering Bone Morphogenetic Protein Pathway Activity at the Dermal-Epidermal Interface"
4500:
4034:
3932:
3881:
2671:
2608:
2524:
207:
424:
Maintaining the correct polarized morphology of the lactiferous duct tree requires another essential component – mammary epithelial cells
1341:
490:
3207:
Wiseman, B. S.; Sternlicht, M. D.; Lund, L. R.; Alexander, C. M.; Mott, J.; Bissell, M. J.; Soloway, P.; Itohara, S.; Werb, Z. (2003).
2829:
Sekhri, KK; Pitelka, DR; Deome, KB (September 1967). "Studies of mouse mammary glands. I. Cytomorphology of the normal mammary gland".
4530:
3485:
Brisken, C.; Heineman, A.; Chavarria, T.; Elenbaas, B.; Tan, J.; Dey, S. K.; McMahon, J. A.; McMahon, A. P.; Weinberg, R. A. (2000).
1932:
1886:
1593:
1518:
949:
for lack of growth promoting factors either from the ECM or circulating hormones. At the same time, apoptosis of blood capillary
825:
1723:
Watson, C. J.; Khaled, W. T. (2008). "Mammary development in the embryo and adult: A journey of morphogenesis and commitment".
1248:
Male mammals typically have rudimentary mammary glands and nipples, with a few exceptions: male mice do not have nipples, male
812:
inhibits it. A mature duct tree reaching the limit of the fat pad of the mammary gland comes into being by bifurcation of duct
568:
2239:"Insulin-like growth factor I is essential for terminal end bud formation and ductal morphogenesis during mammary development"
3820:
Provenzano, P. P.; Inman, D. R.; Eliceiri, K. W.; Knittel, J. G.; Yan, L.; Rueden, C. T.; White, J. G.; Keely, P. J. (2008).
2287:
Kleinberg DL, Feldman M, Ruan W (2000). "IGF-I: an essential factor in terminal end bud formation and ductal morphogenesis".
759:
surrounding the alveoli will cause the milk to be ejected through the ducts and into the nipple for the nursing infant. Upon
1881:(Eighth ed.). Philadelphia Baltimore New York London Buenos Aires Hong Kong Sydney Tokyo: Wolters Kluwer. p. 318.
1268:
226:
190:
4557:
4451:
Graves, B. M.; Duvall, D. (1983). "A Role for
Aggregation Pheromones in the Evolution of Mammallike Reptile Lactation".
4381:
Vorbach, C.; Capecchi, M. R.; Penninger, J. M. (2006). "Evolution of the mammary gland from the innate immune system?".
3209:"Site-specific inductive and inhibitory activities of MMP-2 and MMP-3 orchestrate mammary gland branching morphogenesis"
2915:"Key stages of mammary gland development: molecular mechanisms involved in the formation of the embryonic mammary gland"
1986:"Key stages of mammary gland development: Molecular mechanisms involved in the formation of the embryonic mammary gland"
541:
3307:"Cell adhesion to laminin 1 or 5 induces isoform-specific clustering of integrins and other focal adhesion components"
3910:
2733:"Testosterone inhibits estrogen-induced mammary epithelial proliferation and suppresses estrogen receptor expression"
953:
speeds up the regression of lactation ductal beds. Shrinkage of the mammary duct tree and ECM remodeling by various
3589:
Streuli, C. H.; Schmidhauser, C.; Bailey, N.; Yurchenco, P.; Skubitz, A. P.; Roskelley, C.; Bissell, M. J. (1995).
1228:
4490:
1907:
1381:
629:
inhibit estrogen-mediated mammary gland development (e.g., by reducing local ER expression) through activation of
436:, inflammatory cells, and others, constitute mammary stroma. Mammary epithelial ECM mainly contains myoepithelial
4186:
Li, Peng; Knabe, Darrell A.; Kim, Sung Woo; Lynch, Christopher J.; Hutson, Susan M.; Wu, Guoyao (1 August 2009).
3947:
Dog breeds vary in the number of mammary glands: larger breeds tend to have 5 pairs, smaller breeds have 4 pairs.
1409:
4698:
4188:"Lactating Porcine Mammary Tissue Catabolizes Branched-Chain Amino Acids for Glutamine and Aspartate Synthesis"
837:
580:
576:
137:
4713:
4708:
4693:
4550:
3158:"Regulation of mammary gland branching morphogenesis by the extracellular matrix and its remodeling enzymes"
564:
549:
141:
62:
3864:
552:(GHR). However, GH itself also acts independently of IGF-1 to stimulate ductal development by upregulating
1470:
651:
588:
238:
214:
202:
169:
153:
704:
The primitive (stem) cells are detected in embryo and their numbers increase steadily during development
4024:
2630:
1423:
1308:
937:
902:
4600:
2330:
Kleinberg DL, Ruan W (2008). "IGF-I, GH, and sex steroid effects in normal mammary gland development".
2037:"Modeling mammary organogenesis from biological first principles: Cells and their physical constraints"
1353:
1326:
Lactation is thought to have developed long before the evolution of the mammary gland and mammals; see
4117:
2420:"Estrogen regulation of mammary gland development and breast cancer: amphiregulin takes center stage"
1784:
1367:
497:
425:
4102:
3771:
Gudjonsson, T.; Rønnov-Jessen, L.; Villadsen, R.; Rank, F.; Bissell, M. J.; Petersen, O. W. (2002).
4667:
2631:"The potential clinical applications of insulin-like growth factor-1 ligand in human breast cancer"
1284:
756:
4492:
Histologic
Diagnosis of Inflammatory Skin Diseases An Algorithmic Method Based on Pattern Analysis
3885:
4651:
4641:
4468:
4351:
4296:
4133:
3726:
3467:
3038:
2856:
Tharmapalan, Pirashaanthy; Mahendralingam, Mathepan; Berman, Hal K; Khokha, Rama (15 July 2019).
2762:
2355:
2312:
2214:
2166:
1748:
1626:
Newton, Michael; Newton, Niles Rumely (December 1948). "The let-down reflex in human lactation".
486:
382:
307:, the occasional production of milk by the glands, can occur in any mammal, but in most mammals,
173:
3058:"Key stages in mammary gland development: The cues that regulate ductal branching morphogenesis"
1451:
405:, excreting the milk secreted by alveolar units into the lobule lumen toward the nipple. As the
4271:
Oftedal, O. T. (2002). "The origin of lactation as a water source for parchment-shelled eggs".
3674:
Zarzynska, J.; Motyl, T. (2008). "Apoptosis and autophagy in involuting bovine mammary gland".
