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no confederate, and a no-discussion condition. They found that participants in the confederate condition adopted the misinformation provided by the confederate. However, there was no difference between the no-confederate and no-discussion conditions, providing evidence that discussion (without misinformation) is neither harmful nor beneficial to memory accuracy. Additionally, research has found that collaborative pairs showed a smaller misinformation effect than individuals, as collaborative recall allowed witnesses to dismiss misinformation generated by an inaccurate narrative. Furthermore, there is some evidence suggesting that witnesses who talk with each other after watching two different videos of a burglary will claim to remember details shown in the video seen by the other witness.
254:' discrepancy detection principle argue that people's recollections are more likely to change if they do not immediately detect discrepancies between misinformation and the original event. At times people recognize a discrepancy between their memory and what they are being told. People might recollect, "I thought I saw a stop sign, but the new information mentions a yield sign, I guess I must be wrong, it was a yield sign." Although the individual recognizes the information as conflicting with their own memories, they still adopt it as true. If these discrepancies are not immediately detected they are more likely to be incorporated into memory.
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legal representatives have the opportunity to interview them. Collaborative recall may lead to a more accurate account of what happened, as opposed to individual responses that may contain more untruths after the fact. However, there have also been instances where multiple eyewitnesses have all remembered information incorrectly. Remembering even small details can be extremely important for eyewitnesses: A jury's perception of a defendant's guilt or innocence could depend on such a detail. If a witness remembers a mustache or a weapon when there was none, the wrong person may be wrongly convicted.
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interviews and the power of suggestion from family members, known as "familial informant false narrative procedure." Around 30% of subjects have gone on to produce either partial or complete false memories in these studies. There is a concern that real memories and experiences may be surfacing as a result of prodding and interviews. To deal with this concern, many researchers switched to implausible memory scenarios. Researchers have also found that they were able to induce rich false memories of committing a crime in early adolescence using a false narrative paradigm.
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increases after a sleeping cycle. In this study, the participants that displayed the least degree of misinformation susceptibility were the ones who had not slept since exposure to the original information, indicating that a cycle of sleep increased susceptibility. Researchers have also found that individuals display a stronger misinformation effect when they have a 12-hour sleep interval in between witnessing an event and learning misinformation than when they have a 12-hour wakefulness interval in between the event and the introduction of misinformation.
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effect. A meta-analysis of studies researching the effect of warnings after the introduction of misinformation found that warning participants about misinformation was an effective way to reduce—though not eliminate—the misinformation effect. However, the efficacy of post-warnings appears to be significantly lower when using a recall test. Warnings also appear to be less effective when people have been exposed to misinformation more frequently.
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relates to peripheral memories and information, as some evidence suggests that the misinformation effect is stronger on an ancillary, existent memory than on a new, purely fabricated memory. This effect is redoubled if its source is in the form of a narrative rather than a question. However, children are also more likely to accept misinformation when it is presented in specific questions rather than in open-ended questions.
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participants included misinformation. Afterward, participants viewed another film clip that was either arousing or neutral. One week later, the arousal group recognized significantly more details and endorsed significantly fewer misinformation items than the neutral group. Similarly, research also suggests that inducing social stress after presenting misinformation makes individuals less likely to accept misinformation.
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weapon was a screwdriver and participants were likely to choose the screwdriver rather than the hammer as correct. In the modified test condition, post-event information was not limited to one item, instead participants had the option of the hammer and another tool (a wrench, for example). In this condition, participants generally chose the hammer, showing that there was no memory impairment.
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56:, in which the false information given after the event becomes incorporated into people's memory of the actual event. The misinformation effect also appears to stem from memory impairment, meaning that post-event misinformation makes it harder for people to remember the event. The misinformation reflects two of the cardinal sins of memory:
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that the counter message must have at least as much support, if not more, than the initial message to present a fully developed counter-model for consideration. Otherwise, the recipient may not remember what was wrong about the information and fall back on their prior belief model due to lack of support for the new model.
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participants by an unreliable source: a lawyer representing the driver. The remaining participants were presented with misinformation, but given no indication of the source. The misinformation was rejected by those who received information from the unreliable source and adopted by the other group of subjects.
