False memory - Knowledge (XXG)

657:, so she would not have children and repeat the cycle of abuse. With the support of her husband and primary care physician, Berry eventually realized that her memories were false and filed a suit for malpractice. The suit brought to light the mother's manipulation of mental health professionals to convince Berry that she had been sexually abused by her father. In February 1997, Berry sued her therapists and clinic that treated her from 1992 to 1995 and, she says, made her falsely believe she had been sexually and physically abused as a child when no such abuse ever occurred. The lawsuit, filed in February 1997 in Minnehaha Co. Circuit Court South Dakota, states that therapist Lynda O'Connor-Davis had an improper relationship with Berry, both during and after her treatment. The suit also names psychologist Vail Williams, psychiatrist Dr. William Fuller and Charter Hospital and Charter Counseling Center as defendants. Berry and her husband settled out of court. 499:, and the recoverability of lost memory may influence willingness to accept vague impressions or fragmentary images as recovered memories and thus, might affect the likelihood of accepting false memory. For example, if someone believes that memory once encoded is permanent, and that visualization is an effective way to recover memories, the individual may endorse more liberal criteria for accepting a mental image as true memory. Also, individuals who report themselves as having better everyday memories may feel more compelled to come up with a memory when asked to do so. This may lead to more liberal criteria, making these individuals more susceptible to false memory. 3397:. "The details are often filled in later, or dismissed, and guessing may become part of the memory."...Recalling an event draws on some of same areas of the brain that recorded it; in essence, to remember is to relive. Every time the mind summons the encoded experience, it can add details, subtract others and even alter the tone and point of the story. That reassembly, in turn, is freshly stored again, so that the next time it comes to mind it contains those edits. Using memory changes memory, as cognitive scientists say. For a victim, often the only stable elements are emotions and the tunnel-vision details: the dress she wore, the hand over her mouth 213:

found on the list. For example, if the word that they were trying to trigger was "river", the list would contain words such as flow, current, water, stream, bend, etc. They would then take the lists away and ask the subjects to recall the words on the lists. Almost every time, the false memory was triggered, and the subjects would end up recalling the target word as part of the list when it was never there. McDermott and Roediger even went as far as informing the subjects of the purpose and details of the experiment, and still the subjects would recall the non-listed target word as part of the word list they had studied.

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going on around us and we only pick up on a small portion. This forces the observer to begin by selecting a focal point for focus. Second, our visual perception must be translated into statements and descriptions. The statements represent a collection of concepts and objects; they are the link between the event occurrence and the recall. Third, the perceptions are subject to any "external" information being provided before or after the interpretation. This subsequent set of information can reconstruct the memory.

462:. Loftus noticed that when a presupposition was one of false information it could only be explained by the construction hypothesis and not the strength hypothesis. Loftus then stated that a theory needed to be created for complex visual experiences where the construction hypothesis plays a significantly more important role than situational strength. She presented a diagram as a "skeleton" of this theory, which later became referred to by some as the skeleton theory. 681:

question. The stress being put on the child can make recovering an accurate memory more difficult. Some people hypothesize that as the child continuously attempts to remember a memory, they are building a larger file of sources that the memory could be derived from, potentially including sources other than genuine memories. Children that have never been abused but undergo similar response-eliciting techniques can disclose events that never occurred.

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robbery. The results surprisingly showed that those who watched the video of the robbery actually recalled more information more accurately than those who were live on the scene. Still, false memory presented itself in ways such as subjects seeing things that would fit in a crime scene that were not there, or not recalling things that did not fit the crime scene. This happened with both parties, displaying the idea of staged naturalistic events.

263: 136:. The final group was not asked about the speed of the crashed cars. The researchers then asked the participants if they had seen any broken glass, knowing that there was no broken glass in the video. The responses to this question had shown that the difference between whether broken glass was recalled or not heavily depended on the verb used. A larger sum of participants in the "smashed" group declared that there was broken glass. 516:

difficult for avoidant adults to access negative emotional experiences from childhood, whereas ambivalent adults access these kinds of experiences easily. Consistent with attachment theory, adults with avoidant attachment styles, like their child counterparts, may attempt to suppress physiological and emotional reactions to activation of the attachment system. Significant associations between parental attachment and children's

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ends do not justify the means (32%), potential for abuse (14%), lack of consent (10%), practical doubts (8%), better alternative (7%), and free will (3%). Of those who thought implanting false memories would be acceptable, 36% believed the end justified the means, with other reasons being increasing treatment options (6%), people need support (6%), no harm would be done (6%), and it's no worse than alternatives (5%).

120:. Participants estimated collisions of all speeds to average between 35 mph (56 km/h) to just below 40 mph (64 km/h). If actual speed was the main factor in estimate, it could be assumed that participants would have lower estimates for lower speed collisions. Instead, the word being used to describe the collision seemed to better predict the estimate in speed rather than the speed itself. 200:"smacked", or "groped" would all paint a different picture of a person in the memory of an observer of sexual harassment if questioned about it later. The stronger the word, the more intense the recreation of the experience in the memory is. This in turn could trigger further false memories to better fit the memory created (change how a person looks or how fast a vehicle was moving before a collision). 3938: 649:

happened. During the trial, memory researcher Elizabeth Loftus testified that memory is fallible and there were many emotions that played a part in the woman's description given to police. Loftus has published many studies consistent with her testimony. These studies suggest that memories can easily be changed around and sometimes eyewitness testimonies are not as reliable as many believe.

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false memory indicate that individuals have superior organizational processes, heightened creativity, and prime solutions for insight based problems. All of these things indicate that false memories are adaptive and functional. False memories tied to familiar concepts can also potentially aid in future problem solving in a related topic, especially when related to survival.

688:. Source misattribution is the flaw in deciphering between potential origins of a memory. The source could come from an actual occurring perception, or it can come from an induced and imagined event. Younger children, preschoolers in particular, find it more difficult to discriminate between the two. Lindsay & Johnson (1987) concluded that even children approaching 700:

detail, "only 13% of the children answered 'yes' to the question 'Did you ever have this procedure?'". As to the success of implantation with false 'memories', the children "assented to the question for a variety of reasons, a false memory being only one of them. In sum, it is possible that no false memories have been created in children in

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developed in the 1980s, with civil suits alleging child sexual abuse on the basis of "memories" recovered during psychotherapy. The term "repressed memory therapy" gained momentum and with it social stigma surrounded those accused of abuse. The "therapy" led to other psychological disorders in persons whose memories were recovered.

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the emotional trauma being surfaced. There may be tears, writhing, or many other forms of physical disturbance. The occurrence of physical deterioration in memory recall coming from a patient with relatively minor issues prior to therapy could be an indication of the recalled memory's potential falsehood.

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Memory, by its nature and necessity, is selective, its details subject to revision and dissipation. ... "Recollection is always a reconstruction, to some extent — it's not a videotape that preserves every detail," said Richard J. McNally, a professor of psychology at Harvard University and the author

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If a child experienced abuse, it is not typical for them to disclose the details of the event when confronted in an open-ended manner. Trying to indirectly prompt a memory recall can lead to the conflict of source attribution, as a repeatedly questioned child might try to recall a memory to satisfy a

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Individuals who feel under greater social pressure may be more likely to acquiesce. Perceived pressure from an authority figure may lower individuals' criteria for accepting a false event as true. The new individual difference factors include preexisting beliefs about memory, self-evaluation of one's

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Greater creative imagination and dissociation are known to relate to false memory formation. Creative imagination may lead to vivid details of imagined events. High dissociation may be associated with habitual use of lax response criteria for source decisions due to frequent interruption of attention

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The fuzzy-trace theory, proposed by Valerie Reyna and Charles Brainerd, suggests that information can be stored in two different ways: verbatim and gist. Verbatim representations are literal, precise, and exact copies of the information. On the other hand, gist representations are fuzzy, general, and

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In another study, subjects were presented with a situation where they witnessed a staged robbery. Half of the subjects witnessed the robbery live, while the other half watched a video of the robbery as it took place. After the event, they were sat down and asked to recall what had happened during the

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In 1998, Kathleen McDermott and Henry Roediger III conducted a similar experiment. Their goal was to intentionally trigger false memories through word lists. They presented subjects with lists to study, all containing a large number of words that were semantically related to another word that was not

