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688:(ability to germinate under optimal conditions) in dry storage, lasting over 11 years. In the field, under buried conditions, seeds will lose their viability in 2–5 years. Seeds can withstand high soil temperatures, and the primary limit to germination is inadequate moisture. Germination is best in the dark or in diffuse light. They germinate most quickly when covered with soil, but do not need to be in contact with bare soil. Some leaf litter cover will generally improve germination and establishment of seedlings. Seedlings emerge rapidly from the top 2.5 cm (1") of soil, and a few plants emerge from depths of 8 cm (3"), but not from seeds 10 cm (4") below the surface.
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883:, in 2010 the United States Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) considered the possibility of extending the protections of the Endangered Species Act to the greater sage-grouse. The primary focus of Secretarial Order 3336, signed in 2015 in response to the USFWS status review, was to reduce threats to greater sage-grouse habitat by reducing the frequency and severity of rangeland fire. Specifically, Secretarial Order 3336 focused on how reducing
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1039:. Herbicides with no residual soil activity are not generally used because they are only effective in the year of application. If the herbicide has no residual soil activity the herbicide must be applied post-emergence in the early spring, but pre-emergence application is preferred because pre-emergence application is less likely to harm the native vegetation.
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can trigger mutual relationships like increased fiber and, by extension, fuels that nurture the return of cheatgrass. Similarly, when densely packed conifers begin infilling sagebrush communities the understory perennial vegetation is reduced; when these areas are prescribed burned the succession is
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seeds demonstrate rapid germination as soon as the seed lands in appropriate conditions. If winter rainfall is limiting and germination is inhibited, but spring moisture is adequate, then seeds will germinate in the spring, and the plants will flower that summer. The seeds maintain high viability
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can germinate under even after herbicide application. But if it rains shortly after herbicide application, some of the herbicide that is trapped in the litter can be released and work into the soil. The rain may also allow native species to over come herbicide impacts. Increased precipitation in
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invaded area is to remove the highly flammable plant litter in a controlled manner. The timing of prescribed burns can affect the variety and amount of returning vegetation. A study shows spring burns may result in a significant reduction of native vegetation, but fall burns have been shown to
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control. Of the herbicides listed it is also the most commonly studied. Imazapic is preferred because it can be applied both pre and post-emergence, is approved for rangeland use, and has residual soil activity that allows for one to two year control. Indaziflam is one of the newest herbicides,
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and their effect on native plant communities. When using herbicides to suppress winter annual grasses the two most important factors that influence success are application timing and residual soil activity. Application timing is split into three main categories: pre-emergence in the fall before
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The availability of native seed will always be a limiting factor in restoration of sagebrush ecosystems after a rangeland fire. Little is understood about the germination requirements of native species. This lack of understanding is complicated by the episodic nature of establishment in arid
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is quick to colonize disturbed areas. It is most often found on coarse-textured soils and does not grow well on heavy, dry, and/or saline soils. It grows in a relatively narrow range of soil temperatures; growth starts at 2.0–3.5 °C (35.6–38.3 °F) and slows when temperatures exceed
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studies precipitation differences between years are speculated to be the cause of variation in effectiveness. However, well-timed precipitation after herbicide application can increase the amount of herbicide that makes it into the soil. When herbicide is applied to an area and there is
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Williams, Rachel E.; Roundy, Bruce A.; Hulet, April; Miller, Richard F.; Tausch, Robin J.; Chambers, Jeanne C.; Matthews, Jeffrey; Schooley, Robert; Eggett, Dennis (2017). "Pretreatment Tree
Dominance and Conifer Removal Treatments Affect Plant Succession in Sagebrush Communities".
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has a shallow, spreading root system, which makes it much more efficient at absorbing moisture from light precipitation episodes and disrupts nutrient cycling. Several studies have shown that native plant biomass, especially that of bunchgrasses, negatively affects
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Belnap, J; Phillips, SL; Troxler, T (2006). "Soil lichen and moss cover and species richness can be highly dynamic: The effects of invasion by the annual exotic grass Bromus tectorum, precipitation, and temperature on biological soil crusts in SE Utah".
498:. The effectiveness of these treatments is tightly linked to the timing of the water availability at the site. With precipitation shortly after herbicide and seeding treatments increasing the success, and overall high precipitation increases
1198:. Fire and trampling by cattle are the major threats to the BSC communities, and once disturbed it can take decades to centuries for BSC to reform. A decline in the health of the BSC community serves as an early warning indicator for
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Duncan, CA; Jachetta, JJ; Brown, ML; Carrithers, VF; Clark, JK; Ditomaso, JM; Lym, RG; McDaniel, KC; Renz, MJ; Rice, PM (2004). "Assessing the
Economic, Environmental, and Societal Losses from Invasive Plants on Rangeland Wildlands".
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could reduce the frequency and extent of rangeland fires. Since the review of the status of the greater sage-grouse by the USFWS in 2010 and the implementation Secretarial Order 3336 in 2015 the bulk of the research focusing on
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grows in many different climates. It is found primarily in the 150–560 millimetres (5.9–22.0 in) precipitation zone. It will grow in almost any type of soil, including B and C horizons of eroded areas and areas low in
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to one year. For effective control it must be applied to the same area for more than five years to get ahead of seed production to prevent recolonization. Imazapic is the herbicide most widely used by land managers for
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Munson, SM; Long, AL; Decker, C; Johnson, KA; Walsh, K; Miller, ME (2015). "Repeated landscape-scale treatments following fire suppress a non-native annual grass and promote recovery of native perennial vegetation".
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can exhibit invasive behavior and is a strong competitor of native perennials. The reason it is used, regardless of its invasive behavior, is because it restores some function to a perennial grassland.
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Brockway, DG; Gatewood, RG; Paris, RB (2002). "Restoring fire as an ecological process in shortgrass prairie ecosystems: initial effects of prescribed burning during the dormant and growing seasons".
1003:. Adding sagebrush would diversify the ecosystem and provide habitat for sagebrush obligates. However, this would mean accepting the possibility that the native plant community may never establish.
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where the leaf attaches to the stem. It typically reaches 40–90 centimetres (16–35 in) tall, though plants as small as 2.5 centimetres (0.98 in) may produce seed. The flowers of
468:. After the review was completed by the USFWS, Secretarial Order 3336 was signed with the goal of reducing the threat of rangeland fires and preserve habitat by reducing downy brome.