3487:"Essential function of Wnt-4 in mammary gland development downstream of progesterone signaling"
583:(HGF) are involved in breast development as mediators downstream to sex hormones and GH/IGF-1.
48:
4636:
4496:
4433:
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4343:
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4227:
4209:
4168:
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3928:
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3802:
3753:
3718:
3683:
3656:
3620:
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3516:
3459:
3418:
3397:
3356:
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3287:
3238:
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3089:
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2877:
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2811:
2754:
2713:
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2642:
2604:
2579:
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2520:
2514:
2492:
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2206:
2158:
2118:
2066:
2017:
1966:
1928:
1882:
1859:
1810:
1740:
1700:
1682:
1643:
1589:
950:
813:
767:. This process involves the controlled collapse of mammary epithelial cells where cells begin
630:
553:
437:
2598:
2043:. From the Century of the Genome to the Century of the Organism: New Theoretical Approaches.
500:
between neighboring epithelial and mesenchymal cells by parathyroid hormone-related protein (
4629:
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4617:
4460:
4425:
4390:
4335:
4280:
4217:
4199:
4160:
4125:
4073:
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3987:
3843:
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3022:
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2801:
2793:
2744:
2703:
2569:
2553:
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2441:
2431:
2415:
2386:
2339:
2296:
2250:
2198:
2150:
2108:
2100:
2056:
2048:
2007:
1997:
1958:
1849:
1841:
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1792:
1732:
1690:
1674:
1635:
1564:
1209:
997:
744:
698:
536:
418:
393:
373:
82:
4703:
4245:
3957:
3258:"Role of cell surface metalloprotease MT1-MMP in epithelial cell migration over laminin-5"
1911:
1549:
1443:
1253:
922:
function. Laminin and collagen in myoepithelial basement membrane interacting with beta-1
841:
800:. First development is frequently seen during pre- and postnatal stages, and later during
763:
of the infant, lactation stops and the mammary gland turns in on itself, a process called
752:
724:
284:
2858:"Mammary stem cells and progenitors: targeting the roots of breast cancer for prevention"
2375:"Mouse models of transforming growth factor beta impact in breast development and cancer"
1508:
4429:
4121:
1788:
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449:
4605:
4513:
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4187:
4078:
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3590:
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3538:
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3233:
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2965:
2941:
2914:
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2857:
2806:
2781:
2708:
2691:
2574:
2541:
2446:
2419:
2113:
2088:
2061:
2036:
2012:
1985:
1854:
1829:
1805:
1772:
1695:
1662:
1257:
919:
890:
608:
532:
378:
328:
260:
87:
3511:
3486:
3184:
3157:
1639:
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4672:
4593:
3124:
2052:
2035:
Montévil, Maël; Speroni, Lucia; Sonnenschein, Carlos; Soto, Ana M. (1 October 2016).
1483:
1478:
975:
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780:
728:
663:
616:
560:
157:
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3042:
3013:
Daniel, CW; Smith, GH (January 1999). "The mammary gland: a model for development".
2766:
2359:
2316:
2218:
2170:
1569:
611:
development in estrogen-primed mammary gland tissue, which occurs in preparation of
331:
can occur. With humans, male lactation can occur only under specific circumstances.
4300:
4137:
3730:
3701:
Fadok, V. A. (1999). "Clearance: The last and often forgotten stage of apoptosis".
3471:
1752:
1493:
1296:
1288:
1280:
1186:
958:
915:
889:, estrogen, and progesterone cause further branching, together with an increase in
863:
809:
686:
626:
600:
572:
304:
31:
4326:
Oftedal, OT (2002). "The mammary gland and its origin during synapsid evolution".
858:(laminin-5) roles to lead the way of mammary epithelial cells migration. Whereas,
1830:"Adipose Stroma Induces Branching Morphogenesis of Engineered Epithelial Tubules"
1548:
Macéa, José Rafael; Fregnani, José Humberto
Tavares Guerreiro (1 December 2006).
751:
occurs within the mammary gland; lactation involves the secretion of milk by the
2597:
Jay R. Harris; Marc E. Lippman; C. Kent
Osborne; Monica Morrow (28 March 2012).
2557:
2104:
1488:
1395:
845:
474:
457:
377:(hollow cavities, a few millimeters large), which are lined with milk-secreting
338:
324:
4164:
4068:
3991:
1295:, and the production in live mammals is much cheaper than the use of mammalian
844:, and others. Elevated circulating level of growth hormone and estrogen get to
747:
structures within the branches to be used for milk production. After delivery,
4339:
4284:
3714:
3256:
Koshikawa, N.; Giannelli, G.; Cirulli, V.; Miyazaki, K.; Quaranta, V. (2000).
3026:
2981:
2343:
2300:
2202:
2154:
1845:
1053:
954:
894:
817:
771:
in a controlled manner, reverting the mammary gland back to a pubertal state.
716:
694:
647:
646:
Mammary gland development is characterized by the unique process by which the
592:
433:
414:
342:
108:
92:
57:
4489:
Ackerman, A. Bernard; Almut Böer; Bruce Bennin; Geoffrey J. Gottlieb (2005).
4213:
2881:
2873:
2565:
2255:
2238:
1686:
877:
intake mildly stimulates the breast glands in pre- and postmenopausal women.
312:
219:
4539:
by Sir Astley Paston Cooper (1840). Numerous drawings, in the public domain.
3652:
3392:
3375:
2510:
2487:
2470:
2189:
Kleinberg DL (1997). "Early mammary development: growth hormone and IGF-1".
1796:
1513:
1327:
1316:
1312:
1249:
1021:
993:
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942:
911:
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768:
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320:
308:
276:
4437:
4402:
4347:
4292:
4231:
4172:
4151:
Kunz, T; Hosken, D (2009). "Male lactation: why, why not and is it care?".
4087:
4009:
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3838:
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3757:
3722:
3687:
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2646:
2583:
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2070:
2021:
1962:
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3572:
3422:
3333:
3325:
3273:
3224:
2842:
2749:
2717:
2162:
1970:
796:
Lactiferous duct development occurs in females in response to circulating
3788:
3502:
3454:
3437:
2542:"Mammary Gland Growth Factors: Roles in Normal Development and in Cancer"
1429:
1320:
1292:
1190:
1012:
923:
854:
833:
821:
805:
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666:
which establishes the basic arboreal network of ducts emanating from the
622:
528:
517:
466:
402:
346:
296:
113:
4542:
2391:
2374:
1925:
Human
Microscopic Anatomy: An Atlas for Students of Medicine and Biology
1588:(7th ed.). Maryland Heights, Maryland: Mosby/Elsevier. p. 54.