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One can trigger false memories by presenting subjects a continuous list of words. When subjects were presented with a second version of the list and asked if the words had appeared on the previous list, they found that the subjects did not recognize the list correctly. When the words on the two lists

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Therapy-induced memory recovery has made frequent appearances in legal cases, particularly those regarding sexual abuse. Therapists can often aid in creating a false memory in a victim's mind, intentionally or unintentionally. They may associate a patient's behavior with the fact that they have been

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According to Loftus, there are different possibilities to create false therapy-induced memory. One is the unintentional suggestions of therapists. For example, a therapist might tell their client that, on the basis of their symptoms, it is quite likely that they had been abused as a child. Once this

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of sexual abuse. Psychotherapists tried to reveal "repressed memories" in mental therapy patients through "hypnosis, guided imagery, dream interpretation and narco-analysis". The reasoning was that if abuse could not be remembered, then it needed to be recovered by the therapist. The legal phenomena

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is defined as false memory being a prevalent part of one's life in which it affects the person's mentality and day-to-day life. False memory syndrome differs from false memory in that the syndrome is heavily influential in the orientation of a person's life, while false memory can occur without this

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Construction hypothesis has major implications for explanations on the malleability of memory. Upon asking a respondent a question that provides a presupposition, the respondent will provide a recall in accordance with the presupposition (if accepted to exist in the first place). The respondent will

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Scientists suggest that these are examples of false memories shaped by similar cognitive factors affecting multiple people and families, such as social and cognitive reinforcement of incorrect memories or false news reports and misleading photographs that influence the formation of memories based on

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Memory retrieval has been associated with the brain's relational processing. In associating two events (in reference to false memory, say tying a testimony to a prior event), there are verbatim and gist representations. Verbatim matches to the individual occurrences (e.g., I do not like dogs because

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and gist memory. Valerie F. Reyna, who coined the terms as an explanation for the DRM paradigm, explains that her findings indicate that reliance on prior knowledge from gist memory can help individuals make safer, well informed choices in terms of risk taking. Other positive traits associated with

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A 2016 study surveyed the public's attitude regarding the ethics of planting false memories as an attempt to influence healthy behavior. People were most concerned with the consequences, with 37% saying it was overly manipulative, potentially harmful or traumatic. Their reasons against are that the

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Harold Merskey published a paper on the ethical issues of recovered-memory therapy. He suggests that if a patient had pre-existing severe issues in their life, it is likely that "deterioration" will occur to a relatively severe extent upon memory recall. This deterioration is a physical parallel to

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A 1989 study focusing on hypnotizability and false memory separated accurate and inaccurate memories recalled. In open-ended question formation, 11.5% of subjects recalled the false event suggested by observers. In a multiple-choice format, no participants claimed the false event had happened. This

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in August 1980. In the study, 92% of respondents falsely remembered the clock had remained stopped since the bombing, when, in fact, the clock was repaired shortly after the attack. Years later, the clock was again stopped and set to the time of the explosion, in observance and commemoration of the

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Another notable case is Maxine Berry. Berry grew up in the custody of her mother, who opposed the father having contact with her. When the father expressed his desire to attend his daughter's high school graduation, the mother enrolled Berry in therapy, ostensibly to deal with the stress of seeing

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In another legal case where false memories were used, they helped a man to be acquitted of his charges. Joseph Pacely had been accused of breaking into a woman's home with the intent to sexually assault her. The woman had given her description of the assailant to police shortly after the crime had

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Laurence and Perry conducted a study testing the ability to induce memory recall through hypnosis. Subjects were put into a hypnotic state and later woken up. Observers suggested that the subjects were woken up by a loud noise. Nearly half of the subjects being tested concluded that this was true,

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is another recovery strategy. This is essentially a repeated suggestion pattern. The person whose memory is to be "recovered" is persistently said to have gone through an experience even if it may have not happened. This strategy can cause the person to recall the event as having occurred, despite

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Sleep deprivation can also affect the possibility of falsely encoding a memory. In two experiments, participants studied DRM lists (lists of words that are semantically associated with a non-presented word) before a night of either sleep or sleep deprivation; testing took place the following day.

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The acquisition processes are in three separate steps. First, upon the original encounter, the observer selects a stimulus to focus on. The information that the observer can focus on compared to all of the information occurring in the situation as a whole, is very limited. In other words, a lot is

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The fuzzy-trace theory relates to false memory because studies have found that when information is stored as a gist representation, it is more prone to manipulation. This is because information is stored in parallel pathways, not together. The term verbatim traces applies to the storing of surface

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is an implication through chosen language. If a person is asked, "What shade of blue was the wallet?", the questioner is, in translation, saying, "The wallet was blue. What shade was it?" The question's phrasing provides the respondent with a supposed "fact". This presupposition creates one of two

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Sleep deprivation can increase the risk of developing false memories. Specifically, sleep deprivation increased false memories in a misinformation task when participants in a study were sleep deprived during event encoding, but did not have a significant effect when the deprivation occurred after

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Possible associations between attachment styles and reports of false childhood memories were also of interest. Adult attachment styles have been related to memories of early childhood events, suggesting that the encoding or retrieval of such memories may activate the attachment system. It is more

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There is some research that shows individual differences in false memory susceptibility are not always large (even on variables that have previously shown differences—such as creative imagination or dissociation), that there appears to be no false memory trait, and that even those who have highly

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The strength of verbs used in conversation or questioning also has a similar effect on the memory; for example – the words "met", "bumped", "collided", "crashed", or "smashed" would all cause people to remember a car accident at different levels of intensity. The words "bumped", "hit", "grabbed",

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taking hold on the recall process and products of the human memory. Even the smallest adjustment in a question, such as the article preceding the supposed memory, could alter the responses. For example, having asked someone if they had seen "the" stop sign, rather than "a" stop sign, provided the

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The second experiment also showed participants videos of a car accident, but the phrasing of the follow-up questionnaire was critical in participant responses. 150 participants were randomly assigned to three conditions. Those in the first condition were asked the same question as the first study

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in children. The study comprised a series of interviews concerning a medical procedure that the children may have undergone. The data was scored so that if a child made one false affirmation during the interview, the child was classified as inaccurate. When the medical procedure was described in

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In the first study, 45 participants were randomly assigned to watch different videos of a car accident, in which separate videos had shown collisions at 20 mph (32 km/h), 30 mph (48 km/h) and 40 mph (64 km/h). Afterwards, participants filled out a survey. The survey

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Although there have been many legal cases in which false memory appears to have been a factor, this does not ease the process of distinguishing between false memory and real recall. Sound therapeutic strategy can help this differentiation, by either avoiding known controversial strategies or to

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The retrieval processes come in two steps. First, the memory and imagery are regenerated. This perception is subject to what foci the observer has selected, along with the information provided before or after the observation. Second, the linking is initiated by a statement response, "painting a

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In this study, the first point brought up in discussion is that the words used to phrase a question can heavily influence the response given. Second, the study indicates that the phrasing of a question can give expectations to previously ignored details, and therefore, a misconstruction of our

593:. These strategies may provoke the recovery of nonexistent events or inaccurate memories. A recent report indicates that similar strategies may have produced false memories in several therapies in the century before the modern controversy on the topic which took place in the 1980s and 1990s. 520:

exist. These data, however, do not directly address the issue of whether adults' or their parents' attachment styles are related to false childhood memories. Such data nevertheless suggest that greater attachment avoidance may be associated with a stronger tendency to form false memories of

290:, decades after his release and after serving as President of South Africa from 1994 to 1999. Broome reported that hundreds of other people had written about having the same memory of Mandela's death, some while he was still alive, and she speculated that the phenomenon could be evidence of 173:, the implication was accurate: the wallet really was blue. That makes the respondent's recall stronger, more readily available, and easier to extrapolate from. A respondent is more likely to remember a wallet as blue if the prompt said that it was blue than if the prompt did not say so. 243:, which suggests false memories are stored in gist representations (which retrieves both true and false recall), Storbeck & Clore (2005) wanted to see how change in mood affected the retrieval of false memories. After using the measure of a word association tool called the 221:

Subjects were invited into an office and were told to wait there. After this, they had to recall the inventory of the visited office. Subjects recognized objects consistent with the "office schema", although they did not appear in the office. (Brewer & Treyens, 1981)

2358: 1732: 247:(DRM), the subjects' moods were manipulated. Moods were either oriented towards being more positive, more negative, or were left untouched. Findings suggested that a more negative mood made critical details, stored in gist representation, more accessible. 637:, two therapists wrongly prompted a recall that their patient, Holly Ramona, had been sexually abused by her father. It was suggested that the therapist, Isabella, had implanted one of the sexual abuse memories in Ramona after use of the hypnotic drug 2272: 80:

Freud was fascinated with memory and all the ways it could be understood, used, and manipulated. Some claim that his studies have been quite influential in contemporary memory research, including the research into the field of false memory.