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Studies have suggested that herbicide usage may select for warm season grasses and decrease the abundance of cool season grasses. There are five main herbicides used to control
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Bakker, JD; Wilson, SD; Christian, JM; Li, X; Ambrose, LG; Waddington, J (2003). "Contingency of grassland restoration on year, site, and competition from introduced grasses".
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licensed in 2010. It has a residual soil activity of 2–3 years and its also useful against many other invasive grasses. Not only does it reduce the abundance and biomass of
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produces. In early trials it has consistently out competed imazapic. As of 2017, indaziflam has not been approved for use outside of residential and commercial properties.
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is resistant to wildfire and it is suitable forage for cattle and wildlife. But the intensive control that would be needed to establish a native plant community in a
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in many other areas. It now is present in most of Europe, southern Russia, Japan, South Africa, Australia, New
Zealand, Iceland, Greenland, North America and western
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increased 1.5–2.7 gram per plant for every 10 part per million (ppm) increase above the 270 ppm pre-industrial baseline. On the qualitative side, rising
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is an abundant seed producer, with a potential in excess of 300 seeds per plant; seed production per plant is dependent on plant density. Under optimal conditions,
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often enters the site in an area that has been disturbed, and then quickly expands into the surrounding area through its rapid growth and prolific seed production.
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To be most effective post-emergence application needs to be done as late in the spring as possible to ensure that the herbicide treatment hits the majority of the
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Dettweiler-Robinson, E; Bakker, JD; Grace, JB (2013). "Controls of biological soil crust cover and composition shift with succession in sagebrush shrub-steppe".
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a perennial bunchgrass native to Russia and Asia. The use of seeding another non-native to control an exotic, problem species is called assisted succession.
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2786:"Cheatgrass die-offs as an opportunity for restoration in the Great Basin, USA: Will local or commercial native plants succeed where exotic invaders fail"
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Sebastian, DJ; Nissen, SJ; Sebastian, JR; Beck, KG (2017). "Seed Bank
Depletion: The Key to Long-Term Downy Brome ( Bromus tectorum L.) Management".
138:
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Baynes, Melissa; Newcombe, George; Dixon, Linley; Castlebury, Lisa; O’Donnell, Kerry (2012). "A novel plant–fungal mutualism associated with fire".
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Sebastian, DJ; Nissen, SJ; De, J; Rodrigues, S (2016). "Pre-emergence
Control of Six Invasive Winter Annual Grasses with Imazapic and Indaziflam".
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Elseroad, AC; Rudd, NT (2011). "Can
Imazapic Increase Native Species Abundance in Cheatgrass (Bromus tectorum) Invaded Native Plant Communities?".
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litter on the ground, much of the herbicide will be absorbed into the litter and some will adhere to the litter. The litter creates a blanket that
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has been historically thought to create a positive feedback loop. However, Taylor, et al. (2014), suggest that fire alone does not promote
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of the area, are often the dominant cover, and are vital in ecosystem function. In addition to providing erosion control, BSC is vital for
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monoculture would cause disturbance that would also increase the invasive species it was planted to out compete. An alternative to using
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resistance. The life strategies of these three grasses differ in such a way that they provide constant interaction and competition with
204:
1986:
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Sebastian, DJ; Sebastian, JR; Nissen, SJ; Beck, KG (2016). "A Potential New
Herbicide for Invasive Annual Grass Control on Rangeland".
1441:"Suppression of annual Bromus tectorum by perennial Agropyron cristatum: roles of soil nitrogen availability and biological soil space"
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biomass by decreasing removal by animals or bacteria. Ongoing increases in atmospheric carbon dioxide may contribute significantly to
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may produce 450 kg of seed per hectare (400 pounds per acre) with about 330,000 seeds/kg (150,000 seeds/pound). As the seed of
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If the information is appropriate for the lead of the article, this information should also be included in the body of the article.
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is common along roadsides and as a crop weed, but usually does not dominate an ecosystem. It has become a dominant species in the
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1538:"Effect of biological soil crusts on seed germination and growth of an exotic and two native plant species in an arid ecosystem"
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There is a positive correlation between native vegetation communities and biological soil crust (BSC). BSC is composed of
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burns is consideration for the densities and fire adaptations of nearby foliage. In some cases, the existence of adjacent
812:
800:
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Davies, KW; Boyd, CS; Nafus, AM (2013). "Restoring the
Sagebrush Component in Crested Wheatgrass–Dominated Communities".
2887:"Importance of soil and plant community disturbance for establishment of Bromus tectorum in the Intermountain West, USA"
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germination and reduce the likelihood of invasion. However, if there is a disturbance in the biological soil crust and
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has been identified as an invasive weed in all provinces, and is extremely prevalent in
Alberta and British Columbia .
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increase species richness. Fall burns may also promote select grasses and fire resilient plants. Another control for
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population. However, the late application puts the native perennial vegetation at risk as they may be coming out of
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1058:, and indaziflam. However, the bulk of the recent research has been done on glyphosate, indaziflam, and imazapic.
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grasses have roots that often reach four feet into the soil. These roots provide organic matter, which feeds the
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early spring may increase the success of seeding by increasing the germination rate of native grasses and remove
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has demonstrated a quantitative and qualitative response to recent and near-term changes in the concentration of
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Cox, RD; Anderson, VJ (2004). "Increasing Native
Diversity of Cheatgrass-Dominated Rangeland through Assisted".
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917:. In addition to stimulation of biomass, rising carbon dioxide may also increase the above ground retention of
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628:(minimal soil moisture required for a plant not to wilt) to a depth of 70 centimetres (28 in), reducing
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1781:"Introduction history and population genetics of the invasive grass Bromus tectorum (Poaceae) in Canada"
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is much easier to establish than the native perennials and has been shown to be a strong competitor of
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Glyphosate has no residual soil activity and must be used post-emergence, which limits its control of
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as a placeholder species in assisted succession is to establish it alongside foundation species like
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does not increase as was once thought, but recovers to previous levels. Increased fires, because of
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grasslands. In response to the limited availability of native seed, land managers have been seeding
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2827:"Effects of precipitation change and neighboring plants on population dynamics of Bromus tectorum"
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cover and biomass, suggesting that a diverse native perennial community will be more resistant to
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recruitment and biomass will increase and may render the treatment ineffective. In most long-term
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is shallow rooted and completes most of its growth in the late winter and early spring.
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has a fibrous root system with few main roots that does not reach more than a foot into the
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Baynes, M. A.; Newcombe, G.; Dixon, L.; Castlebury, L. & O’Donnell, K. (January 2012).
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Thill, DC; Beck, KG; Callihan, RH (1983). "The Biology of Downy Brome (Bromus tectorum)".