4506:
4394:
4101:
Francis, C. M.; Anthony, E. L. P.; Brunton, J. A.; Kunz, T. H. (1994).
3591:"Laminin mediates tissue-specific gene expression in mammary epithelia"
1902:
1736:
1661:
Zucca-Matthes, Gustavo; Urban, Cícero; Vallejo, André (February 2016).
1610:
1457:
1264:
874:
859:
829:
801:
760:
690:
682:
659:
513:
387:
300:
67:
17:
4536:
3438:"Side-branching in the mammary gland: The progesterone-Wnt connection"
244:
4646:
4588:
4574:
4129:
3876:
3874:
1373:
1072:
885:
Secretory alveoli develop mainly in pregnancy, when rising levels of
867:
677:
667:
544:(IGF-1), which occurs both systemically (mainly originating from the
406:
398:
366:
316:
288:
268:
132:
77:
72:
4023:
Patricia J. Armati; Chris R. Dickman; Ian D. Hume (17 August 2006).
3822:"Collagen density promotes mammary tumor initiation and progression"
3074:
2931:
2732:
2436:
2141:
Kleinberg DL (1998). "Role of IGF-I in normal mammary development".
2002:
323:
in recent months or years. It is directed by hormonal guidance from
4464:
3174:
1252:
do not have mammary glands, and male horses lack nipples. The male
1503:
1129:
1049:
1045:
1030:
655:
545:
505:
501:
456:
448:
350:
292:
264:
185:
164:
3905:
3903:
3923:
Cunningham, Merle; LaTour, Mickey A. & Acker, Duane (2005).
1773:"Stromal Effects on Mammary Gland Development and Breast Cancer"
1415:
1272:
1041:
509:
354:
272:
148:
4546:
4246:"BBC News – The goats with spider genes and silk in their milk"
3109:"Hormonal and local control of mammary branching morphogenesis"
2731:
Zhou J, Ng S, Adesanya-Famuiya O, Anderson K, Bondy CA (2000).
548:) and locally in the mammary fat pad through activation of the
1401:
1387:
1359:
1276:
1167:
1148:
1110:
1091:
3107:
Sternlicht, M. D.; Kouros-Mehr, H.; Lu, P.; Werb, Z. (2006).
1877:
Moore, Keith L.; Dalley, Arthur F.; Agur, Anne M. R. (2018).
1584:
Lawrence, Ruth A.; Lawrence, Robert M. (30 September 2010).
866:
negatively regulates this side branching process in case of
417:
and the presence of more than two complex mammary glands as
401:. The myoepithelial cells contract under the stimulation of
654:. The development of the mammary gland occurs mainly after
3436:
Robinson, G. W.; Hennighausen, L.; Johnson, P. F. (2000).
936:
nourishment. In some species there is complete or partial
914:) begins a few days later due to reduction in circulating
743:, the ductal systems undergo rapid proliferation and form
30:"Mammary" redirects here. For the mountain in Alaska, see
978:
originate in the lobules or ducts of the mammary glands.
3376:"Hormonal effects of soy in premenopausal women and men"
1828:
Pavlovich, A. L.; Manivannan, S.; Nelson, C. M. (2010).
4052:"Development and Pathology of the Equine Mammary Gland"
371:
The basic components of a mature mammary gland are the
291:
in primates (for example, humans and chimpanzees), the
1279:, to produce proteins for pharmaceutical use. Complex
3584:
3582:
3532:
3530:
2629:
Chong YM, Subramanian A, Sharma AK, Mokbel K (2007).
2471:"Hepatocyte growth factor profile with breast cancer"
808:
promotes branching differentiation, whereas in males
299:(for example, cows, goats, sheep, and deer), and the
1766:
1764:
1762:
4660:
4581:
3537:Streuli, C. H.; Bailey, N.; Bissell, M. J. (1991).
2603:. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. pp. 94–.
1718:
1716:
1714:
1526:
List of distinct cell types in the adult human body
225:
213:
201:
196:
184:
163:
147:
131:
107:
102:
41:
1586:Breastfeeding: A Guide for the Medical Profession
1550:"Anatomy of the Thoracic Wall, Axilla and Breast"
3411:Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers & Prevention
3305:Dogic, D.; Rousselle, P.; Aumailley, M. (1998).
2780:Lemaine V, Cayci C, Simmons PS, Petty P (2013).
3970:Julie Ann Mayer; John Foley; Damon De La Cruz;
2624:
2622:
2620:
2282:
2280:
2278:
2276:
2274:
2232:
2230:
2228:
2184:
2182:
2180:
303:of other animals (for example, dogs and cats).
283:, "breast". The mammary glands are arranged in
4328:Journal of Mammary Gland Biology and Neoplasia
4273:Journal of Mammary Gland Biology and Neoplasia
4056:Journal of Mammary Gland Biology and Neoplasia
3703:Journal of Mammary Gland Biology and Neoplasia
3156:Fata, J. E.; Werb, Z.; Bissell, M. J. (2003).
3015:Journal of Mammary Gland Biology and Neoplasia
2685:
2683:
2136:
2134:
2132:
4558:
2966:"Stem Cells and the Developing Mammary Gland"
2082:
2080:
1347:Cross section of the breast of a human female
1291:cannot be produced by genetically engineered
1267:factories, and several labs have constructed
385:. These alveoli join to form groups known as
279:. Mammals get their name from the Latin word
8:
4418:Annual Review of Genomics and Human Genetics
3884:. Digitalcollections.fiu.edu. Archived from
2041:Progress in Biophysics and Molecular Biology
2913:Hens, JR; Wysolmerski JJ (10 August 2005).
2519:. Elsevier Health Sciences. pp. 413–.
4565:
4551:
4543:
2546:Cold Spring Harbor Perspectives in Biology
2093:Cold Spring Harbor Perspectives in Biology
53:Cross-section of the human mammary gland.
47:
27:Exocrine gland in humans and other mammals
4316:. Smithsonian National Zoo, 14 July 2003.
4221:
4203:
4077:
4067:
3999:
3847:
3837:
3796:
3614:
3562:
3510:
3453:
3391:
3281:
3232:
3183:
3173:
3132:
3083:
3073:
2989:
2940:
2930:
2889:
2805:
2748:
2707:
2573:
2486:
2445:
2435:
2390:
2254:
2112:
2060:
2011:
2001:
1853:
1804:
1694:
1568:
1543:
1541:
1539:
3641:Journal of the National Cancer Institute
1984:Hens, J. R.; Wysolmerski, J. J. (2005).