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A history of trauma is relevant to the issue of false memory. It has been proposed that people with a trauma history or trauma symptoms may be particularly vulnerable to memory deficits, including source-monitoring failures.

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DePrince, Anne P.; Brown, Laura S.; Cheit, Ross E.; Freyd, Jennifer J.; Gold, Steven N.; Pezdek, Kathy; Quina, Kathryn (18 October 2011), "Motivated Forgetting and Misremembering: Perspectives from Betrayal Trauma Theory",

2330: 435:(situations where one course of action is encouraged more than any other course of action due to the objective payoff), people are expected to demonstrate rational behavior, basing their behavior on the objective payoff. 1724: 562:. False memory can be declared a syndrome when recall of a false or inaccurate memory takes great effect on a person's life. Such a false memory can completely alter the orientation of one's personality and lifestyle. 1178: 764:, a memory implantation technique used to demonstrate that false memories can be implanted through suggestions made to experimental subjects in which the subject is told that an older relative was present at the time. 3412:

Bremner, J.D.; Krystal, J.H.; Charney, D.S.; Southwick, S.M. (1996). "Neural Mechanisms in dissociative amnesia for childhood abuse: Relevance to the current controversy surrounding the "false memory syndrome"".

1763: 597:"diagnosis" is made, the therapist sometimes urges the patient to pursue the recalcitrant memories. It is a problem resulting from the fact that people create their own social reality with external information. 613:

despite it being false. However, by therapeutically altering the subject's state, they may have been led to believe that what they were being told was true. Because of this, the respondent has a false recall.

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a victim of sexual abuse, thus helping the memory occur. They may then use memory enhancement techniques such as hypnosis dream analysis in the attempt to extract memories of sexual abuse from victims. In

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asked the question, "About how fast were the cars going when they smashed into each other?" The question always asked the same thing, except the verb used to describe the collision varied. Rather than

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were semantically related to each other (e.g. sleep/bed), it was more likely that the subjects did not remember the first list correctly and created false memories (Anisfeld & Knapp, 1963).

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Bialer, Daniel; Reyna, Valerie; Brainerd, Charles (2021). "False Memory: What are the Effects, How Does Fuzzy-Trace Theory Predict Them, and How Does This Matter For Eyewitness Testimony?".

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significant effect. The syndrome takes effect because the person believes the influential memory to be true. However, its research is controversial and the syndrome is not included in the

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Gleaves, David H.; Smith, Steven M.; Butler, Lisa D.; Spiegel, David (2006). "False and Recovered Memories in the Laboratory and Clinic: A Review of Experimental and Clinical Evidence".

180:, the implication was actually false: the wallet was not blue even though the question asked what shade of blue it was. This convinces the respondent of its truth (i.e., that the wallet 3505:

Ceci, Stephen J.; Loftus, Elizabeth F.; Leichtman, Michelle D.; Bruck, Maggie (1994). "The Possible Role of Source Misattributions in the Creation of False Beliefs Among Preschoolers".

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Goldschmied, Nadav; Sheptock, Mark; Kim, Kacey; Galily, Yair (2017). "Appraising Loftus and Palmer (1974) Post-Event Information versus Concurrent Commentary in the Context of Sport".

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her father. The therapist pressed Berry to recover memories of sex abuse by her father. Berry broke down under the pressure and had to be psychiatrically hospitalized. She underwent

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Replications in different contexts (such as hockey games instead of car crashes) have shown that different scenarios require different framing effects to produce differing memories.

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respondent with a presupposition that there was a stop sign in the scene. This presupposition increased the number of people responding that they had indeed seen the stop sign.

3841: 3175: 1170: 1565: 3739:“Future Thinking and False Memories.” Psychology Today, Sussex Publishers, www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/time-travelling-apollo/201607/future-thinking-and-false-memories. 1145: 692:

struggle with this, as well as recalling an existent memory as a witness. Children are significantly more likely to confuse a source between being invented or existent.

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also credited with great contributions into memory research. Janet contributed to false memory through his ideas on dissociation and memory retrieval through hypnosis.

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Paddock, John R.; Terranova, Sophia; Kwok, Rosie; Halpern, David V. (2000). "When Knowing Becomes Remembering: Individual Differences in Susceptibility to Suggestion".

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An example of this is the laws of a country. Most of its citizens, no matter how daring, will conform to these laws, because the objective payoff is personal safety.

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result led to the conclusion that hypnotic suggestions produce shifts in focus, awareness, and attention. Despite this, subjects do not mix fantasy up with reality.

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The skeleton theory explains the procedure of how a memory is recalled, which is split into two categories: the acquisition processes and the retrieval processes.

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Bremner, J. Douglas; Shobe, Katharine Krause; Kihlstrom, John F. (2000). "False Memories in Women with Self-Reported Childhood Sexual Abuse: An Empirical Study".

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or consciousness. Social desirability and false memory have also been examined. Social desirability effects may depend on the level of perceived social pressure.

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Lampinen, James M.; Neuschatz, Jeffrey S.; Payne, David G. (1997). "Memory illusions and consciousness: Examining the phenomenology of true and false memories".

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Putative memories recovered through therapy have become more difficult to distinguish between simply being repressed or not having existed in the first place.

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The construction hypothesis says that if a true piece of information being provided can alter a respondent's answer, then so can a false piece of information.

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and John Palmer conducted a study to investigate the effects of language on the development of false memory. The experiment involved two separate studies.

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Regardless of the effect being true or false, the respondent is attempting to conform to the supplied information, because they assume it to be true.

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Loftus, Elizabeth F.; Palmer, John C. (1974). "Reconstruction of automobile destruction: An example of the interaction between language and memory".

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Otgaar, Henry; Howe, Mark L.; Patihis, Lawrence; Merckelbach, Harald; Lynn, Steven Jay; Lilienfeld, Scott O.; Loftus, Elizabeth F. (November 2019).

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de Vito, Stefania; Cubelli, Roberto; Della Sala, Sergio (May 2009). "Collective representations elicit widespread individual false memories".

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Foley, Mary Ann; Johnson, Marcia K. (1985). "Confusions between Memories for Performed and Imagined Actions: A Developmental Comparison".

1246: 558:. False memory is an important part of psychological research because of the ties it has to a large number of mental disorders, such as 4605: 3638: 1083:

Ihlebæk, C., Løve, T., Erik Eilertsen, D., & Magnussen, S. (2003). Memory for a staged criminal event witnessed live and on video.

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towards Holly Ramona. This 1994 legal issue played a massive role in shedding light on the possibility of false memories' occurrences.

2331:"Why there is no false memory trait and why everyone is susceptible to memory distortions: The dual encoding interference hypothesis" 1531: 184:

blue), which affects their memory. It can also alter responses to later questions to keep them consistent with the false implication.

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Edelstein, Robin S. (2006). "Attachment and emotional memory: Investigating the source and extent of avoidant memory impairments".

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Storbeck, J.; Clore, G.L. (2005). "With Sadness Comes Accuracy; with Happiness, False Memory: Mood and the False Memory Effect".

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features of an experience, whereas gist traces applies to the way in which we store the context and interpretation of an event.

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Specific false memories can sometimes be shared by a large group of people. This phenomenon was dubbed the "Mandela effect" by

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One well-documented example of shared false memories comes from a 2010 study that examined people familiar with the clock at

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picture" to make sense of what was observed. This retrieval process results in either an accurate memory or a false memory.

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Loftus developed what some refer to as "the skeleton theory" after having run an experiment involving 150 subjects from the

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Patihis, L.; Frenda, S.J.; LePort, A.K.R.; Petersen, N.; Nichols, R.M.; Stark, C.E.L.; McGaugh, J.L.; Loftus, E.F. (2013).