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in early spring has been used as a fire fuels reduction strategy in the hills adjacent to
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ripen and disperse in the late spring and early summer. They are dispersed by wind, small
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2920:"Conditions favoring Bromus tectorum dominance of endangered sagebrush steppe ecosystems"
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2361:"Drivers of Bromus tectorum Abundance in the Western North American Sagebrush Steppe"
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A majority of research in 2011-2017 has focused on the use of herbicides to control
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episodes. A study showed that it had the capability to reduce soil moisture to the
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is invasive treatments that are being researched/used by land managers to control
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https://www.forestsandrangelands.gov/rangeland/documents/SecretarialOrder3336.pdf
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1876:"Biological Invasions by Exotic Grasses, the Grass/Fire Cycle, and Global Change"
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is able to establish, then it will impede the recovery of the BSC community.
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include seeding of native plants and non-native bunch-grasses to out compete
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Brummer, TJ; Taylor, KT; Rotella, J; Maxwell, BD; Rew, LJ; LAvin, M (2016).
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are deep rooted and complete most of their growth in the late spring, and
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growth, causing the treatment effects to be statistically insignificant.
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The reduction of native plants and the increased fire frequency caused by
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that assist in water and nutrient cycling in arid ecosystems and improve
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sites, and roadsides. It is much reviled by ranchers and land managers.
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biomass for approximately two years. The goal of a prescribed burn in a
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2481:"Litter Reduction by Prescribed Burning Can Extend Downy Brome Control"
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and parts of Canada, and displays especially invasive behavior in the
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Klemmedson, JO; Smith, JG (1964). "Cheatgrass (Bromus Tectorum L.)".
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contains information that is not included elsewhere in the article
1829:"Bromus tectorum Response to Fire Varies with Climate Conditions"
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in favor of taller grasses, making burns situationally inferior.
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needed to be listed as a threatened or endangered species due to
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Out West, ‘Black Fingers of Death’ Offer Hope Against an Invader
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on biomass production and vegetative retention of cheatgrass (
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Taylor, K; Brummer, T; Rew, LJ; Lavin, M; Maxwell, BD (2014).
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invasion. If the BSC community is healthy then it will impede
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is a seedling, and late post-emergence in late spring after
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ripen the plant goes from green to purple to straw-colored.
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10.1614/0890-037x(2004)018[1411:ateeas]2.0.co;2
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10.1890/1051-0761(2003)013[0137:cogroy]2.0.co;2
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decreased the digestibility and potential decomposition of
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Baughman, OW; Meyer, SE; Aanderud, ZT; Leger, EA (2016).
1992:. California Invasive Plant Council. 2006. Archived from
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lists general information and resources for Downy Brome.
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Valliant, M. T.; Mack, R. N.; Novak, S. J. (July 2007).
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population by preventing the natives from establishing.
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had spread to all parts of the United States (including
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may be mistaken for a bunchgrass because it may send up
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Reisner, MD; Grace, JB; Pyke, DA; Doescher, PS (2013).
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Leffler, AJ; Monaco, TA; James, JJ; Sheley, RL (2016).
1075:, but it also reduces the highly flammable litter that
608:(self pollinating, non-opening flower) with no evident
84:
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Kessler, KC; Nissen, SJ; Meiman, PJ; Beck, KG (2015).
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Perennial grass ecosystems are less prone to burning.
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BSCs colonize the spaces between plants, increase the
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germinates, early post-emergence in early spring when
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productivity and fuel load with subsequent effects on
905:. Laboratory experiments have shown that above-ground
2174:"A novel plant-fungal mutualism associated with fire"
1120:
Water availably has a large impact on the success of
851:
seeds are also a critical portion of the diet of the
1922:"Forage Grasses of the Colorado Plateau Cold Desert"
1370:"THE BIOLOGY OF CANADIAN WEEDS. 75. Bromus tectorum"
3073:
2089:Ziska, L.H.; Reeves III, J.B.; Blank, R.R. (2005),
1368:Upadhyaya, MK; Turkington, R; McIlvride, D (1986).
584:) and have sheaths that are separate except at the
471:Research has shown that ecosystems with a healthy
2091:"The impact of recent increases in atmospheric CO
2998:, National Invasive Species Information Center,
2042:"Forest Service Use Sheep to Reduce Fire Hazard"
859:which have been introduced to the US. Intensive
475:and native plant community will be resistant to
1874:D'Antonio, C M; Vitousek, P M (November 1992).
1162:Characteristics of a resistant native community
951:) in western North America.
509:A sagebrush ecosystem in southern Idaho after
1924:. Northern Arizona University. Archived from
553:in autumn, overwintering as a seedling, then
73:The examples and perspective in this article
8:
1124:treatments. In years of high precipitation,
3025:https://www.sagegrouseinitiative.com/roots/
3000:United States National Agricultural Library
1299:, may serve to maintain, not increase, the
53:Learn how and when to remove these messages
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2148:Global Fire Initiative: Fire and Invasives
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179:Learn how and when to remove this message
161:Learn how and when to remove this message
111:Learn how and when to remove this message
2151:, The Nature Conservancy, archived from
1880:Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics
1330:Botanical Society of Britain and Ireland
1116:Water availability and treatment success
565:that give it the appearance of having a
441:ecosystems where it has been listed as
2976:plants.usda.gov: USDA Plants Profile —
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1439:Blank, RR; Morgan, T; Allen, F (2015).
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458:United States Fish and Wildlife Service
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604:and five to eight flowers each. It is
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525:comes from a Greek word for a type of
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1353:
7:
3626:d562007d-4a0e-42b3-a2b5-4bb7cf5dde05
3502:d770292f-6ecd-4c3b-85e0-e63faa359c18
1492:
1490:
1488:
1486:
1484:
1434:
1432:
1430:
1428:
1426:
2536:Journal of Environmental Management
1892:10.1146/annurev.es.23.110192.000431
835:In the US, it grows on rangelands,
2618:Rangeland Ecology & Management
2488:Rangeland Ecology & Management
2415:Rangeland Ecology & Management
2316:Rangeland Ecology & Management
2216:Rangeland Ecology & Management
1602:Rangeland Ecology & Management
14:
2825:Prevéy, JS; Seastedt, TR (2015).
1374:Canadian Journal of Plant Science
34:This article has multiple issues.