1663:"Anatomy of the nipple and breast ducts"
1002:
862:-1 interacts with non-integrin receptor
1535:
1337:
3746:Journal of Physiology and Pharmacology
3676:Journal of Physiology and Pharmacology
465:A mammary gland is a specific type of
242:
38:
2089:"Hormone Action in the Mammary Gland"
1519:List of glands of the human body#Skin
1499:Hypothalamic–pituitary–prolactin axis
1260:occurs infrequently in some species.
469:gland specialized for manufacture of
119:(blood vessels and connective tissue)
7:
3974:; Randall Widelitz (November 2008).
3882:"With the Wild Things – Transcripts"
2540:Hynes, N. E.; Watson, C. J. (2010).
1923:Krstic, Radivoj V. (18 March 2004).
311:, the production of enough milk for
4594:Areolar gland (gland of Montgomery)
4430:10.1146/annurev-genom-082509-141806
2516:Anatomy and Physiology for Midwives
2087:Brisken; Malley (2 December 2010).
1679:10.3978/j.issn.2227-684X.2015.05.10
1557:International Journal of Morphology
941:collapse by programmed cell death (
873:There is preliminary evidence that
755:in the alveoli. Contraction of the
662:, tubule formation is coupled with
491:Parathyroid hormone-related protein
2964:Makarem, M; Eaves C (April 2013).
2782:"Gynecomastia in adolescent males"
2709:10.1093/oxfordjournals.aje.a009153
599:, if it occurs. During pregnancy,
25:
4531:Comparative Mammary Gland Anatomy
4153:Trends in Ecology & Evolution
2666:. Academic Press. pp. 770–.
1771:Wiseman, B. S.; Werb, Z. (2002).
397:that drains into openings in the
3863:
3125:10.1111/j.1432-0436.2006.00105.x
2053:10.1016/j.pbiomolbio.2016.08.004
1450:
1436:
1422:
1408:
1394:
1380:
1366:
1352:
1340:
974:cancer. Almost all instances of
826:epidermal growth factor receptor
1570:10.4067/S0717-95022006000500030
569:transforming growth factor beta
453:Normal histology of the breast.
4103:"Lactation in male fruit bats"
4029:. Cambridge University Press.
3958:Red-Sided Short-Tailed Opossum
3911:Raising Orphaned Baby Opossums
2970:J Mammary Gland Biol Neoplasia
2690:Jernström H, Olsson H (1997).
2469:El-Attar HA, Sheta MI (2011).
2332:J Mammary Gland Biol Neoplasia
2289:J Mammary Gland Biol Neoplasia
2191:J Mammary Gland Biol Neoplasia
1256:has lactating mammary glands.
327:. In a few mammalian species,
1:
4719:Human female endocrine system
2237:Ruan W, Kleinberg DL (1999).
1640:10.1016/S0022-3476(48)80075-2
910:is secreted. Milk secretion (
842:heparan sulfate proteoglycans
191:Pectoral axillary lymph nodes
179:(lateral and medial branches)
4537:On the anatomy of the breast
2663:Essential Medical Physiology
2373:Serra R, Crowley MR (2005).
607:are essential for mediating
542:insulin-like growth factor 1
315:, occurs only in phenotypic
4518:Clinically Oriented Anatomy
3925:Animal Science and Industry
3595:The Journal of Cell Biology
3543:The Journal of Cell Biology
3262:The Journal of Cell Biology
3213:The Journal of Cell Biology
2660:Leonard R. Johnson (2003).
2558:10.1101/cshperspect.a003186
2513:; Dunstall, Melvyn (2011).
2105:10.1101/cshperspect.a003178
1879:Clinically oriented anatomy
535:(GH) are essential for the
428:(ECM) which, together with
337:are divided into 3 groups:
4735:
4165:10.1016/j.tree.2008.09.009
4069:10.1007/s10911-020-09471-2
4050:Hughes, Katherine (2021).
3992:10.2353/ajpath.2008.070920
3913:. Alabama Wildlife Center.
3056:Sternlicht, M. D. (2006).
1468:
1229:Southern red-sided opossum
484:
364:
29:
3927:. Pearson Prentice Hall.
2982:10.1007/s10911-013-9284-6
2475:Indian J Pathol Microbiol
2344:10.1007/s10911-008-9103-7
1927:. Springer. p. 466.
1846:10.1089/ten.TEA.2009.0836
1834:Tissue Engineering Part A
1628:The Journal of Pediatrics
1612:Anatomy of the Human Body
237:
46:
4192:The Journal of Nutrition
3380:The Journal of Nutrition
3374:Kurzer MS (March 2002).
2874:10.15252/embj.2018100852
2256:10.1210/endo.140.11.7095
2143:Breast Cancer Res. Treat
1263:Mammary glands are true
957:is under the control of
838:matrix metalloproteinase
581:hepatocyte growth factor
577:fibroblast growth factor
138:Internal thoracic artery
4453:The American Naturalist
4340:10.1023/A:1022896515287
4285:10.1023/A:1022848632125
3777:Journal of Cell Science
3715:10.1023/A:1011384009787
3491:Genes & Development
3442:Genes & Development
3314:Journal of Cell Science
3027:10.1023/A:1018796301609
2488:10.4103/0377-4929.85083
2301:10.1023/A:1009507030633
2203:10.1023/A:1026373513521
2155:10.1023/a:1005998832636
1797:10.1126/science.1067431
697:, leading to a mammary
664:branching morphogenesis
587:influence of estrogen,
565:epidermal growth factor
550:growth hormone receptor
498:paracrine communication
142:Lateral thoracic artery
3909:Stockard, Mary (2005)
3839:10.1186/1741-7015-6-11
3555:10.1083/jcb.115.5.1383
3162:Breast Cancer Research
3062:Breast Cancer Research
2798:10.1055/s-0033-1347166
2600:Diseases of the Breast
1990:Breast Cancer Research
1963:10.1242/dev.125.7.1285
1471:anatomical terminology
1328:evolution of lactation
462:
454:
239:Anatomical terminology
170:Supraclavicular nerves
154:Internal thoracic vein
4205:10.3945/jn.109.105957
3653:10.1093/jnci/54.4.829
3607:10.1083/jcb.129.3.591
3393:10.1093/jn/132.3.570S
3326:10.1242/jcs.111.6.793
3274:10.1083/jcb.148.3.615
3225:10.1083/jcb.200302090
2750:10.1096/fj.99-0863com
2379:Endocr. Relat. Cancer
1910:21 April 2011 at the
1901:Ackerman (2005) ch.1
1309:apocrine sweat glands
1285:monoclonal antibodies
966:Clinical significance
485:Further information:
460:
452:
3789:10.1242/jcs.115.1.39
3682:(Suppl 9): 275–288.