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bit me) and gist matches to general inferences (e.g., I do not like dogs because they are mean). Keeping in line with the

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One study showed higher rates of false recognition in sleep-deprived participants, compared with rested participants.

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Lindsay, D. Stephen; Johnson, Marcia K.; Kwon, Paul (1991). "Developmental changes in memory source monitoring".

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Davis, Joseph E. (2005). "Victim Narratives and Victim Selves: False Memory Syndrome and the Power of Accounts".

738:, an effect in which memories are incorrectly attributed to different experiences from the ones that caused them. 2294:

Bernstein, D.M.; Scoboria, A.; Desjarlais, L.; Soucie, K. (2018). ""False memory" is a linguistic convenience".

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Laurence, Jean-Roch; Perry, Campbell (1983). "Hypnotically Created Memory among Highly Hypnotizable Subjects".

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Powers, Peter A.; Andriks, Joyce L.; Loftus, Elizabeth F. (1979). "Eyewitness accounts of females and males".

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Kaplan, Robert; Manicavasagar, Vijaya (2001). "Is there a false memory syndrome? A review of three cases".

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point to a wide variety of common problems, ranging from eating disorders to sleeplessness, as evidence of

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altering the past and turning the current era into "a glitch" became popular in the United States in 2016.

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styles. Regarding the first of these, metamemory beliefs about the malleability of memory, the nature of

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Frenda, Steven J.; Patihis, Lawrence; Loftus, Elizabeth F.; Lewis, Holly C.; Fenn, Kimberly M. (2014).

3750: 4683: 4667: 4546: 4304: 4257: 4247: 4035: 3983: 3867: 3088: 2540: 2393: 1639: 1335: 432: 387:). Likewise, false memories of Mandela's death could be explained as the subject conflating him with 33: 3669:"Public Attitudes on the Ethics of Deceptively Planting False Memories to Motivate Healthy Behavior" 2527:

Diekelmann, Susanne; Landolt, Hans-Peter; Lahl, Olaf; Born, Jan; Wagner, Ullrich (23 October 2008).

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something that did not actually happen or recalls it differently from the way it actually happened.

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Our brains sometimes create 'false memories' — but science suggests we could be better off this way

3267: 2916:; Keck, Paul E. (1995). "Recovered Memory Therapy: False Memory Syndrome and Other Complications". 2496: 701: 696: 378: 3040:"Planting misinformation in the human mind: A 30-year investigation of the malleability of memory" 4911: 4734: 4679: 4672: 4640: 4541: 4536: 4488: 4466: 4435: 4262: 3557: 3249: 3214: 2943:

Gold, Steven N. (1997). "False memory syndrome: A false dichotomy between science and practice".

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of real memories, possibly including Sinbad wearing a genie-like costume during a TV marathon of

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Loftus, Elizabeth F.; Greene, Edith (1980). "Warning: Even memory for faces may be contagious".

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It Came from Something Awful: How a Toxic Troll Army Accidentally Memed Donald Trump into Office

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The Clinical Corner: Third-Party Liability in Repressed Memory Cases: Recent Legal Developments

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Miller, Patricia; Bjorklund, David (1998). "Contemplating Fuzzy-Trace Theory: The Gist of it".

4947: 4935: 4906: 4754: 4625: 4600: 4556: 4483: 4461: 4362: 4299: 4267: 4242: 4210: 4195: 4105: 4075: 4013: 3823: 3790: 3698: 3600: 3565: 3522: 3430: 3352: 3146: 3136: 3104: 3061: 3020: 2895: 2829: 2711: 2670: 2615: 2576: 2558: 2509: 2456: 2421: 2225: 2168: 2113: 2019: 1860: 1842: 1673: 1389: 1381: 1217: 1118: 1020: 917: 777:, a science fiction film dealing with the concept of implanting ideas in sleeping individuals. 767: 492: 368: 356: 316: 3347: 3330: 2790:"The Return of the Repressed: The Persistent and Problematic Claims of Long-Forgotten Trauma" 278:

researcher Fiona Broome, who reported having vivid and detailed memories of news coverage of

4886: 4839: 4809: 4764: 4620: 4551: 4504: 4309: 4284: 4170: 4130: 4018: 3898: 3875: 3688: 3680: 3634: 3592: 3549: 3514: 3484: 3457: 3422: 3342: 3241: 3206: 3128: 3096: 3051: 3012: 2983: 2952: 2925: 2887: 2819: 2809: 2801: 2771: 2701: 2662: 2607: 2566: 2548: 2501: 2448: 2411: 2401: 2342: 2303: 2256: 2215: 2207: 2160: 2105: 2063: 2011: 1850: 1832: 1669: 1416:"The Mandela Effect: Poll shows most Americans misremember Darth Vader quote, Monopoly logo" 1373: 1362:"The Visual Mandela Effect as Evidence for Shared and Specific False Memories Across People" 1273:"Are you living in an alternate reality? Welcome to the wacky world of the 'Mandela Effect'" 1209: 1110: 1052: 1012: 909: 882: 833: 811: 575: 311: 302: 93: 61:

have been suggested to be several mechanisms underlying a variety of types of false memory.

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Shyamalan, Lamb and Sheldrick (1995) partially re-created a study that involved attempted

262: 236: 50: 3294: 3871: 3164:"Spectral Evidence - The Ramona Case: Incest, Memory, and Truth on Trial in Napa Valley" 3092: 2740: 2544: 2397: 849: 4983: 4891: 4855: 4749: 4347: 4294: 4120: 4090: 4070: 4057: 3693: 3668: 2824: 2789: 2736: 2571: 2528: 2416: 2381: 2220: 2195: 1855: 1820: 1236: 654: 517: 391:, another prominent South African anti-apartheid activist, who died in prison in 1977. 328: 283: 161: 54: 3372:"They Say Sexual Assault, Kavanaugh Says It Never Happened: Sifting Truth From Memory" 2196:"Neural changes underlying the development of episodic memory during middle childhood" 886: 4962: 4870: 4860: 4834: 4829: 4789: 4774: 4739: 4662: 4509: 4337: 4200: 4175: 4138: 4095: 4085: 4080: 4065: 3596: 3253: 2913: 2891: 2723: 2354: 2315: 2268: 2067: 1785: 1401: 1114: 1064: 1016: 1007:

Malpass, Roy S.; Goodman-Delahunty, Jane (2004). "Psychology and the Law, Overview".

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Christianson, Sven-åke; Loftus, Elizabeth F. (1987). "Memory for traumatic events".

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am your father" in response to Skywalker's assertion that Vader killed his father),

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Schacter, D. L; Curran, T. (1995). "The Cognitive Neuroscience of False Memories".

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Loftus, Elizabeth, F. (1975). "Reconstructing memory: The incredible eyewitness".

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The false memory phenomenon was initially investigated by psychological pioneers

57:, activation of associated information, the incorporation of misinformation, and 4759: 4630: 4584: 3787:

False-memory Creation in Children and Adults: Theory, Research, and Implications

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Loftus, Elizabeth F. (1975). "Leading questions and the eyewitness report".

2015: 1361: 773: 748: 642: 3702: 3488: 3150: 3065: 2833: 2775: 2674: 2619: 2580: 2513: 2460: 2425: 2229: 2172: 2117: 1864: 1393: 1221: 1122: 921: 3639:

10.1002/(SICI)1099-0720(199806)12:3<207::AID-ACP523>3.0.CO;2-T

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Other examples include memories of the respective title component of the

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was created from a revision of this article dated 30 July 2019

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children's books being spelled "Berenstein", the logo of clothing brand

4232: 3561: 3245: 2988: 2971: 2706: 2689: 2382:"False memories in highly superior autobiographical memory individuals" 2346: 2307: 2260: 1912:"False Memories in the News: Are Pictures Worth MORE Than 1,000 Words?" 1443:"Rich Uncle Pennybags didn't wear a monocle — and other false memories" 673:

False memory is often considered for trauma victims including those of

383: 351: 346: 267: 744:, the feeling that one has lived through the present situation before. 191:

Loftus's meta-analysis on language manipulation studies suggested the

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Several possible benefits associated with false memory arrive from

144:. This indication supports false memory as an existing phenomenon. 3003:

Loftus, Elizabeth F. (1993). "The reality of repressed memories".

