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was preparing. Someone is reported to have said: "To hell with that, I'm getting out of here!" No one stayed with Dodge. The crew members split up afterward, with the majority continuing to run up the canyon. I estimate they delayed no longer than 15 s at point 3, probably not that long. Some traveled on the contour and others went slightly downhill. The slowest of the crew members only got about 100 yards before being caught by the fire. One man broke his leg while fleeing on the steep, rocky slope. The fire could have covered 100 yards in less than a minute at its calculated rate of 600 to 750 ft. /min. Dodge estimated the men were caught in 30 s. If they had a 15-s lead on the fire after leaving him and traveled 100 yards before being caught 45 s later, they would have been running about 400 ft./min or 41⁄2 mi/h, a little faster than they were running when they approached Dodge at point 3. The four horsemen, who were found 375 yards beyond Dodge, may not have been with him when he started his fire. We can examine how fast they would have had to run to end up 375 yards beyond point 3, starting at either point 2 or point 3. From point 2 where the men dropped their tools to where the four horsemen died is 620 yd. If they were at point 2 at 5:53, the fire, according to my estimate, would have caught them at about 5:57 pm, just a minute or so after it caught the slower members. They would have had to have run 462 ft./min or 51⁄4 mi/h from point 2—an incredible pace on that slope. If they had been with Dodge and paused 15 seconds to catch their breath and watch him start the escape fire, they would have left him at 5:55 pm. They would have had to run 375 yards in about 2 min, a pace of 562 ft. /min or 61⁄2 mi/h. That is a jogging pace of about 9 min/mi; such a pace could be sustained on a level surface, but would be all but impossible to maintain for 375 yards in heat and smoke on an uphill slope with rocks and grass underfoot. Both scenarios would have required extreme effort. Since both were possible, we cannot say whether the four horsemen were with Dodge when he lit his fire. But the comparisons indicate that they probably were not."
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202:– Jansson and his alternate, Ranger Harry Hersey, recruited nineteen able-bodied ground firefighters, just three of whom had served previously on fires. Logistical and transportation delays plagued the mobilization. On the way to the planned assembly area at the mouth of Mann Gulch, Jansson suspected that the fire might be encroaching into Merriweather Canyon, a scenic area. He directed Hersey to ascend the Meriwether trail with the 19-man ground crew and attack the fire at the Mann Gulch/Meriwether ridge. The temperature at Helena, 25 miles to the south, was reaching 97 °F (36 °C), the hottest day on record to date. The fire danger rating was calculated at 74 out of 100: "explosive stage".
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downdrafts of a small local thunderstorm blew the fire off the ridge into the mouth of the canyon. This idea is supported by motion picture films (now lost) taken by a Forest
Service photographer from the same aircraft that dropped Dodge's crew ... Other fire experts suspected whirlwinds may have spread the fire. Fire whirls and downdrafts from thunderstorms or the fire's convection column can occur together ... This very likely could have been the case because the ridge between Meriwether and Mann Gulch would cause a southerly wind to form a vortex on the lee side in perfect position to loft numerous firebrands and carry them to the north side of Mann Gulch.
253:– Smokejumper equipment collected and assembled at cargo area. (Figure 1) The crew was about one mile as the raven flies up the drainage from the Missouri River. They could see the fire's perimeter about 0.25 miles (0.4 kilometers) to the southwest on the south slope which appeared to be burning away from the crew. The men were "not greatly impressed" with the blaze and only concerned that "the steep and rocky ground" would make mop up difficult the next morning. Smokejumper Robert Sallee later remarked, "I took a look at the fire and decided it wasn't bad. It was burning on top of the ridge and I thought it would continue on up the ridge ..."
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439:, Dodge immediately ignited a flimsy "gofer" match and swept it across the grass. The flames quickly spread uphill, initially burning at relatively low intensity. The wind at his position was lighter due to the backdraft created by the approaching inferno. Within seconds his grass fire had grown to one hundred square feet (9.2 square meters). Dodge's intention was to create a fuel-free zone, where the crew could take refuge. He expected that the main fire would roar around the burnt over area, leaving the men unharmed. No protocol existed in the US Forest Service for this so-called "escape fire."
303:– Ranger Jansson had walked almost 0.5 miles (0.8 kilometers) from the mouth of Mann Gulch in the thickening smoke. (Figure 1) Spot fires were appearing around him. He was witnessing the early stages of the south slope "blowup" about 300 yards (276 meters) south of where the smokejumpers would be forced to flee up the north slope just minutes later. Jansson believed he heard metallic noises of men wielding tools and walked another 200 yards (61 meters) upslope to investigate, but the sound was probably an aural hallucination caused by the raging fire.
29:
320:– Jansson began to retreat down the gulch. The superheated air had created a thermal "convection vortex" that threatened to sear his lungs. He made a dash to escape but momentarily passed out. Recovering just as flames were a few yards (meters) away, he fled down gulch and reached the river at 5:41 pm. Approximately the same time Jansson was fleeing from the "blowup" near the mouth of the gulch, Dodge and his men were, unawares, marching directly towards it.
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cutting off the men's escape route to the
Missouri River. The crew was forced to retreat uphill into a lightly timbered area with a dense groundcover of extremely flammable grass and brush. The fire moved rapidly up the slope, burning 3,000 acres (1,200 ha) in ten minutes and claiming the lives of 13 firefighters, including 12 of the smokejumpers. Only three of the smokejumpers survived. The fire would continue for five more days before being controlled.