3503:10.1101/gad.14.6.650
3455:10.1101/gad.14.8.889
1609:Gray, Henry (1918).
689:of cells within the
426:extracellular matrix
391:. Each lobule has a
4668:Dense breast tissue
4495:. Ardor Scribendi.
4122:1994Natur.367..691F
2392:10.1677/erc.1.00936
1789:2002Sci...296.1046W
1783:(5570): 1046–1049.
757:myoepithelial cells
383:myoepithelial cells
126:(cellular elements)
4652:Retromammary space
4642:Intermammary cleft
4601:Cooper's ligaments
4395:10.1002/bies.20423
4371:. scienceblogs.com
3752:(Suppl 7): 17–32.
2831:J Natl Cancer Inst
1737:10.1242/dev.005439
1469:This article uses
1269:transgenic animals
631:androgen receptors
487:Breast development
463:
455:
381:and surrounded by
174:Intercostal nerves
63:Pectoralis muscles
4681:
4680:
4637:Inframammary fold
4509:on 21 April 2011.
4502:978-1-893357-25-9
4369:Breast beginnings
4314:Lactating on Eggs
4252:. 17 January 2012
4116:(6465): 691–692.
4036:978-1-139-45742-2
3972:Cheng-Ming Chuong
3960:. Fauna Paraguay
3934:978-0-13-046256-5
3355:(23): 7102–7109.
2919:Breast Cancer Res
2673:978-0-12-387584-6
2610:978-1-4511-4870-1
2526:978-0-7020-3489-3
2424:Breast Cancer Res
1840:(12): 3719–3726.
1334:Additional images
1246:
1245:
951:endothelial cells
814:terminal end buds
554:estrogen receptor
438:basement membrane
253:
252:
248:
180:
127:
120:
16:(Redirected from
4726:
4630:Mammary alveolus
4623:Terminal end bud
4618:Lactiferous duct
4567:
4560:
4553:
4544:
4510:
4505:. Archived from
4477:
4476:
4448:
4442:
4441:
4413:
4407:
4406:
4378:
4372:
4366:
4360:
4359:
4323:
4317:
4311:
4305:
4304:
4268:
4262:
4261:
4259:
4257:
4242:
4236:
4235:
4225:
4207:
4198:(8): 1502–1509.
4183:
4177:
4176:
4148:
4142:
4141:
4130:10.1038/367691a0
4107:
4098:
4092:
4091:
4081:
4071:
4047:
4041:
4040:
4020:
4014:
4013:
4003:
3967:
3961:
3954:
3948:
3945:
3939:
3938:
3920:
3914:
3907:
3898:
3897:
3895:
3893:
3888:on 23 March 2013
3878:
3869:
3868:
3867:
3861:
3851:
3841:
3817:
3811:
3810:
3800:
3768:
3762:
3761:
3741:
3735:
3734:
3698:
3692:
3691:
3671:
3665:
3664:
3635:
3629:
3628:
3618:
3586:
3577:
3576:
3566:
3549:(5): 1383–1395.
3534:
3525:
3524:
3514:
3482:
3476:
3475:
3457:
3433:
3427:
3426:
3405:
3395:
3386:(3): 570S–573S.
3371:
3365:
3364:
3344:
3338:
3337:
3311:
3302:
3296:
3295:
3285:
3253:
3247:
3246:
3236:
3219:(6): 1123–1133.
3204:
3198:
3197:
3187:
3177:
3153:
3147:
3146:
3136:
3104:
3098:
3097:
3087:
3077:
3053:
3047:
3046:
3010:
3004:
3003:
2993:
2961:
2955:
2954:
2944:
2934:
2910:
2904:
2903:
2893:
2862:The EMBO Journal
2853:
2847:
2846:
2826:
2820:
2819:
2809:
2786:Semin Plast Surg
2777:
2771:
2770:
2752:
2728:
2722:
2721:
2711:
2696:Am. J. Epidemiol
2687:
2678:
2677:
2657:
2651:
2650:
2626:
2615:
2614:
2594:
2588:
2587:
2577:
2537:
2531:
2530:
2507:
2501:
2500:
2490:
2466:
2460:
2459:
2449:
2439:
2411:
2405:
2404:
2394:
2370:
2364:
2363:
2327:
2321:
2320:
2284:
2269:
2268:
2258:
2234:
2223:
2222:
2186:
2175:
2174:
2138:
2127:
2126:
2116:
2084:
2075:
2074:
2064:
2032:
2026:
2025:
2015:
2005:
1981:
1975:
1974:
1957:(7): 1285–1294.
1945:
1939:
1938:
1920:
1914:
1899:
1893:
1892:
1874:
1868:
1867:
1857:
1825:
1819:
1818:
1808:
1768:
1757:
1756:
1720:
1709:
1708:
1698:
1658:
1652:
1651:
1623:
1617:
1616:
1606:
1600:
1599:
1581:
1575:
1574:
1572:
1554:
1545:
1454:
1440:
1426:
1412:
1398:
1384:
1370:
1356:
1344:
1210:Virginia opossum
1003:
998:Virginia opossum
792:Hormonal control
699:anlage (biology)
394:lactiferous duct
245:edit on Wikidata
178:
125:
118:
51:
39:
21:
4734:
4733:
4729:
4728:
4727:
4725:
4724:
4723:
4699:Exocrine system
4684:
4683:
4682:
4677:
4656:
4577:
4573:Anatomy of the
4571:
4533:by W. L. Hurley
4527:
4514:Moore, Keith L.
4503:
4488:
4485:
4480:
4450:
4449:
4445:
4415:
4414:
4410:
4380:
4379:
4375:
4367:
4363:
4325:
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4320:
4312:
4308:
4270:
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4017:
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3955:
3951:
3946:
3942:
3935:
3922:
3921:
3917:
3908:
3901:
3891:
3889:
3880:
3879:
3872:
3862:
3819:
3818:
3814:
3783:(Pt 1): 39–50.
3770:
3769:
3765:
3743:
3742:
3738:
3700:
3699:
3695:
3673:
3672:
3668:
3637:
3636:
3632:
3588:
3587:
3580:
3536:
3535:
3528:
3484:
3483:
3479:
3435:
3434:
3430:
3407:
3373:
3372:
3368:
3349:Cancer Research
3346:
3345:
3341:
3309:
3304:
3303:
3299:
3255:
3254:
3250:
3206:
3205:
3201:
3155:
3154:
3150:
3113:Differentiation
3106:
3105:
3101:
3075:10.1186/bcr1368
3055:
3054:
3050:
3012:
3011:
3007:
2963:
2962:
2958:
2932:10.1186/bcr1306
2912:
2911:
2907:
2868:(14): e100852.