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point in time where video evidence that refutes the misinformation is present. Written and photographic contradictory evidence have also been shown to be similarly ineffective. Ultimately, this demonstrates that exposure to the original source is still not guaranteed to overcome the misinformation effect.
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Another model with some support is that of the use of questions. This model holds that the use of questions rather than declaratory statements prevents the misinformation effect from developing, even when the same information is presented in both scenarios. In fact, the use of questions in presenting
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A common method of unrooting false concepts is presenting a contrasting, "factual" message. While this would intuitively be a good means of portraying the information to be inaccurate, this type of direct opposition has been linked to an increase in misinformation belief. Some researchers hypothesize
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can change episodic memories and thereby affect witness' responses to questions about the original event. Additionally, witnesses are more likely to be swayed by misinformation when they are suffering from alcohol withdrawal or sleep deprivation, when interviewers are firm as opposed to friendly, and
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Psychologists have also evaluated whether discussion impacts the misinformation effect. One study examined the effects of discussion in groups on recognition. The experimenters used three different conditions: discussion in groups with a confederate providing misinformation, discussion in groups with
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and has been used to evaluate the trustworthiness of eyewitnesses' memory. After witnessing a crime or accident there may be opportunities for witnesses to interact and share information. Late-arriving bystanders or members of the media may ask witnesses to recall the event before law enforcement or
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information after the fact was linked with increased correct recall, and further with an increase in perfect recall among participants. The advocates of this view hold that this occurs because the mind incorporates definitive statements into itself, whereas it does not integrate questions as easily.
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In contrast, a different school of thought holds that sleep deprivation leads to greater vulnerability to the misinformation effect. This view holds that sleep deprivation increases individual suggestibility. This theory posits that this increased susceptibility would result in a related increase in
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Controversial perspectives exist regarding the effects of sleep on the misinformation effect. One school of thought supports the idea that sleep can increase individuals' vulnerability to the misinformation effect. In a study examining this, some evidence was found that misinformation susceptibility
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Individuals may not be actively rehearsing the details of a given event after encoding, as psychologists have found that the likelihood of incorporating misinformation increases as the delay between the original event and post-event information increases. Furthermore, studying the original event for
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The misinformation effect has been examined in individuals with varying imagery abilities. Participants viewed a filmed event followed by descriptive statements of the events in a traditional three-stage misinformation paradigm. Participants with higher imagery abilities were more susceptible to the
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Individuals with greater working memory capacity are better able to establish a more coherent image of an original event. Participants performed a dual task: simultaneously remembering a word list and judging the accuracy of arithmetic statements. Participants who were more accurate on the dual task
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Rich false memories are researchers' attempts to plant entire memories of events which never happened in participants' memories. Examples of such memories include fabricated stories about participants getting lost in the supermarket or shopping mall as children. Researchers often rely on suggestive
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Some reject the notion that misinformation always causes impairment of original memories. Modified tests can be used to examine the issue of long-term memory impairment. In one example of such a test,(1985) participants were shown a burglar with a hammer. Standard post-event information claimed the
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Some evidence has been shown to suggest that those suffering from the misinformation effect can often tell they are reporting inaccurate information but are insufficiently confident in their own recollections to act on this impression. As such, some research suggests that increased self-confidence,
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Some studies suggest that the misinformation effect can occur despite exposure to accurate information. This effect has been demonstrated when the participants have the ability to access an original, accurate video source at whim, and has even been demonstrated when the video is cued to the precise
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mistakes when it comes to the misinformation effect than younger ones, depending on the type of question being asked and the skillsets required in the recall. This contrasting perspective holds that the defining factor when it comes to age, at least in adults, depends largely on cognitive capacity,
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Additionally, there are different perspectives regarding the vulnerability of elderly adults to the misinformation effect. Some evidence suggests that elderly adults are more susceptible to the misinformation effect than younger adults. Contrary to this perspective, however, other studies hold that
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Similar methods continue to be used in misinformation effect studies. Standard methods involve showing subjects an event, usually in the form of a slideshow or video. The event is followed by a time delay and introduction of post-event information. Finally, participants are retested on their memory
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likely to accept both accurate and inaccurate post-event information than extrovert-sensate participants. Researchers suggested that this likely occurred because introverts are more likely to have lower confidence in their memory and are more likely to accept misinformation. Individual personality