285:– Dodge called to the crew to halt when they had advanced up the slope about 100 yards (92 meters) and he rejoined them immediately with Harrison. Dodge, in consultation with Harrison who has been on the fire for four hours, announced that the crew "had better get out of that thick reproduction " – dense stands of second-growth ponderosa pine and Douglas fir. The crew was downwind of the fire, a potential "death trap" according to Dodge.
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its western flank (the upwind position) so as to prevent its spread into
Meriwether Canyon. Dodge was not yet alarmed and returned with Harrison about 300 yards (276 meters) to the cargo assembly area to pick up some food and water while Hellman proceeded west with the smokejumpers. From the elevated position at the cargo area, Dodge could see that the fire was "boiling up" and determined he would evacuate the men from Mann Gulch.
390:– Dodge ordered the crew to drop tools and packs (some men had already jettisoned their equipment, others continued to cling to them). (Figure 1, Pt 2) Artifacts discovered later at the tool drop site were found within a 50-foot radius (15-meter), indicating that the column was still cohesive at this point. Testimony from survivors suggests that beyond the drop site some of the men began to break away in a race for the ridge.
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to slow down the inferno moving upgulch. Rumsey later testified "I remember thinking it was a good idea ... don't know whether I understood. If I had fully realized it I probably would have gone right in. I kept thinking the ridge-if I can make it. On ridge I will be safe. I went up the right hand side of Rumsey reported that he could feel the heat of the main fire on this back as he neared the ridge crest
99:, sparking eight fires. John Robert Jansson, Canyon Ferry District Ranger, quickly organized the suppression of the four fires that had been reported in his jurisdiction. A lightning strike on the upper south slope of Mann Gulch (within the Canyon Ferry RD) produced a holdover fire (a so-called "sleeper") that initially went undetected. Fire danger rating on 4 August was not critical, ranking
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safety of the ridge above. Here Rumsey collapsed in a juniper bush, too exhausted to move until Sallee rousted him out. They took refuge in a rockslide nearby. The third jumper, who followed the pair to the base of the rimrock, did not go through the crevice to the ridge above; his body was found at the base of the rimrock a few hundred feet away"
722:.Lillquist, 2006. p. 565: "... an early August heat wave ..." and "The elimination of commercial cattle grazing on the gulch, due to its 1948 designation as part of the Gates of the Mountains Wild Area "was relatively insignificant ... because the north side of Mann Gulch was generally too steep and lacked water for cattle."
346:– Leading the column, Dodge saw that the south slope fire had jumped to the north slope of Mann Gulch directly west of them and was advancing towards them steadily, driven by the up gulch wind. The blaze was igniting heavy fuels, including conifer reproduction and creating high intensity crown fires, with multiple spotting.
539:– Dodge rose from the smoldering escape fire, his face and clothing blackened by the smoke, but otherwise virtually unscathed. All twelve of the crewmen who failed to reach the ridge perished in the inferno. Had they been able to grasp what their foreman was doing, or obeyed his commands, they probably would have survived.
570:– The two injured smokejumpers were carried by stretcher to the mouth of Mann Gulch and transported by boat to St. Peters Hospital in Helena. Both Sylvia and Hellman had suffered third degree burns over 65% to 85% of their bodies, as well as severe damage to their respiratory systems. They both died later that morning.
265:– Jansson began his ascent up Mann Gulch by foot. Visibility was about 200 yards (182 meters) due to dense smoke. Winds in the lower gulch were between 20 and 30 mi/h (32 to 48 km/h), gusting to 40 mi/h (64 km/h), much higher than those occurring in Helena, 25 miles (40 kilometers) to the south.
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minute (86 meters per minute) or 3.2 mi/h (5.1 km/h). Heat intensity also increased, rising to 2500 – 4000 Btu. The leading edge of the flames were reaching 16–20 feet (4.9 to 6.1 meters) in height. While the fire accelerated under the influence of the increasing slope, the smokejumpers progress slowed.
233:– Smokejumpers and cargo drops completed. (Figure 1) After dropping the men at the customary 1200 feet (368 meters) elevation, Huber took the C-47 to 2000 feet (613 meters) to drop the equipment because of heavy turbulence. As a result, the gear was widely scattered on the north slope delaying its retrieval.