2849:"Opinion | The Forgotten Lessons of the Recovered Memory Movement" 1986:

Methods, measures, and theories in eyewitness identification tasks

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Ost, James; Foster, Samantha; Costall, Alan; Bull, Ray (2005).

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Brown, Adam D.; Kouri, Nicole; Hirst, William (23 July 2012).

1336:"No, Darth Vader Didn't Actually Say 'Luke, I Am Your Father'" 2094:"False reports of childhood events in appropriate interviews" 397:

about the Mandela effect and associated online jokes about a

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One of children's most notable setbacks in memory recall is

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station clock in Italy, subject of a collective false memory

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International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis

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Psychology of Consciousness: Theory, Research, and Practice

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dying in prison in the 1980s, despite Mandela actually

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https://www.britannica.com/science/memory-abnormality

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Patihis, Lawrence; Younes Burton, Helena J. (2015).

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Therapists who subscribe to the theories underlying

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Natural factors for the formation of false memories

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(October 2002). 992:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( 902:Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology 377:featuring a genie played by basketball star 349:, and the existence of a 1990s movie titled 331:, "Luke, I am your father" in the climax of 4115:The Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two 3407: 3405: 2752:. In S.J. Lynn & K.M. McConkey (Eds.), 2004:Current Directions in Psychological Science 491:own memory abilities, trauma symptoms, and 4704: 4053: 3991: 3977: 3969: 3324: 3322: 3320: 2766:Mertz, Elizabeth; Bowman, Cynthia (1998), 1725:"Does this picture look a bit off to you?" 758:, a memory that is not recognized as such. 3879: 3692: 3346: 3055: 2987: 2823: 2813: 2705: 2570: 2552: 2495: 2415: 2405: 2219: 2194:Ghetti, Simona; Bunge, Silvia A. (2012). 1854: 1836: 1504:; the marathon featured movies including 868: 866: 864: 828:Knafo, D. (2009). Freud's memory erased. 804:Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice 797: 795: 793: 791: 3954:, and does not reflect subsequent edits. 3749:Jarrett, Christian (23 September 2013). 3585:Journal of Experimental Child Psychology 3348:10.1176/appi.psychotherapy.1996.50.3.323 3293:Gerrietts, Jennifer (27 February 1997). 1973:Journal of experimental child psychology 585:Therapists have used strategies such as 3500: 3498: 2873: 2871: 2869: 1500:28 December 1994, on the cable channel 1441:Bannon, Jessica Lyn (16 January 2022). 787: 431:The strength hypothesis states that in 4979:Symptoms and signs of mental disorders 3833: 3382:from the original on 26 September 2018 2596:"Sleep Deprivation and False Memories" 985: 3801:Recovered Memories and False Memories 3763:from the original on 21 November 2018 3178:from the original on 20 November 2021 2794:Perspectives on Psychological Science 2000:"Fuzzy-Trace Theory and False Memory" 1922:from the original on 25 February 2021 1916:CogBlog – A Cognitive Psychology Blog 1876: 1874: 1800:from the original on 17 February 2022 1735:from the original on 11 November 2020 1568:from the original on 25 November 2020 1551: 1549: 1534:from the original on 19 December 2021 1465: 1463: 1266: 1264: 1249:from the original on 17 February 2022 1181:from the original on 12 November 2020 1144:Bhengu, Cebelihle (6 November 2019). 661:disclosing controversy to a subject. 7: 3305:from the original on 22 October 2020 2847:Watters, Ethan (27 September 2022). 2634:from the original on 18 October 2019 2529:"Sleep Loss Produces False Memories" 2361:from the original on 22 October 2020 2275:from the original on 23 October 2020 2200:Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience 1892:from the original on 18 January 2021 1766:from the original on 10 January 2021 1556:Aamodt, Caitlin (16 February 2016). 1315:from the original on 30 January 2021 1284:from the original on 12 January 2022 3274:from the original on 9 October 2019 1723:Fernando, Gavin (8 November 2016). 949:Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy 2132:from the original on 27 March 2020 1953:from the original on 15 March 2021 1700:. 16 February 2017. Archived from 1482:from the original on 26 March 2021 1009:Encyclopedia of Applied Psychology 32:For the novel by Dean Koontz, see 25: 4396:Deese–Roediger–McDermott paradigm 3335:American Journal of Psychotherapy 3125:True and False Recovered Memories 2756:, (pp. 3-31). New York: Guilford. 2153:The Journal of Genetic Psychology 1638:Dimou, Eleni (30 December 2021). 1470:Tait, Amelia (21 December 2016). 943:Beaver, David I. 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New York: 762:Lost in the mall technique 541: 254: 217:Staged naturalistic events 31: 4924: 3881:10.4249/scholarpedia.3858 3785:Bjorklund, D. F. 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A. (1997). 3489:10.1002/acp.2350010402 3234:Law and Human Behavior 2776:10.1037/e300392004-003 2748:1 October 2021 at the 675:childhood sexual abuse 482:Individual differences 282:anti-apartheid leader 271: 4948:Philosophy portal 4936:Psychology portal 4800:Henry L. Roediger III 4401:False memory syndrome 4373:Misinformation effect 4353:Imagination inflation 3931: 3044:Learning & Memory 3038:Loftus, E.F. (2005). 