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The misinformation effect can have dire consequences on decision making that can have harmful personal and public outcomes in a variety of circumstances. For this reason, various researchers have participated in the pursuit of a means to counter its effects, and many models have been proposed. As
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which occurs when information presented later interferes with the ability to retain previously encoded information. Individuals have also been shown to be susceptible to incorporating misleading information into their memory when it is presented within a question. Essentially, the new information
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is one of the most influential researchers in the field. One theory is that original information and the misleading information that was presented after the fact become blended together. Another theory is that the misleading information overwrites the original information. Scientists suggest that
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Correcting misinformation after it has been presented has been shown to be effective at significantly reducing the misinformation effect. Similarly, researchers have also examined whether warning people that they might have been exposed to misinformation after the fact impacts the misinformation
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Another direction of study in preventing the misinformation effect is the idea of using a pretest to prevent the misinformation effect. This theory posits that a test, applied prior to the introduction of misleading information, can help maintain the accuracy of the memories developed after that
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Various inhibited states of mind such as drunkenness and hypnosis can increase misinformation effects. Assefi and Garry (2002) found that participants who believed they had consumed alcohol showed results of the misinformation effect on recall tasks. The same was true of participants under the
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Some evidence suggests that participants, if paired together for discussion, tend to have a homogenizing effect on the memory of one another. In the laboratory, paired participants that discussed a topic containing misinformation tended to display some degree of memory blend, suggesting that the
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cortex was found which may have reflected the attention to visual detail, associated with later accurate memory for the critical item(s) and thus resulted in resistance to the effects of later misinformation. Retrieval of true memories was associated with greater reactivation of sensory-specific
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during an fMRI. Later, they viewed sentences describing the photographs, some of which contained information conflicting with the photographs. One day later, participants returned for a surprise item memory recognition test on the content of the photographs. Results showed that some participants
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Several studies have focused on the influence of the misinformation effect on various age groups. Young children—especially pre-school-aged children—are more susceptible than older children and adults to the misinformation effect. Young children are particularly susceptible to this effect as it
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It is important to note that not everyone is equally susceptible to the misinformation effect. Individual traits and qualities can either increase or decrease one's susceptibility to recalling misinformation. Such traits and qualities include age, working memory capacity, personality traits and
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The more reliable the source of the post-event information, the more likely it is that participants will adopt the information into their memory. For example, Dodd and
Bradshaw (1980) used slides of a car accident for their original event. They then had misinformation delivered to half of the
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Research published in 2008 showed that placebos enhanced memory performance. Participants were given a placebo "cognitive enhancing drug" called R273. When they participated in a misinformation effect experiment, people who took R273 were more resistant to the effects of misleading post-event
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such as in the form of self-affirmative messages and positive feedback, can weaken the misinformation effect. Unfortunately, due to the difficulty of introducing increased self-regard in the moment, these treatment methods are held to not be particularly realistic for use in a given moment.
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One of the problems with countering the misinformation effect, linked with the complexity of human memory, is the influence of information, whether legitimate or falsified, that appears to support the false information. The presence of these confirmatory messages can serve to validate the
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Arousal induced after learning reduces source confusion, allowing participants to better retrieve accurate details and reject misinformation. In a study of how to reduce the misinformation effect, participants viewed four short film clips, each followed by a retention test, which for some
104:. Following the slides and the reading of the description, participants were tested on what they saw. The results revealed that participants who were exposed to such misinformation were more likely to report seeing a yield sign than participants who were not misinformed.
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misinformation effect than those with lower abilities. The psychologists argued that participants with higher imagery abilities were more likely to form vivid images of the misleading information at encoding or at retrieval, therefore increasing susceptibility.
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Educating participants about the misinformation effect can enable them to resist its influence. However, if warnings are given after the presentation of misinformation, they do not aid participants in discriminating between original and post-event information.
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of the original event. The original study paved the way for multiple replications of the effect in order to test things such as the specific processes initially causing the effect to occur and how individual differences influence susceptibility to the effect.