2855:
2854:
2850:
2828:
2827:
2823:
2779:
2778:
2774:
2743:(12): 1725–30.
2730:
2729:
2725:
2689:
2688:
2681:
2674:
2659:
2658:
2654:
2641:(3B): 1617–24.
2628:
2627:
2618:
2611:
2596:
2595:
2591:
2539:
2538:
2534:
2527:
2509:
2508:
2504:
2468:
2467:
2463:
2437:10.1186/bcr1740
2413:
2412:
2408:
2372:
2371:
2367:
2329:
2328:
2324:
2286:
2285:
2272:
2249:(11): 5075–81.
2236:
2235:
2226:
2188:
2187:
2178:
2140:
2139:
2130:
2099:(12): a003178.
2086:
2085:
2078:
2034:
2033:
2029:
2003:10.1186/bcr1306
1983:
1982:
1978:
1947:
1946:
1942:
1935:
1922:
1921:
1917:
1912:Wayback Machine
1900:
1896:
1889:
1876:
1875:
1871:
1827:
1826:
1822:
1770:
1769:
1760:
1731:(6): 995–1003.
1722:
1721:
1712:
1660:
1659:
1655:
1625:
1624:
1620:
1608:
1607:
1603:
1596:
1583:
1582:
1578:
1552:
1547:
1546:
1537:
1533:
1523:
1474:
1467:
1460:
1455:
1446:
1444:Dromedary camel
1441:
1432:
1427:
1418:
1413:
1404:
1399:
1390:
1385:
1376:
1371:
1362:
1357:
1348:
1345:
1336:
1305:
1254:dayak fruit bat
1052:
1028:
1019:
1010:
989:
984:
968:
933:
883:
822:beta-1 integrin
794:
789:
777:
737:
725:sexual maturity
710:
644:
639:
526:
493:
483:
447:
369:
363:
249:
176:
172:
156:
140:
123:
121:
116:
98:
97:
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
4732:
4730:
4722:
4721:
4716:
4714:Female mammals
4711:
4709:Mammal anatomy
4706:
4701:
4696:
4694:Breast anatomy
4686:
4685:
4679:
4678:
4676:
4675:
4670:
4664:
4662:
4658:
4657:
4655:
4654:
4649:
4644:
4639:
4634:
4633:
4632:
4627:
4626:
4625:
4610:
4609:
4608:
4606:Tail of Spence
4598:
4597:
4596:
4585:
4583:
4579:
4578:
4572:
4570:
4569:
4562:
4555:
4547:
4541:
4540:
4534:
4526:
4525:External links
4523:
4522:
4521:
4516:et al. (2010)
4511:
4501:
4484:
4481:
4479:
4478:
4465:10.1086/284177
4443:
4408:
4389:(6): 606–616.
4373:
4361:
4318:
4306:
4279:(3): 253–266.
4263:
4237:
4178:
4143:
4093:
4062:(2): 121–134.
4042:
4035:
4015:
3986:(5): 1339–48.
3962:
3949:
3940:
3933:
3915:
3899:
3870:
3812:
3763:
3736:
3709:(2): 203–211.
3693:
3666:
3647:(4): 829–834.
3630:
3601:(3): 591–603.
3578:
3526:
3497:(6): 650–654.
3477:
3448:(8): 889–894.
3428:
3417:(10): 785–94.
3406:Also cited by
3366:
3339:
3320:(6): 793–802.
3297:
3268:(3): 615–624.
3248:
3199:
3175:10.1186/bcr634
3148:
3119:(7): 365–381.
3099:
3068:(1): 201–203.
3048:
3005:
2956:
2905:
2848:
2821:
2772:
2723:
2679:
2672:
2652:
2635:Anticancer Res
2616:
2609:
2589:
2552:(8): a003186.
2532:
2525:
2502:
2461:
2406:
2365:
2322:
2270:
2224:
2176:
2128:
2076:
2027:
1996:(5): 220–224.
1976:
1940:
1933:
1915:
1904:Apocrine Units
1894:
1887:
1869:
1820:
1758:
1710:
1653:
1634:(6): 698–704.
1618:
1601:
1594:
1576:
1534:
1532:
1529:
1522:
1521:
1516:
1511:
1506:
1501:
1496:
1491:
1486:
1481:
1475:
1466:
1463:
1462:
1461:
1456:
1449:
1447:
1442:
1435:
1433:
1428:
1421:
1419:
1414:
1407:
1405:
1400:
1393:
1391:
1386:
1379:
1377:
1372:
1365:
1363:
1358:
1351:
1349:
1346:
1339:
1335:
1332:
1304:
1301:
1258:Male lactation
1244:
1243:
1240:
1237:
1234:
1231:
1225:
1224:
1221:
1218:
1215:
1212:
1206:
1205:
1202:
1199:
1196:
1193:
1183:
1182:
1179:
1176:
1173:
1170:
1164:
1163:
1160:
1157:
1154:
1151:
1145:
1144:
1141:
1138:
1135:
1132:
1126:
1125:
1122:
1119:
1116:
1113:
1107:
1106:
1103:
1100:
1097:
1094:
1088:
1087:
1084:
1081:
1078:
1075:
1069:
1068:
1065:
1062:
1059:
1056:
1038:
1037:
1034:
1025:
1016:
1007:
988:
985:
983:
980:
967:
964:
932:
929:
920:tight junction
906:giving birth,
891:adipose tissue
882:
879:
793:
790:
788:
785:
776:
775:Postmenopausal
773:
736:
733:
729:estrous cycles
727:and undergoes
709:
706:
643:
640:
638:
635:
609:lobuloalveolar
561:growth factors
533:growth hormone
525:
522:
482:
479:
446:
443:
379:cuboidal cells
362:
359:
329:male lactation
275:to feed young
271:that produces
261:exocrine gland
251:
250:
241:
235:
234:
229:
223:
222:
217:
211:
210:
205:
199:
198:
194:
193:
188:
182:
181:
167:
161:
160:
151:
145:
144:
135:
129:
128:
111:
105:
104:
100:
99:
96:
95:
90:
85:
80:
75:
70:
65:
60:
54:
52:
44:
43:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4731:
4720:
4717:
4715:
4712:
4710:
4707:
4705:
4702:
4700:
4697:
4695:
4692:
4691:
4689:
4674:
4673:Mammary ridge
4671:
4669:
4666:
4665:
4663:
4659:
4653:
4650:
4648:
4645:
4643:
4640:
4638:
4635:
4631:
4628:
4624:
4621:
4620:
4619:
4616:
4615:
4614:
4613:Mammary gland
4611:
4607:
4604:
4603:
4602:
4599:
4595:
4592:
4591:
4590:
4587:
4586:
4584:
4580:
4576:
4568:
4563:
4561:
4556:
4554:
4549:
4548:
4545:
4538:
4535:
4532:
4529:
4528:
4524:
4519:
4515:
4512:
4508:
4504:
4498:
4494:
4493:
4487:
4486:
4482:
4474:
4470:
4466:
4462:
4458:
4454:
4447:
4444:
4439:
4435:
4431:
4427:
4423:
4419:
4412:
4409:
4404:
4400:
4396:
4392:
4388:
4384:
4377:
4374:
4370:
4365:
4362:
4357:
4353:
4349:
4345:
4341:
4337:
4334:(3): 225–52.