3005:American Psychologist 2945:American Psychologist 2600:Psychological Science 2441:Psychological Science 1366:Psychological Science 1103:Psychological Science 816:10.1093/clipsy.bph055 686:source misattribution 549:False memory syndrome 544:False memory syndrome 538:False memory syndrome 265: 230:Relational processing 193:misinformation effect 59:source misattribution 4305:Motivated forgetting 3963:More spoken articles 3789:. Psychology Press. 3427:10.1176/ajp.153.7.71 2329:Patihis, L. (2018). 2056:Cognitive Psychology 1237:"The Mandela Effect" 1011:. pp. 171–184. 855:30 June 2020 at the 363:suggests could be a 34:False Memory (novel) 4815:Arthur P. Shimamura 4715:Richard C. 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Isabella 621:Effects on society 576:repressed memories 414:Fuzzy-trace theory 359:as a genie (which 355:starring comedian 292:parallel realities 272: 241:fuzzy-trace theory 235:when I was five a 4956: 4955: 4920: 4919: 4907:Cosmos Rossellius 4755:Marcia K. Johnson 4626:Exosomatic memory 4611:Context-dependent 4601:Absent-mindedness 4484:Memory conformity 4462:Collective memory 4363:Memory conformity 4300:Memory inhibition 4219: 4218: 4211:Tip of the tongue 3929: 3542:Child Development 3174:: 49. 1998–1999. 3142:978-1-4614-1194-9 3087:(4623): 523–524. 2914:McElroy, Susan L. 1679:978-1-250-21947-3 1644:Popular Mechanics 1562:Discover Magazine 1372:(12): 1971–1988. 1026:978-0-12-657410-4 908:(11): 2347–2356. 768:Memory conformity 697:memory implanting 525:Sleep deprivation 433:strong situations 369:Sinbad the Sailor 317:Fruit of the Loom 16:(Redirected from 4991: 4974:Memory disorders 4946: 4945: 4944: 4934: 4933: 4932: 4887:Jonathan Hancock 4840:Robert Stickgold 4810:Richard Shiffrin 4765:Elizabeth Loftus 4705: 4621:Childhood memory 4428:Research methods 4310:Repressed memory 4285:Forgetting curve 4273:transient global 4144:Autobiographical 4054: 3993: 3986: 3979: 3970: 3953: 3951: 3940: 3939: 3930: 3920: 3918: 3913: 3906: 3885: 3883: 3845: 3839: 3831: 3813: 3773: 3772: 3770: 3768: 3746: 3740: 3737: 3731: 3728:Business Insider 3713: 3707: 3706: 3696: 3685:10.1002/acp.3274 3664: 3658: 3657: 3655: 3653: 3648:on 9 August 2017 3647: 3641:. Archived from 3624: 3615: 3609: 3608: 3580: 3574: 3573: 3537: 3531: 3530: 3502: 3493: 3492: 3472: 3466: 3465: 3445: 3439: 3438: 3409: 3400: 3399: 3389: 3387: 3367: 3361: 3360: 3350: 3326: 3315: 3314: 3312: 3310: 3290: 3284: 3283: 3281: 3279: 3264: 3258: 3257: 3229: 3223: 3222: 3194: 3188: 3187: 3185: 3183: 3160: 3154: 3153: 3119: 3113: 3112: 3076: 3070: 3069: 3059: 3057:10.1101/lm.94705 3035: 3029: 3028: 3000: 2994: 2993: 2991: 2967: 2961: 2960: 2940: 2934: 2933: 2910: 2904: 2903: 2875: 2864: 2863: 2861: 2859: 2844: 2838: 2837: 2827: 2817: 2800:(6): 1072–1095. 2785: 2779: 2778: 2763: 2757: 2734: 2728: 2727: 2709: 2685: 2679: 2678: 2650: 2644: 2643: 2641: 2639: 2606:(9): 1674–1681. 2591: 2585: 2584: 2574: 2556: 2524: 2518: 2517: 2499: 2479: 2473: 2472: 2436: 2430: 2429: 2419: 2409: 2377: 2371: 2370: 2368: 2366: 2326: 2320: 2319: 2291: 2285: 2284: 2282: 2280: 2240: 2234: 2233: 2223: 2191: 2185: 2184: 2148: 2142: 2141: 2139: 2137: 2089: 2080: 2079: 2051: 2034: 2028: 2027: 1995: 1989: 1982: 1976: 1969: 1963: 1962: 1960: 1958: 1938: 1932: 1931: 1929: 1927: 1908: 1902: 1901: 1899: 1897: 1878: 1869: 1868: 1858: 1840: 1816: 1810: 1809: 1807: 1805: 1794:Pacific Standard 1782: 1776: 1775: 1773: 1771: 1751: 1745: 1744: 1742: 1740: 1720: 1714: 1713: 1711: 1709: 1690: 1684: 1683: 1670:All Points Books 1661: 1655: 1654: 1652: 1650: 1635: 1629: 1628: 1626: 1624: 1610: 1604: 1603: 1601: 1599: 1593:The Conversation 1584: 1578: 1577: 1575: 1573: 1553: 1544: 1543: 1541: 1539: 1517: 1511: 1498: 1492: 1491: 1489: 1487: 1467: 1458: 1457: 1455: 1453: 1438: 1432: 1431: 1429: 1427: 1420:ABC7 Los Angeles 1412: 1406: 1405: 1357: 1351: 1350: 1348: 1346: 1331: 1325: 1324: 1322: 1320: 1300: 1294: 1293: 1291: 1289: 1275: 1268: 1259: 1258: 1256: 1254: 1232: 1226: 1225: 1197: 1191: 1190: 1188: 1186: 1167: 1161: 1160: 1158: 1156: 1141: 1135: 1134: 1098: 1092: 1081: 1075: 1069: 1068: 1051:(3–4): 181–224. 1040: 1031: 1030: 1004: 998: 997: 991: 983: 971: 965: 964: 962: 960: 945:"Presupposition" 940: 934: 933: 897: 891: 890: 870: 859: 846: 840: 838:10.1037/a0015557 826: 820: 819: 799: 702:implanted-memory 534:event encoding. 379:Shaquille O'Neal 312:Berenstain Bears 94:Elizabeth Loftus 21: 4999: 4998: 4994: 4993: 4992: 4990: 4989: 4988: 4959: 4958: 4957: 4952: 4942: 4940: 4930: 4928: 4916: 4897:Dominic O'Brien 4875: 4844: 4825:Susumu Tonegawa 4805:Daniel Schacter 4780:Eleanor Maguire 4770:Geoffrey Loftus 4725:Stephen J. Ceci 4720:Robert A. Bjork 4696: 4615:state-dependent 4589: 4561: 4493: 4474:Cultural memory 4450: 4446:Memory disorder 4422: 4382: 4324: 4215: 4125: 4100: 4045: 4002: 3997: 3967: 3966: 3955: 3949: 3947: 3944:This audio file 3941: 3934: 3925: 3922: 3916: 3915: 3911: 3897:(12): 727–731. 3888: 3848: 3832: 3811: 3806: 3782: 3780:Further reading 3777: 3776: 3766: 3764: 3748: 3747: 3743: 3738: 3734: 3724:Wayback Machine 3714: 3710: 3666: 3665: 3661: 3651: 3649: 3645: 3622: 3617: 3616: 3612: 3582: 3581: 3577: 3554:10.2307/1130229 3539: 3538: 3534: 3504: 3503: 3496: 3474: 3473: 3469: 3450:Social Problems 3447: 3446: 3442: 3411: 3410: 3403: 3385: 3383: 3369: 3368: 3364: 3328: 3327: 3318: 3308: 3306: 3292: 3291: 3287: 3277: 3275: 3266: 3265: 3261: 3231: 3230: 3226: 3196: 3195: 3191: 3181: 3179: 3162: 3161: 3157: 3143: 3121: 3120: 3116: 3078: 3077: 3073: 3037: 3036: 3032: 3002: 3001: 2997: 2969: 2968: 2964: 2942: 2941: 2937: 2924:(12): 731–735. 2912: 2911: 2907: 2877: 2876: 2867: 2857: 2855: 2846: 2845: 2841: 2787: 2786: 2782: 2765: 2764: 2760: 2754:Truth in memory 2750:Wayback Machine 2737:Kihlstrom, J.F. 2735: 2731: 2687: 2686: 2682: 2652: 2651: 2647: 2637: 2635: 2593: 2592: 2588: 2526: 2525: 2521: 2481: 2480: 2476: 2438: 2437: 2433: 2379: 2378: 2374: 2364: 2362: 2328: 2327: 2323: 2293: 2292: 2288: 2278: 2276: 2242: 2241: 2237: 2193: 2192: 2188: 2150: 2149: 2145: 2135: 2133: 2091: 2090: 2083: 2053: 2052: 2037: 2031: 1997: 1996: 1992: 1983: 1979: 1975:. 