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Lillquist, 2006. p. 568: "Soon after daylight on 6 August, both were carried on stretchers to the mouth of Mann Gulch where they were transported by boat and subsequently by ambulance to St. Peters
Hospital in Helena. Both died later that day of massive third degree burns (65–85% of their bodies) and
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Lillquist, 2006. p. 568: "Dodge and Sallee reached
Meriwether Guard Station at about 8:50 p.m. after hiking down Rescue Gulch and flagging down a boat. By 11:30 pm, Jansson and Sallee were leading a rescue party, including two doctors, up Rescue Gulch. The doctors treated Hellman and Sylvia with
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Lillquist, 2006. p. 567: "As the roaring inferno neared, Dodge covered his mouth and nose with a canteen-moistened bandanna and lay down in the hot ashes. The main fire hit Dodge's location (Figure 5) "within seconds after the last man passed." Three violent gusts of superheated air nearly lifted him
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Rothermel, 1993. p, 7: "These two men, along with another jumper , scrambled up the right-hand side of Dodge's fire to the base of the rimrock. Maclean estimates this distance to be 100 to 140 yd. Fortunately, Sallee and Rumsey found a crevice in the rimrock through which they climbed to the relative
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Rothermel, 2006. p. 6: "The official report states all tools were found within a 100-ft circle, so the crew was together at that point ... Sallee said that Navon, a former paratrooper, who fought with the 82nd
Airborne Division in World War II, could be seen up the slope ahead of the crew. Others may
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About eight crewmen (exactly which of the crewmen is uncertain) advanced close enough to Dodge and the escape fire to see him motioning with his arms towards the burnt area and calling to them over the din of the roaring fire just yards (meters) away. There is conjecture that four of the smokejumpers
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Rothermel, 1993. p. 7: "Dodge lay down within the area he had burned off. The grassy slope quickly burned away, giving him a large area free of fuels to prevent the main fire's flames or radiation from injuring him. Dodge said fierce winds lifted him off the ground three times during the few minutes
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Moments before the main fire reached Dodge, he threw himself face down on the smoldering ashes of the escape fire. His mouth and nose were covered with a wet bandanna. The slope he had burned was ample enough in area so as to shield him from injury from heat radiation or from direct contact with the
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Lillquist, 2006. p. 567: "Two other crew members who ignored Dodge also survived the fire. Sallee, Rumsey, and Eldon
Diettert were among the first to pass Dodge as he lit the fire. Sallee thought that Dodge wanted the men to follow the edge of his fire up to the ridge crest with Dodge's fire acting
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Rothermel, 1993. p. 6-7: "Dodge sized up the situation better than most of his crew, who either thought they could outrun the fire or saw no other alternative. Some if not all of the crew stopped briefly to see what Dodge was doing and listen to his pleas for them to get into the burned-out area he
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Lillquist, 2006. p. 567: "Dodge lit clumps of grass on fire ~5:55 p.m. in hopes of creating a burned over, fuel-free zone around which the main fire would burn thus providing a safe haven for the men. When later asked by the Board of Review whether he had been taught to set an escape fire in such a
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Rothermel, 1993. p. 4: "More grass and brush appeared in the understory. The crew may not have recognized the consequences of the fuel. The lighter fuel would have produced a faster spreading fire. Other factors were in the fire's favor. The fire was burning uphill with a following wind; the uphill
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The eleven other smokejumpers – Robert
Bennett, Eldon Diettert, Phillip McVey, David Navon, Leonard Piper, Stanley Reba, Marvin Sherman, Henry Thol Jr., Newton Thompson, and Silas Thompson, as well as recreation guard James Harrison are believed to have succumbed quickly from asphyxiation and burns
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The behavior of the fire was about to change under the influence of the turbulent winds, steep slope and the lighter and more volatile ground cover. When the wind, estimated at 30 mi/h (48 km/h), pushed the fire into the grass understory, its speed accelerated to an estimated 280 feet per
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The route to the river was clearly blocked. Dodge instantly ordered his men to reverse direction and move upslope and cross-contour, climbing obliquely to the northeast. (Figure 1, Pt 1) The fire front, about 150 – 200 yards (138 – 184 meters) distance was advancing at an estimated rate of 120 feet
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Dodge directed
Hellman to cross back to the north side of the gulch and march the men southwest and to "sidehill" (follow the contour) towards the Missouri River. He cautioned them to stay high enough up the north slope to keep the fire on the south slope in view. The plan was to attack the fire on
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and crew foreman R. Wagner Dodge appraised the fire. They observed that since 4 August, the lightning caused blaze had scorched 50 to 60 acres, originating in Mann Gulch and spreading upslope and south to the crest at
Meriwether Canyon, where it had crowned and burnt out without generating any spot
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departed from Missoula's Hale Field, 100 miles (160 kilometers) west of the gulch carrying 16 jumpers and their equipment – the airplanes maximum capacity. (Additional smokejumpers were available for action, but all other transport planes were engaged on other projects). The smokejumpers, including
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or "reef" that blocked access to the top of the ridge. Ramsey and Salle were fortunate to notice a breach or crevice in the rimrock and ran through it to the ridge. Ramsey testified that he could feel the intense heat of the main fire on his back as they neared the top of the ridge. Diettert, just
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Of the four firefighters who fled from Dodge to scramble the 100 – 140 yards (92 – 129 meters) straight to the ridge top, two survived: Robert Sallee and Walter Ramsey. The 17-year old Sallee mistakenly thought that Dodge's intent was to create a firebreak to slow the advance of the main fire. He,
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Several of the firefighters had little more than a 15-second lead on the wall of fire as they passed the escape fire perimeter. Unable to climb faster than 400 feet/min (123 meters/min) or 4.5 mi/h (7.5 km/h), these men were overtaken by the flames in probably less than 45 seconds before
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Rothermel, 1993. p. 7: "The squad boss Hellman also ran toward the rimrock, but he went up the left side of the escape fire, putting him between the main fire and the escape fire. He was caught somewhere near the crevice in the rimrock. Although he made it over the top, he died from his burns the
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Dodge judged that he and his men could not reach the ridge before being overtaken and engulfed by the flames. The fire was advancing at an estimated average rate of 660 ft/min (202 meters/mi) or 7.5 mi/h (12 km/h), an extremely rapid spread. The temperature of fire was estimated to
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Several of the sixteen smokejumpers experienced flight sickness due to the turbulence and one of them became too ill to jump. Merle "Skip" Stratton submitted his resignation from the US Forest Service when the airplane returned to Missoula that evening, before news of the tragedy was reported. He
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Lillquist, 2006. p. "All other members of the crew-Robert Bennett, Eldon Diettert, Phillip McVey, David Navon, Leonard Piper, Stanley Reba, Marvin Sherman, Henry Thol, Jr., Newton Thompson, and Silas Thompson, as well as James Harrison (Figures 2 and 4; Table 2)-perished immediately in the fire.