218:, have also been linked to greater susceptibility. Furthermore, research indicates that people are more susceptible to misinformation when they are more cooperative, dependent on rewards, and self-directed and have lower levels of fear of negative evaluation.
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and the cognitive deterioration that commonly accompanies age to be the typical cause of the typically observed decline. Additionally, there is some research to suggest that older adults and younger adults are equally susceptible to misinformation effects.
355:, attempts to unroot misinformation can have lingering unaddressed effects that do not display in short term examination. Although various perspectives have been proposed, all suffer from a similar lack of meta-analytic examination.
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Research on the misinformation effect has uncovered concerns about the permanence and reliability of memory. Understanding the misinformation effect is also important given its implications for the accuracy of
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Polak, Mateusz; Dukała, Karolina; Szpitalak, Malwina; Polczyk, Romuald (2015-07-24). "Toward a Non-memory
Misinformation Effect: Accessing the Original Source Does Not Prevent Yielding to Misinformation".
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Darsaud, Annabelle; Dehon, Hedwige; Lahl, Olaf; Sterpenich, Virginie; Boly, Mélanie; Dang-Vu, Thanh; Desseilles, Martin; Gais, Stephen; Matarazzo, Luca; Peters, Frédéric; Schabus, Manuel. "
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Parker, Sophie; Garry, Maryanne; Engle, Randall W.; Harper, David N.; Clifasefi, Seema L. (2008). "Psychotropic placebos reduce the misinformation effect by increasing monitoring at test".
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misinformation as presented, making it more difficult to unroot the problem. This is particularly present in situations where the person has a desire for the information to be legitimate.
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Goodwin, Kerri A.; Hannah, Passion J.; Nicholl, Meg C.; Ferri, Jenna M. (March 2017). "The
Confident Co-witness: The Effects of Misinformation on Memory After Collaborative Discussion".
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and colleagues conducts early misinformation effect studies in 1974 and 1978. Both studies involved automobile accidents. In the latter study, participants were shown a series of
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the impact of the information on the subsequent point of data. Pretesting also, paradoxically, has been linked with a decrease in accurate attributions from the original sample.
77:, as there are many chances for misinformation to be incorporated into witnesses' memories through conversations with other witnesses, police questioning, and court appearances.
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Paterson, Helen M.; Kemp, Richard I.; Ng, Jodie R. (2011). "Combating Co-witness contamination: Attempting to decrease the negative effects of discussion on eyewitness memory".
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Gudjonsson, Hannesdottir, etursson, Bjornsson (2002). "The effects of alcohol withdrawal on mental state, interrogative suggestibility and compliance: An experimental study".
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research on this issue also suggests that the retrieval of false memories is associated with reduced attention and recollection related processing relative to true memories.
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There are a few existing evidence-based models for addressing the misinformation effect. Each of these, however, have their own limitations that impact their effectiveness.
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Tessoulin, Marine; Galharret, Jean-Michel; Gilet, Anne-Laure; Colombel, Fabienne (2020-01-01). "Misinformation Effect in Aging: A New Light with
Equivalence Testing".
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Scoboria, A.; Mazzoni, Giuliana; Kirsch, Irving; Milling, Leonard (2002). "Immediate and persisting effects of misleading questions and hypnosis on memory reports".
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Paterson, Helen M.; Kemp, Richard I.; Forgas, Joseph P. (2009). "Co-Witnesses, Confederates, and
Conformity: Effects of Discussion and Delay on Eyewitness Memory".
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Lee, Kerry (2004). "Age, Neuropsychological, and Social
Cognitive Measures as Predictors of Individual Differences in Susceptibility to the Misinformation Effect".
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is one type of test used to assess participant personalities. Individuals were presented with the same misinformation procedure as that used in the original Loftus
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McCloskey, M.; Zaragoza, Maria (1985). "Misleading postevent information and memory for events: Arguments and evidence against memory impairment hypotheses".
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Saudners, J.; MacLeod, Malcolm D. (2002). "New evidence on the suggestibility of memory: The role of retrieval-induced forgetting in misinformation effects".