3567:urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:394163-1
3042:CABI Invasive Species Compendium
2115:10.1111/j.1365-2486.2005.00992.x
707:has been introduced to southern
549:grass native to Eurasia usually
216:
127:
64:
23:
3030:Fire Effects Information System
2266:Journal of Rangeland Management
2018:"Bromus tectorum (downy brome)"
1952:Fire Effects Information System
1536:Song, G; Li, X; Hui, R (2017).
935:has been shown to benefit from
557:in the spring or early summer.
42:or discuss these issues on the
3032:, United States Forest Service
2992:Species Profile- Downy Brome (
2811:10.1016/j.jaridenv.2015.08.011
2725:10.1016/j.jaridenv.2013.01.013
1972:How To Get Rid Of Cheatgrass?
1:
813:California Floristic Province
2971:npwrc.usgs.gov: USGS profile
2790:Journal of Arid Environments
2705:Journal of Arid Environments
2594:10.1016/j.funbio.2011.10.008
2193:10.1016/j.funbio.2011.10.008
1563:10.1371/journal.pone.0185839
1520:10.1016/j.apsoil.2004.12.010
743:. It was first found in the
3722:Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus
3038:, Colorado State University
700:Cheat grass in Elko, Nevada
592:are arranged on a drooping
537:which means overlaying and
87:, discuss the issue on the
3745:
2924:Journal of Applied Ecology
2630:10.1016/j.rama.2017.05.007
2500:10.1016/j.rama.2015.05.006
2427:10.1016/j.rama.2016.12.003
2071:Department of the Interior
1987:"Invasive Plant Inventory"
1785:American Journal of Botany
1614:10.1016/j.rama.2015.11.001
1157:on Spruce Mountain, Nevada
903:atmospheric carbon dioxide
879:fires and the invasion of
460:(USFWS) to examine if the
2851:10.1007/s00442-015-3398-z
2763:10.1017/S0043174500060185
2677:10.1007/s10530-015-0847-x
2385:10.1007/s10021-016-9980-3
1853:10.1007/s10021-014-9771-7
1146:’s competitive advantage.
929:frequency and intensity.
653:15 °C (59 °F).
479:invasion. In areas where
374:
367:
350:
343:
213:Scientific classification
211:
202:
195:
3717:Plants described in 1753
2904:10.3897/neobiota.30.7119
2328:10.2111/rem-d-12-00145.1
2228:10.2111/rem-d-10-00163.1
2064:"Secretarial Order 3336"
1254:Achnatherum thurberianum
1240:Studies have identified
939:colonization by morels (
809:California native plants
795:is most abundant in the
692:Status as an exotic weed
3036:Cheatgrass and Wildfire
2945:10.1111/1365-2664.12097
1640:Ecological Applications
1247:Pseudoroegneria spicata
1182:living on the soil. In
843:, fields, waste areas,
626:permanent wilting point
3707:Bunchgrasses of Europe
3697:Bunchgrasses of Africa
2548:10.1006/jema.2002.0540
1287:If an area burns, the
1158:
747:(where it is known as
701:
596:with approximately 30
576:The stems are smooth (
514:
2103:Global Change Biology
2062:Jewel, Sally (2015).
1954:. USDA Forest Service
1798:10.3732/ajb.94.7.1156
1457:10.1093/aobpla/plv006
1152:
803:, and is part of the
699:
508:
473:biological soil crust
405:, is a winter annual
3702:Bunchgrasses of Asia
2657:Biological Invasions
1500:Applied Soil Ecology
632:from other species.
429:. In the eastern US
93:create a new article
85:improve this article
75:may not represent a
3053:Plants for a Future
2936:2013JApEc..50.1039R
2843:2015Oecol.179..765P
2802:2016JArEn.124..193B
2717:2013JArEn..94...96D
2669:2015BiInv..17.1915M
2377:2016Ecosy..19..986B
2046:USDA Forest Service
1845:2014Ecosy..17..960T
1750:1964BotRv..30..226K
1554:2017PLoSO..1285839S
1512:2006AppSE..32...63B
1257:as key grasses for
968:Agropyron cristatum
942:Morchella sextelata
466:habitat destruction
462:greater sage-grouse
3727:Grasses of Lebanon
3015:The New York Times
2985:2012-06-01 at the
1758:10.1007/bf02858603
1387:10.4141/cjps86-091
1159:
1088:Prescribed burning
1083:Prescribed burning
805:introduced species
702:
541:which means roof.
515:
435:Intermountain West
377:Anisantha tectorum
3679:
3678:
3523:Open Tree of Life
3067:Taxon identifiers
3048:"Bromus tectorum"
2048:. April 12, 2011.
1948:"Bromus tectorum"
1407:"Bromus tectorum"
1226:. Bromus tectorum
955:Treatment options
421:, but has become
386:
385:
381:
189:
188:
181:
171:
170:
163:
121:
120:
113:
95:, as appropriate.
57:
3734:
3712:Flora of Lebanon
3672:
3671:
3659:
3658:
3649:
3648:
3639:
3638:
3629:
3628:
3616:
3615:
3606:
3605:
3596:
3595:
3583:
3582:
3570:
3569:
3557:
3556:
3544:
3543:
3531:
3530:
3518:
3517:
3505:
3504:
3495:
3494:
3482:
3481:
3469:
3468:
3466:NBNSYS0000143228
3456:
3455:
3443:
3442:
3433:
3432:
3420:
3419:
3407:
3406:
3394:
3393:
3381:
3380:
3371:
3370:
3358:
3357:
3345:
3344:
3332:
3331:
3319:
3318:
3306:
3305:
3296:
3295:
3283:
3282:
3270:
3269:
3257:
3256:
3247:
3246:
3234:
3233:
3221:
3220:
3208:
3207:
3195:
3194:
3185:
3184:
3175:
3174:
3162:
3161:
3152:
3151:
3139:
3138:
3129:
3128:
3119:
3118:
3109:
3108:
3107:
3094:
3093:
3092:
3062:
3057:
2958:
2957:
2947:
2930:(4): 1039–1049.
2915:
2909:
2908:
2906:
2882:
2871:
2870:
2822:
2816:
2815:
2813:
2781:
2775:
2774:
2746:
2737:
2736:
2700:
2689:
2688:
2663:(6): 1915–1926.