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Four of the firefighters reached further up the slope to a distance of about 375 yards (345 (meters) beyond the escape fire before they were engulfed in the flames. This suggests that they may have been in advance of Dodge before be ignited his grass fire. These firefighters ran perhaps 620 (570
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Four smokejumpers at the head of the column – Walter Rumsey, Robert Sallee, Eldon Diettert and squad leader Hellman – reached the foreman first and were bewildered by his actions, despite his efforts to explain his purpose. The men hesitated for a few moments, then one of them said "To hell with
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The men proceeded up the cross-contour 18% grade through scattered stands of mature ponderosa pine. The grassy groundcover stood about 2.5 feet (0.75 meters) high (thigh to waist deep). The men were walking at a rate of 2 mph (3.2 km/h) and still carrying their firefighting equipment.
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parachuted into the area on the afternoon of August 5, 1949, to fight a 50–60 acre (20–24 hectare) lightning-caused blaze, assisted by a local recreation guard. As the team approached the fire, an unexpected change in wind direction caused the fire to ignite heavy fuels, creating a "blowup" and
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Rothermel, 1993. p. 3-4: "... after the tragedy that followed, fire experts were particularly concerned with understanding how the fire got from the ridge high on the south side of Mann Gulch to the mouth of the gulch and later to the north side. To this day, two opinions persist. One is that
152:– Harrison attempted to report the fire to Missoula office and the Canyon Ferry RD by radio, but was unable to establish contact. He climbed 1500 feet (460 meters) from the Meriwether Guard Station to reach the fire perimeter and began to work on the blaze with his Pulaski about 1:30 pm.
426:– At 220 yards (202 meters) beyond the equipment drop, Dodge walking in the lead of the column, reached a small grassy clearly at a steep grade break. (Figure 1, Pt 3) This position was 200 yards (184 meters) from the top of the ridge, measured at right angles (perpendicular) to the contour.
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When the fire blew into this open landscape it was travelling at a variable rate 360–610 feet per minute (110 – 187 meters per minute), or 4.1 to 6.9 mph (6.6 to 11.0 km/h). The Btu's had risen to 5,500 -9000. The flames ranged in height from 10 – 40 feet (3.1 – 12.3 meters).
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Lillquist, 2006. p. 568: "Another 100 yards of running in the head of what is now known as Rescue Gulch brought Rumsey and Sallee to a vegetation-free blockfield about 5 minutes ahead of the fire. They survived by moving around the blockfield as the fire approached from different
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Ranger Jansson soon noted that the fire was 'whirling' and spreading firebrands (i.e. burning debris) to the north of the bottom of Mann Gulch. The fire whirls ... suggest that fire had become a 'blowup'. A 'blowup' occurs when a fire rapidly transitions from a ground fire to a
176:– Helena National Forest Supervisor Arthur Duncan Moir believed the fire required a rapid response and ordered the deployment of twenty-five smokejumpers to the remote site. The blaze was regarded as manageable for a small firefighting crew until a larger ground crew arrived.
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Sallee and Ramsey discovered the badly burned Hellman just 90 feet (28 meters) west of their position and helped him to the blockfield. Dodge joined them shortly thereafter, and he and Salle descended Rescue Gulch to the Missouri River. Ramsey remained with Hellman.
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The advancing wall of fire was about 100 yards (92 meters) from the column and rapidly overtaking them from the west and south. By this time, the men knew they were in a desperate situation. Unburdened, they increased their pace to about 4 mph (6.4 km/h).
83:
The following chronology combines two parallel narratives: 1) Canyon Ferry District Ranger John Robert Jansson's effort to provide support for the smokejumpers and 2) the events surrounding the deaths of the 13 crewmen led by foreman R. Wagner Dodge in Mann Gulch.
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The squad leader, Hellman, ascended the slope parallel to these three firefighters, but on the left (west) side of the escape fire. He was forced to run a gauntlet of flames as he reached the rimrock barrier, but managed to pass over the ridge into Rescue Gulch.
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may have already fled ahead or were too far back in the column to hear him. A number of the firefighters reached further up the slope to a distance of about 375 yards (345 (meters) beyond the escape fire. This suggests that they may have been in advance of Dodge
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Rothemel, 1993. p. 6: "Dodge must have realized they could not reach safety and conceived the idea of burning away a small clearing. The escape fire, as it came to be called, would quickly clear an area fire fuels, giving the crew a chance to escape the main
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Lillquist, 2006. p. 567: "Soon after hearing a voice to the east, he discovered crew member Joe Sylvia who was badly burned. Dodge moved Sylvia to a large rock, removed his boots and gave him his canteen. He then departed to seek medical help for
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1638:
Lillquist, 2006. p. 567: "Amazingly, Dodge survived the blasts of the fire literally unscathed. Nearby evidence indicated that surface temperatures of the main fire reached 1500–1800°F and that the main fire covered 3000 acres in ten minutes or
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Rothermel, 1993. p. 2: "... the wind had been blowing from the north and west at 6 to 8 mi/h that afternoon. At 3:30 pm switched to the south 14 to 22 mi/h." and p. 3: "... as the crew proceeded down the gulch, they were walking into a strong
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1454:
Rothermel, 1993. p. 7: "Dodge's grass fire would have spread up the slope if there were no wind to drive it up the canyon with the main fire. Consequently, as reported, it would have spread up the side of the gulch to the north toward the
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Lillquist, 2006. p. 565-566: "The plane had to drop its cargo from a higher elevation than normal because of turbulent air, thus the stronger winds aloft had more opportunity to caster the cargo ... fifty minutes to collect gear and cargo
240:
Dodge was not provided with topographical maps of the area and was expected to obtain them when he encountered ground crews at the site. The single-sideband radio was smashed when its static line broke and the chute failed to deploy.