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created false memories, reporting the verbal misinformation conflicting with the photographs. During the original event phase, increased activity in left the
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that a person receives works backward in time to distort memory of the original event. One mechanism through which the misinformation effect occurs is
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point. This model, however, has two primary limitations: its effects only seem to hold for one item at a time, and data supports the idea that it
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Vornik, L.; Sharman, Stefanie; Garry, Maryanne (2003). "The power of the spoken word: Sociolinguistic cues influence the misinformation effect".
96:. After viewing the slides, participants read a description of what they saw. Some of the participants were given descriptions that contained
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The misinformation effect can be observed in many situations. In particular, research on the misinformation effect has frequently applied to
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Lee, Yuh-shiow; Chen, Kuan-Nan (2012-04-17). "Post-event information presented in a question form eliminates the misinformation effect".
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Roediger, H., Jacoby, J., McDermott, K. (1996). "Misinformation effects in recall: Creating false memories through repeated retrieval".
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Blank, Hartmut (September 1998). "Memory States and Memory Tasks: An
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study in 1978 (see above). The results were evaluated in regards to their personality type. Introvert-intuitive participants were
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Misinformation Effect and the Type of Misinformation: Objects and the Temporal Structure of an Episode".
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Current research on the misinformation effect presents numerous implications for our understanding of human memory overall.
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becomes less accurate because of post-event information. The misinformation effect has been studied since the mid-1970s.
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Assefi, S.; Garry, Maryanne (2003). "Absolut memory distortions: Alcohol placebos influence the misinformation effect".
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information. As a result of taking R273, people used stricter source monitoring and attributed their behavior to the
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longer periods of time leads to lower susceptibility to the misinformation effect, due to increased rehearsal time.
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1299:
1291:
1247:
1117:
928:
920:
571:
2948:
1923:
1486:
338:
93:
2869:
2689:
2646:
2584:
2487:
2371:
2114:
2068:
2013:
1974:
1931:
1703:
1512:
1444:
1255:
1205:
1125:
1078:
1024:
812:
589:
2818:
2225:
1990:"Reduction of the misinformation effect by arousal induced after learning"
1790:
1752:
1643:
1594:
1069:
1052:
3437:
936:
3150:
1743:
1726:
207:
2601:
Huff, Mark J.; Weinsheimer, Camille C.; Bodner, Glen E. (2015-09-15).
2568:
1016:
739:
Belli, Robert F.; Loftus, Elizabeth F. (1996), Rubin, David C. (ed.),
2720:
2619:
2420:
2153:
1896:
1196:
1179:
972:
120:
1544:
1527:
1410:"Aging and the misinformation effect: A neuropsychological analysis"
1417:
Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition
342:
when participants experience repeated questioning about the event.
38:
905:"Semantic integration of verbal information into a visual memory"
903:
Loftus, Elizabeth F.; Miller, David G.; Burns, Helen J. (1978).
2890:
2886:
998:
996:
994:
992:
990:
2138:"Sleep Increases Susceptibility to the Misinformation Effect"
909:
Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Learning and Memory
403:
Pretesting as a means of preventing the misinformation Effect
747:, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 157–179,
62:, the influence of others' expectations on our memory; and
656:
Ogle, Christin M.; Chae, Yoojin; Goodman, Gail S. (2010),
701:
Robinson-Riegler, B., & Robinson-Riegler, G. (2004).
745:
Remembering our Past: Studies in Autobiographical Memory
530:
Psychology: Themes and Variations: Themes and Variations
1860:
Karns, T.; Irvin, S.; Suranic, S.; Rivardo, M. (2009).
1725:
Tousignant, J.; Hall, David; Loftus, Elizabeth (1986).
703:
Cognitive Psychology: Applying the Science of the Mind
92:, one of which featured a car stopping in front of a
3797:
3766:
3625:
3618:
3511:
3483:
3415:
3372:
3344:
3304:
3246:
3141:
3047:
3022:
2974:
2967:
2924:
2761:
Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition
1173:
1171:
1169:
1167:
1165:
1163:
1057:
Cognitive, Affective, & Behavioral Neuroscience
346:
Struggles with addressing the misinformation effect
1161:
1159:
1157:
1155:
1153:
1151:
1149:
1147:
1145:
1143:
605:"What is an example of the misinformation effect?"