2651:
2642:
2641:
2612:
2606:
2605:
2577:
2568:
2567:
2531:
2522:
2521:
2511:
2485:
2476:
2461:
2460:
2448:
2439:
2438:
2410:
2397:
2396:
2356:
2350:
2349:
2339:
2311:
2300:
2299:
2289:
2261:
2250:
2249:
2239:
2211:
2205:
2204:
2178:
2169:
2163:
2162:
2161:
2160:
2143:
2137:
2136:
2135:
2134:
2125:, archived from
2109:(8): 1325–1332,
2086:
2075:
2074:
2068:
2059:
2050:
2049:
2038:
2032:
2031:
2029:
2028:
2014:
2008:
2007:
2005:
2004:
1998:
1991:
1983:
1977:
1970:
1964:
1963:
1961:
1959:
1944:
1938:
1937:
1935:
1933:
1918:
1912:
1911:
1871:
1865:
1864:
1824:
1811:
1810:
1800:
1791:(7): 1156–1169.
1776:
1770:
1769:
1738:Botanical Review
1733:
1700:
1699:
1670:
1664:
1663:
1635:
1626:
1625:
1597:
1586:
1585:
1575:
1565:
1548:(10): e0185839.
1533:
1524:
1523:
1494:
1479:
1478:
1468:
1436:
1421:
1420:
1418:
1417:
1403:
1392:
1391:
1389:
1365:
1348:
1347:
1345:
1344:
1338:
1332:. Archived from
1327:
1317:
1192:nutrient cycling
978:Bromus tectorum.
831:Invasive species
779:and portions of
496:prescribed burns
439:sagebrush steppe
379:
356:
336:B. tectorum
221:
220:
207:
193:
184:
177:
166:
159:
155:
152:
146:
131:
130:
123:
116:
109:
105:
102:
96:
68:
67:
60:
49:
27:
26:
19:
16:Species of grass
3744:
3743:
3737:
3736:
3735:
3733:
3732:
3731:
3682:
3681:
3680:
3675:
3667:
3662:
3654:
3652:
3644:
3642:
3634:
3632:
3624:
3619:
3611:
3609:
3601:
3599:
3591:
3586:
3578:
3573:
3565:
3560:
3552:
3547:
3539:
3534:
3526:
3521:
3513:
3508:
3500:
3498:
3492:Bromus~tectorum
3490:
3485:
3477:
3472:
3464:
3459:
3451:
3446:
3438:
3437:MichiganFlora:
3436:
3428:
3423:
3415:
3410:
3402:
3397:
3389:
3384:
3376:
3374:
3366:
3361:
3353:
3348:
3340:
3335:
3327:
3322:
3314:
3309:
3301:
3299:
3291:
3286:
3280:Bromus tectorum
3278:
3273:
3265:
3260:
3252:
3250:
3242:
3237:
3229:
3224:
3216:
3211:
3203:
3198:
3192:bromus-tectorum
3190:
3188:
3180:
3178:
3170:
3165:
3157:
3155:
3147:
3142:
3134:
3132:
3124:
3122:
3114:
3112:
3105:Bromus tectorum
3103:
3102:
3097:
3088:
3087:
3082:
3075:Bromus tectorum
3069:
3046:
2994:Bromus tectorum
2987:Wayback Machine
2978:Bromus tectorum
2967:
2962:
2961:
2917:
2916:
2912:
2884:
2883:
2874:
2824:
2823:
2819:
2783:
2782:
2778:
2748:
2747:
2740:
2702:
2701:
2692:
2653:
2652:
2645:
2614:
2613:
2609:
2579:
2578:
2571:
2533:
2532:
2525:
2483:
2478:
2477:
2464:
2450:
2449:
2442:
2412:
2411:
2400:
2371:(6): 986–1000.
2358:
2357:
2353:
2313:
2312:
2303:
2278:10.2307/4003920
2263:
2262:
2253:
2213:
2212:
2208:
2176:
2171:
2170:
2166:
2158:
2156:
2145:
2144:
2140:
2132:
2130:
2094:
2088:
2087:
2078:
2066:
2061:
2060:
2053:
2040:
2039:
2035:
2026:
2024:
2016:
2015:
2011:
2002:
2000:
1996:
1989:
1985:
1984:
1980:
1971:
1967:
1957:
1955:
1946:
1945:
1941:
1931:
1929:
1920:
1919:
1915:
1873:
1872:
1868:
1826:
1825:
1814:
1778:
1777:
1773:
1735:
1734:
1703:
1676:Weed Technology
1672:
1671:
1667:
1637:
1636:
1629:
1599:
1598:
1589:
1535:
1534:
1527:
1496:
1495:
1482:
1438:
1437:
1424:
1415:
1413:
1405:
1404:
1395:
1367:
1366:
1351:
1342:
1340:
1336:
1325:
1319:
1318:
1314:
1309:
1270:A. thurberianum
1200:Bromus tectorum
1164:
1155:Bromus tectorum
1122:Bromus tectorum
1118:
1092:Bromus tectorum
1085:
1050:, rimsulfuron,
1018:Bromus tectorum
1009:
962:
957:
948:M. snyderi
933:Bromus tectorum
899:Bromus tectorum
881:Bromus tectorum
833:
711:, west central
705:Bromus tectorum
694:
671:Bromus tectorum
659:
641:Bromus tectorum
638:
543:Bromus tectorum
520:
513:has established
511:Bromus tectorum
417:, and northern
413:, southwestern
390:Bromus tectorum
363:
358:
354:Bromus tectorum
352:
339:
215:
197:Bromus tectorum
185:
174:
173:
172:
167:
156:
150:
147:
144:
136:This article's
132:
128:
117:
106:
100:
97:
82:
69:
65:
28:
24:
17:
12:
11:
5:
3742:
3741:
3738:
3730:
3729:
3724:
3719:
3714:
3709:
3704:
3699:
3694:
3684:
3683:
3677:
3676:
3674:
3673:
3669:wfo-0000856649
3660:
3650:
3640:
3630:
3617:
3607:
3597:
3584:
3571:
3558:
3545:
3532:
3519:
3506:
3496:
3483:
3470:
3457:
3444:
3434:
3421:
3408:
3395:
3382:
3372:
3359:
3346:
3333:
3320:
3307:
3297:
3284:
3271:
3258:
3248:
3235:
3222:
3209:
3196:
3186:
3176:
3163:
3153:
3140:
3130:
3120:
3110:
3095:
3079:
3077:
3071:
3070:
3065:
3059:
3058:
3044:
3039:
3033:
3027:
3022:
3017:
3013:July 30, 2012
3006:
2989:
2973:
2966:
2965:External links
2963:
2960:
2959:
2910:
2872:
2837:(3): 765–775.
2817:
2776:
2738:
2690:
2643:
2624:(6): 759–773.
2607:
2588:(1): 133–144.
2582:Fungal Biology
2569:
2542:(2): 135–152.
2523:
2494:(4): 367–374.