134:(approx.) – Ranger Jansson contacted James O. Harrison, former smokejumper and recreation guard at the Meriwether Canyon guard station and directed him to conduct a foot patrol in Mann Gulch to search for possible sleeper fires.
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Dodge found the badly injured Joseph B. Sylvia just 100 yards (30 meters) to the east of the escape fire. He made Sylvia as comfortable as he could and provided him with water. Dodge departed to seek medical assistance for him.
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that, I'm getting out of here" and the men rushed straight uphill towards the ridge about 200 yards distance. Sallee, a survivor, would later declare that "No one could live who left Dodge even seconds after we did." (Figure 2)
271:– After spending about 10 minutes tooling up at the cargo area, the smokejumpers crossed the dry gulch bottom and began to climb the south slope towards the fire. Eleven of the smokejumpers were double-tooled, bearing both a
164:–Returning to Mann Gulch to fly a second survey, Jansson located a 6 to 8 acre (2.4 to 3.2 hectares) fire along the upper south slope of the gulch. He considered the rate of growth of the sleeper "unusual" and "exceptional."
326:– Dodge and Harrison overtook the crew to find that that the men had split into two groups about 500 feet (152 meters) apart. Dodge gathered the men into a single column and led them down gulch with Hellman taking the rear.
158:– Colorado Mountain Lookout, 30 miles away, reported smoke in Mann Gulch. Jansson, arriving back at Helena airport detected smoke on the district, but was perplexed because he just flew Mann Gulch and had seen nothing.
103:, but temperatures in recent days had been in the upper 90s °F (upper 30s °C) with low humidity. The cooler and wetter 1948 summer had provided for a prolific grass understory and seed production in the spring of 1949.
960:
Rothermel, 1993. p. 2 "The cargo drop did not go smoothly ... encountered heavy turbulence at normal drop altitude and was forced to climb before dropping the remaining cargo. The firefighting gear was scattered
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meters) after casting off their equipment at the drop site, jogging upslope at 460 feet/min (142 meters/min) or 5.3 mi/h (8.4 km/h), an astonishing rate to maintain on an 18% grade over rough terrain.
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Rothermel, 1993. p. 7: "Since the crew did not understand why Dodge was firing the grass, no one stayed with him. Sallee and Rumsey thought Dodge had set a fire that would somehow shield them from the main
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Rothermel, 1993. p. 7: "Dodge is reported to have lit his fire with book matches, further evidence of a momentary period of calm, since such matches are notoriously poor for sustaining a flame in a wind.
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US Forest Service, 1991: "Jansson then headed down river, trying to size up the fire. By now, the canyon was so full of smoke he could hardly see. He landed at Mann Gulch and began to scout the fire."
923:
US Forest Service, 1991: "Spotter Earl Cooley and Jumper Foreman Wag Dodge chose a jump site at the head of Mann Gulch. The fire was estimated at 60 acres, but they still considered it a routine fire."
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The fire's rapid descent from the Meriwether Canyon ridge downslope to the mouth of the gulch was likely propelled by a brief thunderstorm at the Meriwether Canyon ridge . During this "blowup" event a
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Maclean, 1992. p. 85-86: "At about the same time the Dodge and his crew were hurrying down gulch into the blowup, ranger Robert Jansson at the lower end was running from the blowup back to the river."
259:– The smokejumpers heard a shout near the fire perimeter. Foreman Dodge ordered squad leader Bill Hellman to take charge while he went to investigate. He discovered Jim Harrison near the fire line.
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already have joined him, because the final position of the bodies showed four crew members traveled much farther than the others. In his book, Maclean describes these men as the 'four horsemen'."
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The crew suddenly emerged from the sparse timber and into a mostly treeless expanse where they could clearly see the top of Mann Gulch ridge. The groundcover here was dry and highly combustible
802:
US Forest Service, 1991: " The fire was doing some minor crowning in juniper and pine reproduction, but was not spreading excessively, even though it had already grown to 8 acres in an hour."
559:– Two medical doctors from St. Peters Hospital in Helena were escorted up Rescue Gulch by Dodge and Sallee. Sylvia and Hellman were administered plasma and morphine and their wounds dressed.
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US Forest Service, 1991: "Ranger Jansson was still concerned, so he flew the District, including the Mann Gulch area, at 11: 00 am. He reported no new fires, and landed in Helena at 12:25."
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350:'s per foot per second were estimated to range from 400 to 1000. Wind driven flames were about 7 – 10 feet (2.1 – 3.0 meters) high and moving diagonally uphill towards the smokejumpers.
482:
These eight firefighters hesitated briefly, perhaps no longer than 10 or 15 seconds before plunging onward up the canyon and angling towards the ridge. None of these men heeded Dodge.
405:, tinder dry in the near 100 °F (38 °C) heat. Leaving the timber behind, the surface winds were estimated to have increased, with gusts up to 40 mph (64 km/h).
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steps behind them, either did not see the crevice or chose to search elsewhere to cross over. His remains were found a hundred yards (92 meters) eastward at the base of the reef.
429:
The fire had gained on the crew at every stage of their retreat. Despite having doubled their speed, the fire had closed to within 50 yards (46 meters) of the rear of the column.