1222:Bruck, Maggie; Ceci, Stephen J. (February 1999).
43:Visual display of retroactive memory interference
2792:
2790:
560:Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior
69:information attributed to an incorrect source.
870:Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior
864:Loftus, Elizabeth F.; Palmer, John C. (1974).
386:Strategies to reduce the misinformation effect
2902:
2755:Blank, Hartmut; Launay, CĂ©line (2014-06-01).
1764:
1762:
8:
2703:Crozier, William E.; Strange, Deryn (2019).
2392:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
2343:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
2272:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
1855:
1853:
1851:
1849:
1847:
1845:
1843:
1656:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
1607:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
1558:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
715:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
425:Post-misinformation corrections and warnings
3033:The Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two
2292:Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied
2177:Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied
2088:
2086:
1988:English, Shaun; Nielson, Kristy A. (2010).
1955:Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied
1280:Current Directions in Psychological Science
47:The misinformation effect is an example of
16:Effect of later events on a previous memory
3622:
2971:
2909:
2895:
2887:
1526:Jaschinski, U., & Wentura, D. (2004).
696:
694:
2636:
2618:
2477:
2459:
1742:
1543:
1494:
1408:Roediger, Henry L.; Geraci, Lisa (2007).
1224:"The Suggestibility of Children's Memory"
1195:
1068:
794:
664:, American Cancer Society, pp. 1–3,
579:
100:, which stated that the car stopped at a
1092:Kiat, John E.; Belli, Robert F. (2017).
460:Daily applications: eyewitness testimony
236:misinformation had diffused among them.
1046:
1044:
1042:
519:
2750:
2748:
2746:
2705:"Correcting the misinformation effect"
2385:
2336:
2319:Personality and Individual Differences
2265:
1649:
1600:
1551:
1385:
1375:
1273:
1271:
1269:
1267:
1265:
1217:
1215:
954:
952:
950:
948:
946:
708:
662:The Corsini Encyclopedia of Psychology
2596:
2594:
2550:
2548:
2546:
2501:
2499:
2497:
1669:
1667:
1475:The Journals of Gerontology: Series B
1403:
1401:
1399:
734:
732:
730:
728:
726:
117:Functional magnetic resonance imaging
7:
1866:North American Journal of Psychology
826:
824:
822:
651:
649:
1098:Neurobiology of Learning and Memory
325:the development of false memories.
2799:Journal of Experimental Psychology
2211:Does Sleep Promote False Memories?
1771:Journal of Experimental Psychology
1636:10.1111/j.2044-8295.1993.tb02466.x
783:Journal of Experimental Psychology
620:The American Journal of Psychology
14:
3314:Deese–Roediger–McDermott paradigm
2215:Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience
705:. Allyn & Bacon. p. 313.
533:. Cengage Learning. p. 338.
285:Arousal and stress after learning
3859:
3847:
2674:10.1111/j.2044-8295.2012.02109.x
670:10.1002/9780470479216.corpsy0338
2006:10.1016/j.cognition.2010.08.014
377:Exposure to the original source
3524:Atkinson–Shiffrin memory model
3397:Memory and social interactions
2360:Journal of Memory and Language
2240:Journal of Forensic Psychiatry
2053:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2018.12.008
1814:Psychiatry, Psychology and Law
1240:10.1146/annurev.psych.50.1.419
845:10.1093/obo/9780199828340-0026
368:Directly oppositional messages
1:
2662:British Journal of Psychology
1624:British Journal of Psychology
1587:10.1080/00221309.1985.9711003