71(2) 184-193 1970: 1966: 1956: 1954: 1940: 1939: 1935: 1925: 1923: 1910: 1909: 1905: 1895: 1893: 1886:Hopes&Fears 1880: 1879: 1872: 1818: 1817: 1813: 1803: 1801: 1784: 1783: 1779: 1769: 1767: 1753: 1752: 1748: 1738: 1736: 1722: 1721: 1717: 1707: 1705: 1692: 1691: 1687: 1680: 1663: 1662: 1658: 1648: 1646: 1637: 1636: 1632: 1622: 1620: 1612: 1611: 1607: 1597: 1595: 1586: 1585: 1581: 1571: 1569: 1555: 1554: 1547: 1537: 1535: 1519: 1518: 1514: 1499: 1495: 1485: 1483: 1469: 1468: 1461: 1451: 1449: 1440: 1439: 1435: 1425: 1423: 1414: 1413: 1409: 1359: 1358: 1354: 1344: 1342: 1333: 1332: 1328: 1318: 1316: 1302: 1301: 1297: 1287: 1285: 1270: 1269: 1262: 1252: 1250: 1234: 1233: 1229: 1199: 1198: 1194: 1184: 1182: 1175:The Independent 1169: 1168: 1164: 1154: 1152: 1143: 1142: 1138: 1109:(10): 785–791. 1100: 1099: 1095: 1082: 1078: 1072: 1042: 1041: 1034: 1027: 1006: 1005: 1001: 984: 973: 972: 968: 958: 956: 942: 941: 937: 899: 898: 894: 872: 871: 862: 857:Wayback Machine 847: 843: 827: 823: 801: 800: 789: 784: 732: 719: 710: 671: 628: 623: 610: 604:its falsehood. 568: 546: 540: 527: 509: 484: 479: 456: 454:Skeleton theory 444: 429: 416: 411: 260: 253: 232: 219: 206: 158: 153: 124:using the verb 67: 37: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 4997: 4995: 4987: 4986: 4981: 4976: 4971: 4961: 4960: 4954: 4953: 4951: 4950: 4938: 4925: 4922: 4921: 4918: 4917: 4915: 4914: 4909: 4904: 4899: 4894: 4892:Paul R. McHugh 4889: 4883: 4881: 4877: 4876: 4874: 4873: 4868: 4863: 4858: 4852: 4850: 4846: 4845: 4843: 4842: 4837: 4832: 4827: 4822: 4817: 4812: 4807: 4802: 4797: 4792: 4787: 4782: 4777: 4772: 4767: 4762: 4757: 4752: 4750:Ivan Izquierdo 4747: 4742: 4737: 4732: 4727: 4722: 4717: 4711: 4709: 4702: 4698: 4697: 4695: 4694: 4687: 4677: 4676: 4675: 4665: 4660: 4655: 4650: 4649: 4648: 4638: 4633: 4628: 4623: 4618: 4608: 4603: 4597: 4595: 4591: 4590: 4588: 4587: 4582: 4581: 4580: 4569: 4567: 4563: 4562: 4560: 4559: 4554: 4549: 4544: 4539: 4534: 4529: 4524: 4523: 4522: 4517: 4507: 4501: 4499: 4495: 4494: 4492: 4491: 4486: 4481: 4476: 4471: 4470: 4469: 4458: 4456: 4452: 4451: 4449: 4448: 4443: 4438: 4432: 4430: 4424: 4423: 4421: 4420: 4415: 4414: 4413: 4403: 4398: 4392: 4390: 4384: 4383: 4381: 4380: 4375: 4370: 4365: 4360: 4355: 4350: 4348:Hindsight bias 4345: 4340: 4334: 4332: 4326: 4325: 4323: 4322: 4317: 4312: 4307: 4302: 4297: 4295:Memory erasure 4292: 4287: 4282: 4277: 4276: 4275: 4270: 4265: 4260: 4255: 4253:post-traumatic 4250: 4245: 4240: 4229: 4227: 4221: 4220: 4217: 4216: 4214: 4213: 4208: 4203: 4198: 4193: 4191:Personal-event 4188: 4183: 4178: 4173: 4168: 4167: 4166: 4161: 4156: 4146: 4141: 4135: 4133: 4127: 4126: 4124: 4123: 4121:Working memory 4118: 4110: 4108: 4102: 4101: 4099: 4098: 4093: 4091:Motor learning 4088: 4083: 4078: 4073: 4068: 4062: 4060: 4051: 4047: 4046: 4044: 4043: 4038: 4033: 4027: 4026: 4021: 4016: 4010: 4008: 4007:Basic concepts 4004: 4003: 3998: 3996: 3995: 3988: 3981: 3973: 3956: 3942: 3935: 3923: 3910: 3909: 3908: 3907: 3886: 3854:"False memory" 3846: 3804: 3797: 3781: 3778: 3775: 3774: 3741: 3732: 3708: 3679:(6): 885–897. 3659: 3633:(3): 207–217. 3610: 3591:(3): 297–318. 3575: 3548:(5): 1145–55. 3532: 3513:(4): 304–320. 3494: 3483:(4): 225–239. 3467: 3456:(4): 529–548. 3440: 3401: 3362: 3341:(3): 323–335. 3316: 3301:. p. 27. 3285: 3259: 3240:(4): 323–334. 3224: 3205:(3): 339–347. 3189: 3155: 3141: 3114: 3071: 3050:(4): 361–366. 3030: 3011:(5): 518–537. 2995: 2982:(2): 153–169. 2962: 2951:(9): 988–989. 2935: 2905: 2865: 2839: 2780: 2758: 2742:Exhumed memory 2729: 2700:(2): 173–189. 2680: 2661:(4): 342–348. 2645: 2586: 2519: 2497:10.1.1.498.181 2490:(2): 340–345. 2474: 2447:(4): 333–337. 2431: 2372: 2341:(2): 180–184. 2321: 2302:(2): 161–179. 2286: 2255:(2): 140–160. 2235: 2206:(4): 381–395. 2186: 2159:(4): 453–468. 2143: 2104:(7): 700–710. 2081: 2062:(4): 560–572. 2035: 2029: 2010:(5): 164–169. 1990: 1977: 1964: 1933: 1903: 1870: 1811: 1786:Gabbert, Elisa 1777: 1746: 1715: 1685: 1678: 1672:. p. 16. 1656: 1630: 1605: 1579: 1545: 1512: 1493: 1459: 1433: 1407: 1352: 1326: 1295: 1260: 1227: 1208:(5): 686–687. 1192: 1162: 1136: 1093: 1076: 1070: 1032: 1025: 999: 966: 935: 892: 881:(5): 585–589. 860: 841: 832:(2), 171–190. 821: 786: 785: 783: 780: 779: 778: 770: 765: 759: 753: 745: 739: 731: 728: 718: 715: 709: 706: 670: 667: 655:tubal ligation 627: 624: 622: 619: 609: 606: 567: 564: 542:Main article: 539: 536: 526: 523: 518:suggestibility 508: 505: 483: 480: 478: 475: 455: 452: 443: 440: 428: 425: 415: 412: 410: 407: 329:Luke Skywalker 284:Nelson Mandela 252: 251:Mandela effect 249: 231: 228: 218: 215: 205: 202: 186: 185: 174: 162:presupposition 157: 154: 152: 149: 66: 63: 55:Suggestibility 26: 24: 18:Mandela Effect 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 4996: 4985: 4982: 4980: 4977: 4975: 4972: 4970: 4969:Memory biases 4967: 4966: 4964: 4949: 4939: 4937: 4927: 4926: 4923: 4913: 4910: 4908: 4905: 4903: 4900: 4898: 4895: 4893: 4890: 4888: 4885: 4884: 4882: 4878: 4872: 4871:Clive Wearing 4869: 4867: 4864: 4862: 4859: 4857: 4854: 4853: 4851: 4847: 4841: 4838: 4836: 4835:Endel Tulving 4833: 4831: 4830:Anne Treisman 4828: 4826: 4823: 4821: 4818: 4816: 4813: 4811: 4808: 4806: 4803: 4801: 4798: 4796: 4793: 4791: 4790:Brenda Milner 4788: 4786: 4783: 4781: 4778: 4776: 4775:James McGaugh 4773: 4771: 4768: 4766: 4763: 4761: 4758: 4756: 4753: 4751: 4748: 4746: 4743: 4741: 4740:Sigmund Freud 4738: 4736: 4733: 4731: 4728: 4726: 4723: 4721: 4718: 4716: 4713: 4712: 4710: 4706: 4703: 4699: 4693: 4692: 4688: 4685: 4684:retrospective 4681: 4678: 4674: 4671: 4670: 4669: 4666: 4664: 4663:Muscle memory 4661: 4659: 4656: 4654: 4651: 4647: 4644: 4643: 4642: 4639: 4637: 4634: 4632: 4629: 4627: 4624: 4622: 4619: 4616: 4612: 4609: 4607: 4604: 4602: 4599: 4598: 4596: 4592: 4586: 4583: 4579: 4576: 4575: 4574: 4571: 4570: 4568: 4564: 4558: 4555: 4553: 4550: 4548: 4545: 4543: 4540: 4538: 4535: 4533: 4530: 4528: 4525: 4521: 4518: 4516: 4513: 