1103:
Lillquist, 2006. p. 566: "Dodge and Harrison hurried back to the where they filled their canteen and grabbed some ration packs in anticipation of a long night of firefighting."
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1213:
Maclean, 2017. p. 79: "... angling toward the top of the ridge on a steep grade ... the ground was too rocky and the fire coming too fast to dare to go a right angle to it ."
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Rothermel, 1993. p. 2: "One of the basic tenets of firefighting is to reach a fire quickly attack it when it is still small. Smokejumpers are very effective" in this regard.
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flames of the main fire. He was almost lifted from his prone position several times by powerful gusts of superheated air during the few minutes it took the inferno to pass.
110:
896:
US Forest Service, 1991: "Jansson instructed to take all 19 men and to attack the fire from the Mann Gulch/Meriwether Saddle, and to try to hold the fire on the ridge."
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587:
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Lillquist, 2006. p. 567: "... Dodge realized that the crew did not have time to make the ridgetop before being overrun by the fire rapidly approaching from the rear."
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Rothermel, 1993. p. 5: At this point "the timber was even thinner allowed the wind to increase ... the fire's spread increased to somewhere between 360–610 ft./min."
247:– Jansson proceeded by boat along the Missouri towards the mouth of Mann Creek to begin a survey of its south slope and to establish contact with the smokejumpers.
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it took the fire to pass over him. personal communication). At 6:10 Dodge was able to sit up and move about between the pockets of fire that were still burning.
653:
Robert W. Sallee, youngest man on the crew, age 17 at time of the fire, from Willow Creek, Montana. Last survivor of the smoke jumpers. Died May 29, 2014.
521:
1094:
Rothermel, 1993. p. 2: "The smokejumpers believed they were going to attack the fire ... on the upwind side ... near the river ... a safer location ..."
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https://www.fs.fed.us/science-technology/fire/people-working-fire/smokejumpers/smokejumper-base-contact-information/missoula-smokejumpers/history/gulch
371:
and creates its own convection vortex. Fuel, terrain and wind – the classic fire triangle – are the causes of these brief, but very explosive events.
1803:
1400:
Rothermel, 1993. p.4 Since the start of the retreat "the crew went faster during each successive leg of the journey. But the fire went even faster."
1465:
situation, Dodge replied "Not that I know of. It just seemed the logical thing to do. I had been instructed if possible to get into a burned area"
331:
At the time the fire began burning a little more fiercely. We all noticed it. A very interesting spectacle. That's about all we thought about it
448:
An exchange between C. M. Granger, USFS administrator and R. Wagner Dodge, crew foreman during the Board of Review testimony, 26 September 1949:
1823:
1724:
784:
Lillquist, 2006. p. 565: "... officially sited by Colorado Mountain lookout (located about 29 miles southeast of Mann Gulch) at 12:18 ..."
529:
Sallee and Ramsey fled into Rescue Gulch. Ramsey momentarily collapsed from exhaustion but with Sallee's urging they reached a downslope
533:
largely free of vegetation that afforded them some protection as the main fire continued over the ridge to burn downslope past them.
493:
One smokejumper, Stanley J. Reba broke a leg in his effort to escape the flames, a measure of how steep and treacherous the footing.
1517:
192:
the foreman, ranged in age from 17 to 33 (average age, 22). The majority of the firefighters were attending forestry classes at the
100:
96:
59:
1733:. United States Department of Agriculture Forest Service Intermountain Research Station.General Technical Report INT-299. May 1993
106:
Concerned about sleeper fires, Jansson requested an aerial survey of the district for 6:00 am on the following day, 5 August.
1754:
1131:
Rothermel, 1993. p. 3: "... the crew was not worried about safety" at 5:40 pm, despite Dodge's comment about a "death trap".
213:
fires. The fire was moving gradually downhill to the northeast (up gulch) through sparse grass. The fire appeared to be routine.
1798:
412:
1793:
361:
At the time the column of firefighters begin their retreat, they had about a four or five-minute head start on the fire.
218:
Never let a fire get below you on a mountain. Only bears and fires – not firefighters – can run uphill faster than down.
109:
650:
Walter B. Rumsey, age 21 at time of the fire, from Larned, Kansas. Rumsey died in an airplane crash in 1980, age 52.
1507:
Rothermel, 1993. p. 6: These four men "took the shortest but steepest route directly up the slope to the ridge top."
1195:
Lillquist, 2006. p. 566: "Dodge took the lead and Hellman the rear of the column as it contoured toward the river."
643:
R. Wagner "Wag" Dodge, Missoula SJ foreman, age 33 at the time of the fire. Dodge died 5 years after the fire from
1688:
Death likely came very rapidly to these men as the result of suffocation due to consumption of oxygen by the fire.
292:
During the past hour, the wind had shifted 180° and was now coming from the south and blowing forcefully upgulch.
209:
731:
US Forest Service, 1991: "... so concerned in fact, that he requested that a plane fly his District at 6:00 am."
1838:
1818:
1112:
Rothermel, 1993. p. "Dodge had a clear view of the fire and could see it was burning more rapidly than before."
553:– Dodge and Sallee reached the Meriwether Guard Station after flagging down a boat and radioed for assistance.
28:
525:
Mann Gulch Fire, 1949. US Forest Service. Retrieval of victim's bodies by fellow smokejumpers, August 6, 1949
502:
Ramsey and Diettert ascended to the right (east) of the growing escape blaze as it moved upslope. (Figure 2)
140:– Jansson flew observation over Mann Gulch, but saw no evidence of fire and returned to the Helena airport.