4333:
4329:
4322:
4319:
4315:
4310:
4307:
4302:
4298:
4294:
4290:
4286:
4282:
4278:
4274:
4267:
4264:
4251:
4247:
4241:
4238:
4233:
4229:
4224:
4219:
4215:
4211:
4206:
4201:
4197:
4193:
4189:
4182:
4179:
4174:
4170:
4166:
4162:
4158:
4154:
4147:
4144:
4139:
4135:
4131:
4127:
4123:
4119:
4115:
4111:
4104:
4097:
4094:
4089:
4085:
4080:
4075:
4070:
4065:
4061:
4057:
4053:
4046:
4043:
4038:
4032:
4028:
4027:
4019:
4016:
4011:
4007:
4002:
3997:
3993:
3989:
3985:
3981:
3977:
3973:
3966:
3963:
3959:
3956:P Smith 2008
3953:
3950:
3944:
3941:
3936:
3930:
3926:
3919:
3916:
3912:
3906:
3904:
3900:
3887:
3883:
3877:
3875:
3871:
3866:
3859:
3855:
3850:
3845:
3840:
3835:
3831:
3827:
3823:
3816:
3813:
3808:
3804:
3799:
3794:
3790:
3786:
3782:
3778:
3774:
3767:
3764:
3759:
3755:
3751:
3747:
3740:
3737:
3732:
3728:
3724:
3720:
3716:
3712:
3708:
3704:
3697:
3694:
3689:
3685:
3681:
3677:
3670:
3667:
3662:
3658:
3654:
3650:
3646:
3642:
3634:
3631:
3626:
3622:
3617:
3612:
3608:
3604:
3600:
3596:
3592:
3585:
3583:
3579:
3574:
3570:
3565:
3560:
3556:
3552:
3548:
3544:
3540:
3533:
3531:
3527:
3522:
3518:
3513:
3508:
3504:
3500:
3496:
3492:
3488:
3481:
3478:
3473:
3469:
3465:
3461:
3456:
3451:
3447:
3443:
3439:
3432:
3429:
3424:
3420:
3416:
3412:
3403:
3399:
3394:
3389:
3385:
3381:
3377:
3370:
3367:
3362:
3358:
3354:
3350:
3343:
3340:
3335:
3331:
3327:
3323:
3319:
3315:
3308:
3301:
3298:
3293:
3289:
3284:
3279:
3275:
3271:
3267:
3263:
3259:
3252:
3249:
3244:
3240:
3235:
3230:
3226:
3222:
3218:
3214:
3210:
3203:
3200:
3195:
3191:
3186:
3181:
3176:
3171:
3167:
3163:
3159:
3152:
3149:
3144:
3140:
3135:
3130:
3126:
3122:
3118:
3114:
3110:
3103:
3100:
3095:
3091:
3086:
3081:
3076:
3071:
3067:
3063:
3059:
3052:
3049:
3044:
3040:
3036:
3032:
3028:
3024:
3020:
3016:
3009:
3006:
3001:
2997:
2992:
2987:
2983:
2979:
2976:(2): 209–19.
2975:
2971:
2967:
2960:
2957:
2952:
2948:
2943:
2938:
2933:
2928:
2924:
2920:
2916:
2909:
2906:
2901:
2897:
2892:
2887:
2883:
2879:
2875:
2871:
2867:
2863:
2859:
2852:
2849:
2844:
2840:
2837:(3): 459–90.
2836:
2832:
2825:
2822:
2817:
2813:
2808:
2803:
2799:
2795:
2791:
2787:
2783:
2776:
2773:
2768:
2764:
2760:
2756:
2751:
2746:
2742:
2738:
2734:
2727:
2724:
2719:
2715:
2710:
2705:
2702:(7): 571–80.
2701:
2697:
2693:
2686:
2684:
2680:
2675:
2669:
2665:
2664:
2656:
2653:
2648:
2644:
2640:
2636:
2632:
2625:
2623:
2621:
2617:
2612:
2606:
2602:
2601:
2593:
2590:
2585:
2581:
2576:
2571:
2567:
2563:
2559:
2555:
2551:
2547:
2543:
2536:
2533:
2528:
2522:
2518:
2517:
2512:
2506:
2503:
2498:
2494:
2489:
2484:
2481:(3): 509–13.
2480:
2476:
2472:
2465:
2462:
2457:
2453:
2448:
2443:
2438:
2433:
2429:
2425:
2421:
2417:
2410:
2407:
2402:
2398:
2393:
2388:
2385:(4): 749–60.
2384:
2380:
2376:
2369:
2366:
2361:
2357:
2353:
2349:
2345:
2341:
2338:(4): 353–60.