2462:
2440:
2421:(4): 477–483.
2398:
2351:
2322:(4): 472–478.
2301:
2272:(2): 203–210.
2251:
2222:(6): 641–648.
2206:
2187:(1): 133–144.
2181:Fungal Biology
2164:
2138:
2092:
2076:
2051:
2033:
2009:
1978:
1965:
1939:
1928:on 11 May 2015
1913:
1866:
1839:(6): 960–973.
1812:
1771:
1744:(2): 226–262.
1701:
1665:
1627:
1608:(3): 195–198.
1587:
1525:
1480:
1422:
1393:
1380:(3): 689–709.
1349:
1322:BSBI List 2007
1311:
1310:
1308:
1305:
1219:soil organisms
1163:
1160:
1117:
1114:
1090:alone reduces
1084:
1081:
1008:
1005:
961:
958:
956:
953:
911:carbon dioxide
857:grey partridge
832:
829:
807:that replaced
801:Columbia Basin
789:South Carolina
775:), except for
763:, and by 1928
693:
690:
658:
655:
637:
634:
519:
516:
399:drooping brome
384:
383:
372:
371:
365:
364:
359:
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347:
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209:
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187:
186:
169:
168:
135:
133:
126:
119:
118:
79:of the subject
77:worldwide view
72:
70:
63:
58:
32:
31:
29:
22:
15:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3740:
3739:
3728:
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3723:
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3703:
3700:
3698:
3695:
3693:
3690:
3689:
3687:
3670:
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3657:
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3622:
3618:
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3604:
3598:
3594:
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3585:
3581:
3576:
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3529:
3524:
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3516:
3511:
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3503:
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3475:
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3449:
3445:
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3431:
3426:
3422:
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3409:
3405:
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3396:
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3383:
3379:
3373:
3369:
3364:
3360:
3356:
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3325:
3321:
3317:
3312:
3308:
3304:
3298:
3294:
3289:
3285:
3281:
3276:
3272:
3268:
3263:
3259:
3255:
3249:
3245:
3240:
3236:
3232:
3227:
3223:
3219:
3214:
3210:
3206:
3201:
3197:
3193:
3187:
3183:
3177:
3173:
3168:
3164:
3160:
3154:
3150:
3145:
3141:
3137:
3131:
3127:
3121:
3117:
3111:
3106:
3100:
3096:
3091:
3085:
3081:
3080:
3078:
3076:
3072:
3068:
3063:
3055:
3054:
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3034:
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3023:
3021:
3018:
3016:
3012:
3011:
3007:
3005:
3001:
2997:
2995:
2990:
2988:
2984:
2981:
2980:(Downy Brome)
2979:
2974:
2972:
2969:
2968:
2964:
2955:
2951:
2946:
2941:
2937:
2933:
2929:
2925:
2921:
2914:
2911:
2905:
2900:
2896:
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2836:
2832:
2828:
2821:
2818:
2812:
2807:
2803:
2799:
2795:
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2787:
2780:
2777:
2772:
2768:
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2760:
2756:
2752:
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2739:
2734:
2730:
2726:
2722:
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2714:
2710:
2706:
2699:
2697:
2695:
2691:
2686:
2682:
2678:
2674:
2670:
2666:
2662:
2658:
2650:
2648:
2644:
2639:
2635:
2631:
2627:
2623:
2619:
2611:
2608:
2603:
2599:
2595:
2591:
2587:
2583:
2576:
2574:
2570:
2565:
2561:
2557:
2553:
2549:
2545:
2541:
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2217:
2210:
2207:
2202:
2198:
2194:
2190:
2186:
2182:
2175:
2168:
2165:
2155:on 2009-04-12
2154:
2150:
2149:
2142:
2139:
2129:on 2020-07-27
2128:
2124:
2120:
2116:
2112:
2108:
2104:
2100:
2098:
2085:
2083:
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2077:
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2065:
2058:
2056:
2052:
2047:
2043:
2037:
2034:
2023:
2019:
2013:
2010:
1999:on 2008-05-10
1995:
1988:
1982:
1979:
1976:, Pad Outdoor
1975:
1969:
1966:
1953:
1949:
1943:
1940:
1927:
1923:
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1697:
1693:
1689:
1685:
1682:: 1411–1416.
1681:
1677:
1669:
1666:
1661:
1657:
1653:
1649:
1645:
1641:
1634:
1632:
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1458:
1454:
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1435:
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1427:
1423:
1412:
1411:www.fs.fed.us
1408:
1402:
1400:
1398:
1394:
1388:
1383:
1379:
1375:
1371:
1364:
1362:
1360:
1358:
1356:
1354:
1350:
1339:on 2015-06-26
1335:
1331:
1324:
1323:
1316:
1313:
1306:
1304:
1302:
1298:
1294:
1290:
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1232:
1227:
1224:
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1216:
1211:
1209:
1205:
1201:
1197:
1196:carbon fixing
1193:
1189:
1185:
1181:
1177:
1173:
1169:
1168:cyanobacteria
1161:
1156:
1151:
1147:
1145:
1140:
1136:
1131:
1127:
1123:
1115:
1113:
1111:
1108:dominated by
1106:
1102:
1097:
1093:
1089:
1082:
1080:
1078:
1074:
1069:
1064:
1059:
1057:
1053:
1049:
1045:
1040:
1038:
1034:
1029:
1027:
1023:
1019:
1014:
1006:
1004:
1002:
998:
994:
990:
985:
980:
979:
975:
971:
969:
959:
954:
952:
950:
949:
944:
943:
938:
934:
930:
928:
924:
920:
916:
912:
908:
904:
900:
896:
894:
891:
886:
882:
878:
875:. Because of
874:
870:
866:
862:
858:
854:
850:
846:
842:
838:
830:
828:
826:
822:
818:
814:
810:
806:
802:
798:
794:
790:
786:
782:
778:
774:
770:
766:
762:
758:
755:) in 1861 in
754:
750:
746:
745:United States
742:
738:
734:
730:
726:
722:
718:
717:North America
714:
710:
706:
698:
691:
689:
686:
682:
680:
676:
672:
668:
664:
656:
654:
651:
647:
642:
635:
633:
631:
627:
623:
622:precipitation
619:
615:
611:
607:
606:cleistogamous
603:
599:
595:
591:
587:
583:
579:
574:
572:
571:single-culmed
568:
564:
560:
556:
552:
548:
547:winter annual
544:
540:
536:
532:
528:
524:
517:
512:
507:
503:
501:
497:
493:
490:
486:
482:
478:
474:
469:
467:
463:
459:
456:prompted the
455:
450:
448:
444:
440:
436:
432:
428:
424:
420:
416:
412:
408:
404:
400:
396:
392:
391:
382:
378:
373:
370:
366:
362:
357:
355:
349:
346:
345:Binomial name
342:
338:
337:
332:
329:
328:
325:
324:
320:
317:
316:
313:
310:
307:
306:
303:
300:
297:
296:
293:
290:
287:
286:
283:
280:
277:
274:
273:
270:
267:
264:
261:
260:
257:
254:
251:
248:
247:
244:
243:Tracheophytes
241:
238:
235:
234:
231:
228:
225:
224:
219:
214:
210:
206:
201:
198:
194:
191:
183:
180:
165:
162:
154:
142:
140:
134:
125:
124:
115:
112:
104:
101:November 2017
94:
90:
86:
80:
78:
71:
62:
61:
56:
54:
47:
46:
41:
40:
35:
30:
21:
20:
3074:
3051:
3009:
3003:
2993:
2977:
2927:
2923:
2913:
2894:
2890:
2834:
2830:
2820:
2793:
2789:
2779:
2754:
2751:Weed Science
2750:
2708:
2704:
2660:
2656:
2621:
2617:
2610:
2585:
2581:
2539:
2535:
2491:
2487:
2456:
2452:
2418:
2414:
2368:
2364:
2354:
2337:10150/642734
2319:
2315:
2287:10150/643523
2269:
2265:
2237:10150/642911
2219:
2215:
2209:
2184:
2180:
2167:
2157:, retrieved
2153:the original
2147:
2141:
2131:, retrieved
2127:the original
2106:
2102:
2096:
2070:
2045:
2036:
2025:. Retrieved
2022:www.cabi.org
2021:
2012:
2001:. Retrieved
1994:the original
1981:
1974:"Cheatgrass"
1968:
1958:30 September
1956:. Retrieved
1951:
1942:
1932:30 September
1930:. Retrieved
1926:the original
1916:
1886:(1): 63–87.
1883:
1879:
1869:
1836:
1832:
1788:
1784:
1774:
1741:
1737:
1679:
1675:
1668:
1643:
1639:
1605:
1601:
1545:
1541:
1506:(1): 63–76.
1503:
1499:
1448:
1444:
1414:. Retrieved
1410:
1377:
1373:
1341:. Retrieved
1334:the original
1321:
1315:
1300:
1296:
1288:
1285:B. tectorum.
1284:
1280:
1278:
1273:
1269:
1265:
1263:B. tectorum.
1262:
1258:
1252:
1241:
1239:
1234:
1230:
1225:
1223:soil quality
1212:
1207:
1203:
1199:
1188:biodiversity
1184:arid regions
1165:
1154:
1143:
1138:
1134:
1129:
1125:
1121:
1119:
1109:
1100:
1095:
1091:
1086:
1076:
1072:
1067:
1062:
1060:
1043:
1041:
1032:
1030:
1025:
1021:
1017:
1012:
1010:
997:A. cristatum
996:
993:A. cristatum
992:
989:A. cristatum
988:
984:A. cristatum
983:
981:
977:
974:A. cristatum
973:
966:
963:
946:
940:
932:
931:
922:
918:
914:
898:
897:
889:
884:
880:
864:
863:browsing of
848:
834:
824:
823:. In Canada
792:
764:
761:Pennsylvania
752:
748:
725:South Africa
704:
703:
684:
683:
678:
674:
670:
660:
649:
640:
639:
613:
610:out-crossing
589:
575:
558:
542:
538:
534:
530:
522:
521:
510:
499:
489:B. tectorum,
488:
484:
480:
476:
470:
453:
451:
446:
443:noxious weed
430:
427:Central Asia
402:
398:
394:
389:
388:
387:
376:
375:
353:
351:
335:
334:
322:
275:
262:
249:
236:
196:
190:
175:
157:
148:
139:lead section
137:
107:
98:
74:
50:
43:
37:
36:Please help
33:
3636:downy-brome
3448:NatureServe
3363:iNaturalist
3099:Wikispecies
2897:: 111–125.
2796:: 193–204.
2509:10217/88563
2097:B. tectorum
1646:: 137–153.
1301:B. tectorum
1297:B. tectorum
1289:B. tectorum
1281:B. tectorum
1266:P. spicata,
1259:B. tectorum
1243:Poa secunda
1235:B. tectorum
1231:B. tectorum
1208:B. tectorum
1204:B. tectorum
1144:B. tectorum
1139:B. tectorum
1135:B. tectorum
1130:B. tectorum
1126:B. tectorum
1110:B. tectorum
1101:B. tectorum
1096:B. tectorum
1077:B. tectorum
1073:B. tectorum
1068:B. tectorum
1063:B. tectorum
1052:tebuthiuron
1044:B. tectorum
1033:B. tectorum
1028:is mature.
1026:B. tectorum
1022:B. tectorum
1013:B. tectorum
923:B. tectorum
919:B. tectorum
915:B. tectorum
890:B. tectorum
885:B. tectorum
869:Carson City
865:B. tectorum
849:B. tectorum
825:B. tectorum
797:Great Basin
793:B. tectorum
765:B. tectorum
749:downy brome
733:New Zealand
685:B. tectorum
679:B. tectorum
675:B. tectorum
650:B. tectorum
630:competition
614:B. tectorum
590:B. tectorum
573:(stalked).
559:B. tectorum
551:germinating
533:comes from
518:Description
500:B. tectorum
485:B. tectorum
481:B. tectorum
477:B. tectorum
454:B. tectorum
447:B. tectorum
431:B. tectorum
395:downy brome
393:, known as
380:(L.) Nevski
308:Subfamily:
282:Commelinids
256:Angiosperms
3686:Categories
3643:WisFlora:
3541:kew-402067
3536:Plant List
3179:Calflora:
2711:: 96–104.
2459:: 308–316.
2365:Ecosystems
2159:2008-12-12
2133:2018-12-29
2027:2017-11-29
2003:2012-09-30
1833:Ecosystems
1451:: plv006.
1445:AoB Plants
1416:2017-11-29
1343:2014-10-17
1307:References
1291:cover and
1274:P. secunda
1237:invasion.
1056:glyphosate
1007:Herbicides
937:endophytic
819:and other
817:grasslands
753:cheatgrass
492:herbicides
409:native to
403:cheatgrass
39:improve it
3337:GrassBase
3293:200025003
3267:200025003
3189:Cal-IPC:
2831:Oecologia
2757:: 7–127.