1703:
Teaching with Catastrophe: Topographic Map Interpretation and the Physical Geography of the 1949 Mann Gulch
505:
Approaching the crest, these three firefighters encountered a 6 to 12 foot high (1.8 to 3.7 meter) wall of
63:
193:
188:
644:
170:(early afternoon) – Jansson begins to assemble and mobilize ground crews to fight the Mann Gulch fire.
208:– C-47 pilot Kenneth Huber located the fire in Mann Gulch and began to circle. Spotter and jumpmaster
1706:
347:
1705:, Montana Wildfire Journal of Geoscience Education, 54:5, 561–571, DOI: 10.5408/1089-9995-54.5.561
1813:
1518:
https://www.nifc.gov/safety/mann_gulch/suggested_reading/Board_of_Review_%20Sept%2026_28_1949.pdf
1720:
486:
they had covered more than 100 yards (92 meters) beyond the perimeter of Dodge's escape fire.
1186:
Rothermel, 1993. p. 2-3: "Foreman Dodge and ... Harrison overtook the crew at about 5:40 pm.
887:
Lillquist, 2006. p. 566: "... to prevent from burning into the beautiful Meriwether Canyon."
237:
would be return to Mann Gulch to assist in the recovery operation of his deceased comrades.
398:
42:
1258:
Rothermel, 1993. p. 5: "... initially the men were still carrying their packs and tools."
454:: After the fire ... id you at that time know what had happened to the rest of the crew?
1712:
272:
55:
1341:
Rothermel, 1993. p. 5: "Most of the crew realized now that they were in real trouble."
1787:
436:
196:
in Missoula. For most of them, this was their first year in the smokejumper program.
605:
James O. Harrison, Helena National Forest Fire Guard, age 20, from Missoula, Montana
354:
per minute (37 meters per minute) or 1.4 miles per hour (22 kilometers per hour) .
1734:
276:
591:
Mann Gulch Fire, 1949 US Forest Service Smokejumpers – Memorial photos, 13 victims
1498:
Lillquist, 2006. p. 567: "... among the first to pass Dodge as he lit the fire."
1314:
Lillquist, 2006. p. 567: "... 225—300 feet behind" when they dropped their gear.
1222:
Rothermel, 1993. p. 3: "... they saw fire blocking their route to the river ..."
793:
Maclean, 2017. p. 89: "... eight acres in extent (six acres by a later survey)."
71:
530:
311:
1769:
1756:
602:
Eldon E. Diettert, age 19, from Missoula, Montana, died on his 19th birthday
1076:
Rothermel, 1993. p. 2: ". ... not the safest place to attack the fire ..."
279:
and one man shouldered the 5-gallon (19-liter) jug mounted on a backpack.
1829:
Historic districts on the National Register of Historic Places in Montana
377:– Physical Geographer Karl Lillquist, Central Washington University
368:
47:
128:– US Forest Service aerial observers report no new fires at Mann Gulch.
1834:
National Register of Historic Places in Lewis and Clark County, Montana
506:
402:
67:
307:
1516:
USFS Board of Review Testimony, Mann Gulch Fire, 26 September 1949.
1323:
Rothermel, 1993. p. 5: "At Dodge told his men to drop their tools."
459:: I had a fair idea. I didn't think any of them had made the ridge.
1707:
http://www.nagt.org/files/nagt/jge/abstracts/lillquist-v54p561.pdf
520:
146:("late morning") – Jim Harrison located a new fire on Mann Gulch.
51:
1537:
Lillquist, 2006. p. 567: "... deafening roar of the fire ..."
713:
Maclean, 2017. p. 88: "... conditions were not critical ..."
1387:
1385:
1383:
1286:
grade slowed the crew, but it caused the fire to accelerate.
33:
Looking east up Mann Gulch from the Missouri River, May 2013
811:
Lillquist, 2006. p. 565: "... fire covered eight acres ..."
1545:
1543:
1054:
1052:
1050:
1048:
833:
831:
829:
819:
817:
700:
698:
696:
674:
672:
635:
Silas R. Thompson, age 21, from Charlotte, North Carolina
1485:
1483:
1481:
865:
863:
861:
617:
Leonard L. Piper, age 23, from Blairsville, Pennsylvania
771:
769:
759:
757:
755:
686:
684:
626:
Joseph B. Sylvia, age 24, from Plymouth, Massachusetts
574:
they suffered shortly after 6:00 pm on 5 August.
62:(then known as the Gates of the Mountains Wild Area),
632:
Newton R. Thompson, age 23, from Alhambra, California
70:
in the United States. A team of 15 US Forest Service
878:
Maclean, 2017. p. 71: "a tourist treasure ..."p. 93
608:
William J. Hellman, age 24, from Kalispell, Montana
314:", lofting burning debris over to the north slope.
21:
629:Henry J. Thol Jr., age 19, from Kalispell, Montana
1678:heat-induced damage to their respiratory systems.
623:Marvin L. Sherman, age 21, from Missoula, Montana
275:and a shovel. Two of the men carried the two-man
1735:https://www.fs.fed.us/rm/pubs_int/int_gtr299.pdf
614:David R. Navon, age 28, from Modesto, California
599:Robert J. Bennett, age 22, from Paris, Tennessee
419:– Mann Gulch Fire, 1949. Dodge "escape fire" map
469:: I didn't think any of them were still alive.
464:: You didn't think any of them made the ridge?