4512: 4511: 4510:Art of memory 4508: 4506: 4503: 4502: 4500: 4496: 4490: 4487: 4485: 4482: 4480: 4477: 4475: 4472: 4468: 4465: 4464: 4463: 4460: 4459: 4457: 4453: 4447: 4444: 4442: 4439: 4437: 4434: 4433: 4431: 4429: 4425: 4419: 4416: 4412: 4409: 4408: 4407: 4404: 4402: 4399: 4397: 4394: 4393: 4391: 4389: 4385: 4379: 4376: 4374: 4371: 4369: 4366: 4364: 4361: 4359: 4358:Memory biases 4356: 4354: 4351: 4349: 4346: 4344: 4341: 4339: 4338:Confabulation 4336: 4335: 4333: 4331: 4330:Memory errors 4327: 4321: 4318: 4316: 4313: 4311: 4308: 4306: 4303: 4301: 4298: 4296: 4293: 4291: 4288: 4286: 4283: 4281: 4278: 4274: 4271: 4269: 4266: 4264: 4261: 4259: 4256: 4254: 4251: 4249: 4248:post-hypnotic 4246: 4244: 4241: 4239: 4236: 4235: 4234: 4231: 4230: 4228: 4226: 4222: 4212: 4209: 4207: 4204: 4202: 4201:Rote learning 4199: 4197: 4194: 4192: 4189: 4187: 4184: 4182: 4179: 4177: 4176:Hyperthymesia 4174: 4172: 4169: 4165: 4162: 4160: 4157: 4155: 4152: 4151: 4150: 4147: 4145: 4142: 4140: 4139:Active recall 4137: 4136: 4134: 4132: 4128: 4122: 4119: 4116: 4112: 4111: 4109: 4107: 4103: 4097: 4094: 4092: 4089: 4087: 4084: 4082: 4079: 4077: 4074: 4072: 4069: 4067: 4064: 4063: 4061: 4059: 4055: 4052: 4048: 4042: 4039: 4037: 4036:Consolidation 4034: 4032: 4029: 4028: 4025: 4022: 4020: 4017: 4015: 4012: 4011: 4009: 4005: 4001: 3994: 3989: 3987: 3982: 3980: 3975: 3974: 3971: 3964: 3960: 3945: 3904: 3900: 3896: 3892: 3887: 3882: 3877: 3873: 3869: 3865: 3861: 3860: 3855: 3851: 3847: 3843: 3837: 3829: 3825: 3821: 3817: 3810: 3805: 3802: 3798: 3796: 3795:9781138003224 3792: 3788: 3784: 3783: 3779: 3762: 3758: 3757: 3752: 3745: 3742: 3736: 3733: 3729: 3725: 3721: 3718: 3712: 3709: 3704: 3700: 3695: 3690: 3686: 3682: 3678: 3674: 3670: 3663: 3660: 3644: 3640: 3636: 3632: 3628: 3621: 3614: 3611: 3606: 3602: 3598: 3594: 3590: 3586: 3579: 3576: 3571: 3567: 3563: 3559: 3555: 3551: 3547: 3543: 3536: 3533: 3528: 3524: 3520: 3516: 3512: 3508: 3501: 3499: 3495: 3490: 3486: 3482: 3478: 3471: 3468: 3463: 3459: 3455: 3451: 3444: 3441: 3436: 3432: 3428: 3424: 3420: 3416: 3408: 3406: 3402: 3398: 3396: 3381: 3377: 3373: 3366: 3363: 3358: 3354: 3349: 3344: 3340: 3336: 3332: 3325: 3323: 3321: 3317: 3304: 3300: 3296: 3289: 3286: 3273: 3269: 3263: 3260: 3255: 3251: 3247: 3243: 3239: 3235: 3228: 3225: 3220: 3216: 3212: 3208: 3204: 3200: 3193: 3190: 3177: 3173: 3169: 3165: 3159: 3156: 3152: 3148: 3144: 3138: 3134: 3130: 3126: 3118: 3115: 3110: 3106: 3102: 3098: 3094: 3090: 3086: 3082: 3075: 3072: 3067: 3063: 3058: 3053: 3049: 3045: 3041: 3034: 3031: 3026: 3022: 3018: 3014: 3010: 3006: 2999: 2996: 2990: 2985: 2981: 2977: 2973: 2966: 2963: 2958: 2954: 2950: 2946: 2939: 2936: 2931: 2927: 2923: 2919: 2915: 2909: 2906: 2901: 2897: 2893: 2889: 2885: 2881: 2874: 2872: 2870: 2866: 2854: 2850: 2843: 2840: 2835: 2831: 2826: 2821: 2816: 2811: 2807: 2803: 2799: 2795: 2791: 2784: 2781: 2777: 2773: 2769: 2762: 2759: 2755: 2751: 2747: 2744: 2743: 2738: 2733: 2730: 2725: 2721: 2717: 2713: 2708: 2703: 2699: 2695: 2691: 2684: 2681: 2676: 2672: 2668: 2664: 2660: 2656: 2649: 2646: 2633: 2629: 2625: 2621: 2617: 2613: 2609: 2605: 2601: 2597: 2590: 2587: 2582: 2578: 2573: 2568: 2564: 2560: 2555: 2550: 2546: 2542: 2539:(10): e3512. 2538: 2534: 2530: 2523: 2520: 2515: 2511: 2507: 2503: 2498: 2493: 2489: 2485: 2478: 2475: 2470: 2466: 2462: 2458: 2454: 2450: 2446: 2442: 2435: 2432: 2427: 2423: 2418: 2413: 2408: 2403: 2399: 2395: 2391: 2387: 2383: 2376: 2373: 2360: 2356: 2352: 2348: 2344: 2340: 2336: 2332: 2325: 2322: 2317: 2313: 2309: 2305: 2301: 2297: 2290: 2287: 2274: 2270: 2266: 2262: 2258: 2254: 2250: 2246: 2239: 2236: 2231: 2227: 2222: 2217: 2213: 2209: 2205: 2201: 2197: 2190: 2187: 2182: 2178: 2174: 2170: 2166: 2162: 2158: 2154: 2147: 2144: 2131: 2127: 2123: 2119: 2115: 2111: 2107: 2103: 2099: 2095: 2088: 2086: 2082: 2077: 2073: 2069: 2065: 2061: 2057: 2050: 2048: 2046: 2044: 2042: 2040: 2036: 2033: 2030: 2025: 2021: 2017: 2013: 2009: 2005: 2001: 1994: 1991: 1987: 1981: 1978: 1974: 1968: 1965: 1952: 1948: 1944: 1937: 1934: 1921: 1917: 1913: 1907: 1904: 1891: 1887: 1883: 1877: 1875: 1871: 1866: 1862: 1857: 1852: 1848: 1844: 1839: 1834: 1830: 1826: 1822: 1815: 1812: 1799: 1795: 1791: 1787: 1781: 1778: 1765: 1761: 1757: 1750: 1747: 1734: 1730: 1726: 1719: 1716: 1703: 1699: 1695: 1689: 1686: 1681: 1675: 1671: 1667: 1660: 1657: 1645: 1641: 1634: 1631: 1619: 1615: 1609: 1606: 1594: 1590: 1583: 1580: 1567: 1563: 1559: 1552: 1550: 1546: 1533: 1529: 1528: 1523: 1516: 1513: 1509: 1508: 1503: 1497: 1494: 1481: 1477: 1476:New Statesman 1473: 1466: 1464: 1460: 1448: 1444: 1437: 1434: 1421: 1417: 1411: 1408: 1403: 1399: 1395: 1391: 1387: 1383: 1379: 1375: 1371: 1367: 1363: 1356: 1353: 1341: 1337: 1330: 1327: 1314: 1310: 1306: 1299: 1296: 1283: 1279: 1278:The Telegraph 1274: 1267: 1265: 1261: 1248: 1244: 1243: 1238: 1231: 1228: 1223: 1219: 1215: 1211: 1207: 1203: 1196: 1193: 1180: 1176: 1172: 1166: 1163: 1151: 1147: 1140: 1137: 1132: 1128: 1124: 1120: 1116: 1112: 1108: 1104: 1097: 1094: 1091:(3), 319-327. 1090: 1086: 1080: 1077: 1074: 1071: 1066: 1062: 1058: 1054: 1050: 1046: 1039: 1037: 1033: 1028: 1022: 1018: 1014: 1010: 1003: 1000: 995: 989: 982:(3): 188–193. 981: 977: 970: 967: 954: 950: 946: 939: 936: 931: 927: 923: 919: 915: 911: 907: 903: 896: 893: 888: 884: 880: 876: 869: 867: 865: 861: 858: 854: 851: 845: 842: 839: 835: 831: 825: 822: 817: 813: 809: 805: 798: 796: 794: 792: 788: 781: 776: 775: 771: 769: 766: 763: 760: 757: 754: 751: 750: 746: 743: 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a French 84: 78: 76: 75:Sigmund Freud 72: 64: 62: 60: 56: 52: 48: 44: 39: 35: 30: 19: 4902:Ben Pridmore 4820:Larry Squire 4730:Susan Clancy 4689: 4573:Memory sport 4498:Other topics 4388:False memory 4387: 4343:Cryptomnesia 4320:Weapon focus 4280:Decay theory 4041:Neuroanatomy 4000:Human memory 3894: 3890: 3863: 3859:Scholarpedia 3857: 3836:cite journal 3819: 3815: 3800: 3786: 3765:. 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