1575:Journal of General Psychology
882:10.1016/S0022-5371(74)80011-3
3233:Retrieval-induced forgetting
2773:10.1016/j.jarmac.2014.03.005
2709:Applied Cognitive Psychology
2607:Applied Cognitive Psychology
2409:Applied Cognitive Psychology
2142:Applied Cognitive Psychology
1885:Applied Cognitive Psychology
1532:Applied Cognitive Psychology
1323:Applied Cognitive Psychology
961:Applied Cognitive Psychology
753:10.1017/cbo9780511527913.006
640:10.5406/amerjpsyc.130.4.0467
632:10.5406/amerjpsyc.130.4.0467
1783:10.1037/0096-3445.118.1.100
1228:Annual Review of Psychology
206:characteristics, including
195:Myers–Briggs Type Indicator
137:cortices, for example, the
3923:
3571:Levels of Processing model
3496:World Memory Championships
3329:Lost in the mall technique
3176:dissociative (psychogenic)
2331:10.1016/j.paid.2005.06.017
1429:10.1037/0278-7393.33.2.321
3842:
2811:10.1037/0096-3445.114.1.1
2521:10.1007/s12144-015-9352-8
2252:10.1080/09585180210122682
2107:10.1080/09658210801956922
1826:10.1080/13218710802620380
1688:10.1080/09658210802019696
1110:10.1016/j.nlm.2017.04.007
805:10.1037/1076-898X.8.2.127
3609:The Seven Sins of Memory
3554:Intermediate-term memory
3359:Indirect tests of memory
3336:Recovered-memory therapy
3286:Misattribution of memory
2854:10.1177/0956797614562862
2461:10.1177/0956797617714579
2304:10.1037/1076-898x.2.1.48
2189:10.1037/1076-898x.2.1.48
2041:Psychoneuroendocrinology
1967:10.1037/1076-898X.8.1.26
1292:10.1177/0963721410396620
921:10.1037/0278-7393.4.1.19
572:10.1901/jeab.2011.96-343
267:Discussion and rehearsal
49:retroactive interference
3296:Source-monitoring error
1924:10.1111/1467-9280.01422
554:Challies, Dana (2011).
312:and not to themselves.
281:influence of hypnosis.
176:Working memory capacity
23:occurs when a person's
3703:George Armitage Miller
3663:Patricia Goldman-Rakic
2372:10.1006/jmla.1996.0017
1731:Memory & Cognition
833:"Eyewitness Testimony"
658:"Eyewitness Testimony"
167:older adults may make
143:Electroencephalography
44:
21:misinformation effect
3866:Philosophy portal
3854:Psychology portal
3718:Henry L. Roediger III
3319:False memory syndrome
3291:Misinformation effect
3271:Imagination inflation
2842:Psychological Science
2448:Psychological Science
1912:Psychological Science
1496:10.1093/geronb/gbz057
1487:10.1093/geronb/gbz057
1184:Learning & Memory
1070:10.3758/cabn.10.3.339
527:Wayne Weiten (2010).
394:Increased self regard
353:Source Misattribution
303:Psychotropic placebos
54:source misattribution
42:
3223:Motivated forgetting
466:eyewitness testimony
416:The use of questions
75:eyewitness testimony
3733:Arthur P. Shimamura
3633:Richard C. Atkinson
3450:Effects of exercise
3324:Memory implantation
3208:Interference theory
3124:Selective retention
3104:Meaningful learning
1820:(sup1): S112–S124.
1178:Loftus, E. (2005).
451:Rich false memories
240:Influential factors
231:Paired participants
154:imagery abilities.
112:Neurological causes
3887:1974 introductions
3830:Andriy Slyusarchuk
3653:Hermann Ebbinghaus
3559:Involuntary memory
3460:Memory improvement
3445:Effects of alcohol
3407:Transactive memory
3385:Politics of memory
3354:Exceptional memory
2509:Current Psychology
1744:10.3758/bf03202511
359:False confirmation
339:narrative accounts
258:Source reliability
189:Personality traits
45:
3874:
3873:
3838:
3837:
3825:Cosmos Rossellius
3673:Marcia K. Johnson
3544:Exosomatic memory
3529:Context-dependent
3519:Absent-mindedness
3402:Memory conformity
3380:Collective memory
3281:Memory conformity
3218:Memory inhibition
3137:
3136:
3129:Tip of the tongue
2569:10.1080/741943086
2454:(11): 1531–1546.
1369:978-1-317-80300-3
1051:Baym, C. (2010).