446:
364:
329:
216:
116:. Mann Gulch Fire, map of events, 5 August 1949
16:A timeline of the 1949 Mann Gulch fire disaster
1668:plasma and morphine, and dressed their wounds.
433:measure at least 1500 °F (815 °C).
337:– 21-year-old smokejumper Walter Ramsey
8:
1731:Mann Gulch Fire: A Race That Couldn't Be Won
1809:1949 natural disasters in the United States
611:Philip R. McVey, age 22, from Babb, Montana
437:Applying a principle of basic fire science
95:– An intense electrical storm passed over
27:
18:
620:Stanley J. Reba, from Brooklyn, New York
586:
411:
108:
1844:August 1949 events in the United States
668:
7:
595:Those that were killed by the fire:
14:
1350:Maclean, 2017. p. 303-304, p. 305
60:Gates of the Mountains Wilderness
50:reported on August 5, 1949, in a
1204:Maclean, 2017. p. 79, p. 300-301
97:Gates of the Mountains Wild Area
1804:Lewis and Clark County, Montana
1719:. University Of Chicago Press.
1418:Maclean, 2017. p. 83-84, p. 102
1305:Maclean, 2017. p. 80-81, p. 300
224:– An old firefighter rule
1140:Maclean, 2017. p. 95-96, p. 99
479:be ignited his survival fire.
1:
1744:. Department of Agriculture.
1824:Natural disasters in Montana
1729:Rothermel, Robert C. 1993.
231:3:50 pm to 4:10 pm
1042:Maclean, 2017. p. 65, p. 69
941:Maclean, 2017. p. 55, p. 63
905:Maclean, 2017. p. 49, p. 88
855:Maclean, 2017. p. 49, p. 91
283:5:12 pm – 5:15 pm
1860:
1748:Retrieved 28 August 2018.
1737:Retrieved 28 August 2018.
1709:Retrieved 28 August 2018.
1391:Maclean, 2017. p. 104-105
1276:Maclean, 2017. p. 302-303
1249:Maclean, 2017. p. 300-301
26:
22:Mann Gulch Fire: Timeline
1701:Lillquist, Karl. 2006.
979:Lillquist, 2006. p. 565
194:Montana State University
101:16 out of a possible 100
54:located along the upper
1549:Rothermel, 1993. p. 6-7
1231:Lillquist, 2006. p. 567
1058:Lillquist, 2006. p. 566
1006:Maclean, 2017. p. 94-95
914:Maclean, 2017. p. 48-49
837:Lillquist, 2006. p. 565
823:Maclean, 2017. p. 90-91
704:US Forest Service, 1991
678:Maclean, 2017. p. 87-88
1799:Helena National Forest
932:Lillquist, 2006. p. 56
592:
526:
471:
420:
373:
333:
220:
117:
64:Helena National Forest
1715:1992 (reissued 2017)
1648:Maclean, 2017. p. 111
1489:Maclean, 2017. p. 106
1436:Rothermel, 1993. p. 6
1409:Maclean, 2017. p. 304
1377:Rothermel, 1993. p. 9
1359:Maclean, 2017. p. 305
1332:Maclean, 2017. p. 103
1267:Rothermel, 1993. p. 4
1240:Maclean, 2017. p. 302
1085:Maclean, 2017. p. 73
869:Rothermel, 1993. p. 2
740:Rothermel, 1993. p. 3
639:Those that survived:
590:
524:
415:
112:
1794:Wildfires in Montana
1770:46.8796°N 111.9049°W
1528:Maclean, 2017. p. 84
1177:Maclean, 2017. p. 75
1159:Maclean, 2017. p. 99
1067:Maclean, 2017. p. 72
1024:Maclean, 2017. p. 95
1015:Maclean, 2017. p. 65
997:Maclean, 2017. p. 64
988:Maclean, 2017. p. 49
970:Maclean, 2017. p. 58
775:Maclean, 2017. p. 89
763:Maclean, 2017. p. 71
690:Maclean, 2017. p. 88
296:"Blowup" and Retreat
1766: /
1740:US Forest Service.
200:2:30 – 4:30 pm
1775:46.8796; -111.9049
1717:Young Men and Fire
593:
527:
421:
118:
79:Timeline of Events
66:, in the state of
1725:978-0-226-45035-3
1609:from the ground."
645:Hodgkin's disease
38:
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1839:1940s wildfires
1819:1949 in Montana
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43:Mann Gulch fire
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72:smokejumpers
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1773: /
1761:111°54′18″W
399:Cheat grass
312:fire whirls
308:wind vortex
210:Earl Cooley
1814:1949 fires
1788:Categories
1758:46°52′47″N
1742:Mann Gulch
1122:headwind."
658:References
583:Casualties
531:blockfield
369:crown fire
310:produced "
1599:next day.
1455:rimrock."
663:Footnotes
497:Survivors
1658:Sylvia."
578:Findings
568:Daylight
417:Figure 2
114:Figure 1
48:wildfire
1696:Sources
1629:sides."
507:rimrock
462:GRANGER
452:GRANGER
273:Pulaski
93:4:00 pm
68:Montana
58:in the
1723:
1639:less."
1569:fire."
1475:fire."
477:before
403:Fescue
46:was a
467:DODGE
457:DODGE
52:gulch
1721:ISBN
961:..."
951:..."
401:and
189:C-47
187:– A
40:The
348:Btu
1790::
1542:^
1480:^
1382:^
1047:^
860:^
828:^
816:^
768:^
754:^
695:^
683:^
671:^
647:.
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