1215:perennial
1153:Invasive
1105:morchella
1001:sagebrush
982:However,
877:rangeland
741:Greenland
729:Australia
598:spikelets
582:pubescent
555:flowering
330:Species:
226:Kingdom:
89:talk page
45:talk page
3621:VicFlora
3610:VASCAN:
3593:25509410
3588:Tropicos
3487:NSWFlora
3453:2.135508
3404:11266475
3391:394163-1
3342:imp01718
3156:BioLib:
3084:Wikidata
2983:Archived
2954:73573936
2891:NeoBiota
2867:15887595
2859:26227366
2771:88235742
2733:83802623
2685:15819903
2638:90945715
2602:22208608
2564:15695486
2556:12197076
2518:53650291
2435:90622245
2393:15485664
2346:59127764
2246:55840671
2201:22208608
2123:84746686
1908:86250355
1807:21636483
1766:43876700
1696:86198927
1660:54752821
1622:87912010
1582:28977018
1542:PLOS ONE
1475:25603967
1048:imazapic
1037:dormancy
927:wildfire
841:prairies
837:pastures
821:habitats
757:New York
646:nitrogen
578:glabrous
531:tectorum
423:invasive
369:Synonyms
312:Pooideae
298:Family:
269:Monocots
151:May 2019
83:You may
3603:5391963
3580:1275-22
3316:2703746
3218:1114249
3090:Q164128
2932:Bibcode
2839:Bibcode
2798:Bibcode
2713:Bibcode
2665:Bibcode
2373:Bibcode
2296:4003920
1900:2097282
1861:2077322
1841:Bibcode
1746:Bibcode
1573:5627943
1550:Bibcode
1508:Bibcode
1466:4340153
1293:biomass
1213:Native
1176:lichens
960:Seeding
907:biomass
893:ecology
811:in the
785:Georgia
781:Alabama
777:Florida
737:Iceland
667:rodents
636:Habitat
594:panicle
567:rosette
318:Genus:
302:Poaceae
288:Order:
230:Plantae
3692:Bromus
3600:uBio:
3549:PLANTS
3528:188833
3499:NZOR:
3303:BROTEC
3300:FoIO:
3254:brotec
3251:FEIS:
3244:191688
3172:120932
3133:APDB:
3113:AoFP:
2952:
2865:
2857:
2769:
2731:
2683:
2636:
2600:
2562:
2554:
2516:
2433:
2391:
2344:
2294:
2244:
2199:
2121:
1906:
1898:
1859:
1805:
1764:
1694:
1658:
1620:
1580:
1570:
1473:
1463:
1180:mosses
1178:, and
987:
873:Nevada
853:chukar
845:eroded
787:, and
773:Alaska
769:Hawaii
739:, and
709:Russia
563:shoots
539:tectum
535:tector
529:, and
523:Bromus
494:, and
419:Africa
411:Europe
323:Bromus
292:Poales
3653:WoI:
3633:WiO:
3575:SANBI
3510:NZPCN
3479:29667
3430:40524
3417:10036
3399:IRMNG
3375:IPA:
3368:58369
3275:FoAO2
3239:EUNIS
3231:BROTE
3205:6937F
3159:42515
3149:68165
3136:52170
3123:APA:
2950:S2CID
2863:S2CID
2767:S2CID
2729:S2CID
2681:S2CID
2634:S2CID
2560:S2CID
2514:S2CID
2484:(PDF)
2431:S2CID
2389:S2CID
2342:S2CID
2292:JSTOR
2242:S2CID
2177:(PDF)
2119:S2CID
2067:(PDF)
1997:(PDF)
1990:(PDF)
1904:S2CID
1896:JSTOR
1857:S2CID
1762:S2CID
1692:S2CID
1656:S2CID
1618:S2CID
1337:(xls)
1326:(xls)
1172:algae
861:sheep
721:Japan
663:seeds
657:Seeds
600:with
545:is a
407:grass
276:Clade
263:Clade
250:Clade
237:Clade
91:, or
3656:1212
3646:2801
3613:7483
3562:POWO
3554:BRTE
3515:3542
3474:NCBI
3440:2043
3425:ITIS
3386:IPNI
3378:5214
3355:7880
3350:GRIN
3324:GISD
3311:GBIF
3226:EPPO
3182:1218
3167:BOLD
3144:APNI
3126:4715
3116:1944
2855:PMID
2598:PMID
2552:PMID
2197:PMID
1960:2012
1934:2012
1803:PMID
1578:PMID
1471:PMID
1268:and
1251:and
1194:and
855:and
771:and
759:and
713:Asia
661:The
618:soil
602:awns
586:node
415:Asia
3664:WFO
3461:NBN
3412:ISC
3329:266
3288:FoC
3262:FNA
3213:EoL
3200:CoL
2940:doi
2899:doi
2847:doi
2835:179
2806:doi
2794:124
2759:doi
2721:doi
2673:doi
2626:doi
2590:doi
2586:116
2544:doi
2504:hdl
2496:doi
2423:doi
2381:doi
2332:hdl
2324:doi
2282:hdl
2274:doi
2232:hdl
2224:doi
2189:doi
2185:116
2111:doi
1888:doi
1849:doi
1793:doi
1754:doi
1684:doi
1648:doi
1610:doi
1568:PMC
1558:doi
1516:doi
1461:PMC
1453:doi
1382:doi
815:'s
751:or
527:oat
401:or
3688::
3666::
3623::
3590::
3577::
3564::
3551::
3538::
3525::
3512::
3489::
3476::
3463::
3450::
3427::
3414::
3401::
3388::
3365::
3352::
3339::
3326::
3313::
3290::
3277::
3264::
3241::
3228::
3215::
3202::
3169::
3146::
3101::
3086::
3050:.
3002:—
2948:.
2938:.
2928:50
2926:.
2922:.
2895:30
2893:.
2889:.
2875:^
2861:.
2853:.
2845:.
2833:.
2829:.
2804:.
2792:.
2788:.
2765:.
2755:32
2753:.
2741:^
2727:.
2719:.
2709:94
2707:.
2693:^
2679:.
2671:.
2661:17
2659:.
2646:^
2632:.
2622:70
2620:.
2596:.
2584:.
2572:^
2558:.
2550:.
2540:65
2538:.
2526:^
2512:.
2502:.
2492:68
2490:.
2486:.
2465:^
2455:.
2443:^
2429:.
2419:70
2417:.
2401:^
2387:.
2379:.
2369:19
2367:.
2363:.
2340:.
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