2337:
2333:
2326:
2323:
2318:
2314:
2310:
2306:
2302:
2298:
2294:
2290:
2283:
2281:
2279:
2277:
2275:
2271:
2266:
2262:
2257:
2252:
2248:
2244:
2243:Endocrinology
2240:
2233:
2231:
2229:
2225:
2220:
2216:
2212:
2208:
2204:
2200:
2196:
2192:
2185:
2183:
2181:
2177:
2172:
2168:
2164:
2160:
2156:
2152:
2148:
2144:
2137:
2135:
2133:
2129:
2124:
2120:
2115:
2110:
2106:
2102:
2098:
2094:
2090:
2083:
2081:
2077:
2072:
2068:
2063:
2058:
2054:
2050:
2046:
2042:
2038:
2031:
2028:
2023:
2019:
2014:
2009:
2004:
1999:
1995:
1991:
1987:
1980:
1977:
1972:
1968:
1964:
1960:
1956:
1952:
1944:
1941:
1936:
1934:9783540536666
1930:
1926:
1919:
1916:
1913:
1909:
1906:
1905:
1898:
1895:
1890:
1888:9781496347213
1884:
1880:
1873:
1870:
1865:
1861:
1856:
1851:
1847:
1843:
1839:
1835:
1831:
1824:
1821:
1816:
1812:
1807:
1802:
1798:
1794:
1790:
1786:
1782:
1778:
1774:
1767:
1765:
1763:
1759:
1754:
1750:
1746:
1742:
1738:
1734:
1730:
1726:
1719:
1717:
1715:
1711:
1706:
1702:
1697:
1692:
1688:
1684:
1680:
1676:
1672:
1668:
1667:Gland Surgery
1664:
1657:
1654:
1649:
1645:
1641:
1637:
1633:
1629:
1622:
1619:
1614:
1613:
1605:
1602:
1597:
1595:9781437735901
1591:
1587:
1580:
1577:
1571:
1566:
1562:
1558:
1551:
1544:
1542:
1540:
1536:
1530:
1528:
1527:
1520:
1517:
1515:
1512:
1510:
1507:
1505:
1502:
1500:
1497:
1495:
1492:
1490:
1487:
1485:
1484:Mammary tumor
1482:
1480:
1479:Breastfeeding
1477:
1476:
1472:
1464:
1459:
1453:
1448:
1445:
1439:
1434:
1431:
1425:
1420:
1417:
1411:
1406:
1403:
1397:
1392:
1389:
1383:
1378:
1375:
1369:
1364:
1361:
1355:
1350:
1343:
1338:
1333:
1331:
1329:
1324:
1322:
1318:
1314:
1310:
1302:
1300:
1298:
1297:cell cultures
1294:
1290:
1286:
1282:
1281:glycoproteins
1278:
1274:
1270:
1266:
1261:
1259:
1255:
1251:
1241:
1238:
1235:
1232:
1230:
1227:
1226:
1222:
1219:
1216:
1213:
1211:
1208:
1207:
1203:
1200:
1197:
1194:
1192:
1188:
1187:Proboscideans
1185:
1184:
1180:
1177:
1174:
1171:
1169:
1166:
1165:
1161:
1158:
1155:
1152:
1150:
1147:
1146:
1142:
1139:
1136:
1133:
1131:
1128:
1127:
1123:
1120:
1117:
1114:
1112:
1109:
1108:
1104:
1101:
1098:
1095:
1093:
1090:
1089:
1085:
1082:
1079:
1076:
1074:
1071:
1070:
1066:
1063:
1060:
1057:
1055:
1051:
1047:
1043:
1040:
1039:
1035:
1032:
1026:
1023:
1017:
1014:
1008:
1005:
1004:
1001:
999:
995:
986:
982:Other mammals
981:
979:
977:
976:breast cancer
972:
971:Tumorigenesis
965:
963:
960:
956:
952:
948:
944:
939:
930:
928:
925:
921:
917:
913:
909:
904:
900:
896:
893:and a richer
892:
888:
880:
878:
876:
871:
869:
865:
861:
856:
851:
850:myoepithelial
847:
843:
839:
835:
831:
827:
823:
819:
815:
811:
807:
803:
799:
791:
786:
784:
782:
781:postmenopause
774:
772:
770:
766:
762:
758:
754:
753:luminal cells
750:
746:
742:
734:
732:
730:
726:
720:
718:
714:
707:
705:
702:
700:
696:
692:
688:
684:
679:
675:
671:
669:
665:
661:
657:
653:
649:
641:
636:
634:
632:
628:
624:
620:
618:
614:
610:
606:
602:
598:
594:
590:
584:
582:
578:
574:
570:
566:
562:
559:
555:
551:
547:
543:
538:
534:
530:
523:
521:
519:
515:
511:
507:
503:
499:
492:
488:
480:
478:
476:
472:
468:
459:
451:
444:
442:
439:
435:
431:
427:
422:
420:
416:
410:
408:
404:
400:
396:
395:
390:
389:
384:
380:
376:
375:
368:
360:
358:
356:
352:
348:
344:
340:
339:prototherians
336:
332:
330:
326:
322:
318:
314:
310:
306:
302:
298:
294:
290:
286:
282:
278:
274:
270:
266:
262:
258:
257:mammary gland
246:
240:
236:
233:
230:
228:
224:
221:
218:
216:
212:
209:
206:
204:
200:
195:
192:
189:
187:
183:
175:
171:
168:
166:
162:
159:
158:Axillary vein
155:
152:
150:
146:
143:
139:
136:
134:
130:
115:
112:
110:
106:
101:
94:
91:
89:
86:
84:
81:
79:
76:
74:
71:
69:
66:
64:
61:
59:
56:
55:
50:
45:
42:Mammary gland
40:
37:
33:
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3826:BMC Medicine
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969:
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916:progesterone
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864:dystroglycan
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573:amphiregulin
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524:Biochemistry
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1321:eutherians
1317:marsupials
1313:monotremes
1250:marsupials
1054:guinea pig
994:milk lines
955:proteinase
938:involution
895:blood flow
787:Physiology
765:involution
717:lymph node
695:mesenchyme
648:epithelium
593:fat tissue
508:, such as
434:fibroblast
430:adipocytes
419:polymastia
415:polythelia
365:See also:
347:eutherians
305:Lactorrhea
267:and other
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4582:Structure
4383:BioEssays
4250:bbc.co.uk
4214:0022-3166
2882:0261-4189
2566:1943-0264
1687:2227-684X
1514:Milk line
1303:Evolution
1271:, mainly
1242:25 to 27
1239:25 to 27
1027:Posterior
1022:abdominal
947:autophagy
943:apoptosis
912:lactation
908:colostrum
899:gestation
887:prolactin
881:Pregnancy
769:apoptosis
749:lactation
741:pregnancy
735:Pregnancy
693:into the
678:Embryonic
658:. During
623:Androgens
613:lactation
605:prolactin
597:pregnancy
571:(TGF-β),
558:paracrine
471:colostrum
445:Histology
361:Structure
319:who have
309:lactation
297:ruminants
277:offspring
109:Precursor
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2647:17595785
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2171:30440069
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1745:18296651
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1648:18101061
1465:See also
1430:Elephant
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1283:such as
1191:primates
1124:8 or 10
1031:inguinal
1013:thoracic
1009:Anterior
1006:Species
924:integrin
855:integrin
840:(MMPs),
828:(EGFR),
806:Estrogen
798:hormones
745:alveolar
637:Timeline
625:such as
563:such as
529:Estrogen
518:collagen
467:apocrine
403:oxytocin
321:gestated
122:Ectoderm
114:Mesoderm
4301:8319185
4223:3151199
4138:4369716
4118:Bibcode
4079:8236023
4001:2570124
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1121:2 or 4
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860:laminin
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761:weaning
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683:placode
660:puberty
617:nursing
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567:(EGF),
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317:females
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289:breasts
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