1017:10.1080/741938170
762:978-0-521-46145-0
679:978-0-470-47921-6
540:978-0-495-60197-5
499:Memory conformity
489:Eyewitness memory
484:Encoding (memory)
335:leading questions
222:Imagery abilities
29:episodic memories
3914:
3864:
3863:
3862:
3852:
3851:
3850:
3805:Jonathan Hancock
3758:Robert Stickgold
3728:Richard Shiffrin
3683:Elizabeth Loftus
3623:
3539:Childhood memory
3346:Research methods
3228:Repressed memory
3203:Forgetting curve
3191:transient global
3062:Autobiographical
2972:
2911:
2904:
2897:
2888:
2882:
2881:
2837:
2831:
2830:
2794:
2785:
2784:
2752:
2741:
2740:
2721:10.1002/acp.3499
2700:
2694:
2693:
2657:
2651:
2650:
2640:
2622:
2620:10.1002/acp.3167
2598:
2589:
2588:
2552:
2541:
2540:
2503:
2492:
2491:
2481:
2463:
2439:
2433:
2432:
2421:10.1002/acp.3320
2404:
2398:
2397:
2391:
2383:
2355:
2349:
2348:
2342:
2334:
2314:
2308:
2307:
2284:
2278:
2277:
2271:
2263:
2235:
2229:
2207:
2201:
2200:
2172:
2166:
2165:
2154:10.1002/acp.3259
2148:(6): 1061–1067.
2133:
2127:
2126:
2090:
2081:
2080:
2032:
2026:
2025:
1985:
1979:
1978:
1950:
1944:
1943:
1907:
1901:
1900:
1897:10.1002/acp.1640
1880:
1874:
1873:
1857:
1838:
1837:
1809:
1803:
1802:
1766:
1757:
1756:
1746:
1722:
1716:
1715:
1671:
1662:
1661:
1655:
1647:
1619:
1613:
1612:
1606:
1598:
1570:
1564:
1563:
1557:
1549:
1547:
1523:
1517:
1516:
1498:
1470:
1464:
1463:
1461:
1455:. Archived from
1414:
1405:
1394:
1393:
1387:
1383:
1381:
1373:
1353:
1347:
1346:
1318:
1312:
1311:
1275:
1260:
1259:
1219:
1210:
1209:
1199:
1197:10.1101/lm.94705
1175:
1138:
1137:
1089:
1083:
1082:
1072:
1048:
1037:
1036:
1000:
985:
984:
973:10.1002/acp.1075
956:
941:
940:
900:
894:
893:
861:
855:
854:
852:
851:
828:
817:
816:
798:
778:
772:
771:
770:
769:
736:
721:
720:
714:
706:
698:
689:
688:
687:
686:
653:
644:
643:
615:
609:
608:
600:
594:
593:
583:
551:
545:
544:
524:
504:Storage (memory)
333:Most obviously,
252:Elizabeth Loftus
139:occipital cortex
33:Elizabeth Loftus
3922:
3921:
3917:
3916:
3915:
3913:
3912:
3911:
3877:
3876:
3875:
3870:
3860:
3858:
3848:
3846:
3834:
3815:Dominic O'Brien
3793:
3762:
3743:Susumu Tonegawa
3723:Daniel Schacter
3698:Eleanor Maguire
3688:Geoffrey Loftus
3643:Stephen J. Ceci
3638:Robert A. Bjork
3614:
3533:state-dependent
3507:
3479:
3411:
3392:Cultural memory
3368:
3364:Memory disorder
3340:
3300:
3242:
3133:
3043:
3018:
2963:
2920:
2915:
2885:
2839:
2838:
2834:
2796:
2795:
2788:
2754:
2753:
2744:
2702:
2701:
2697:
2659:
2658:
2654:
2600:
2599:
2592:
2554:
2553:
2544:
2505:
2504:
2495:
2441:
2440:
2436:
2406:
2405:
2401:
2384:
2357:
2356:
2352:
2335:
2316:
2315:
2311:
2286:
2285:
2281:
2264:
2237:
2236:
2232:
2208:
2204:
2174:
2173:
2169:
2135:
2134:
2130:
2092:
2091:
2084:
2034:
2033:
2029:
1987:
1986:
1982:
1952:
1951:
1947:
1909:
1908:
1904:
1882:
1881:
1877:
1859:
1858:
1841:
1811:
1810:
1806:
1768:
1767:
1760:
1724:
1723:
1719:
1673:
1672:
1665:
1648:
1621:
1620:
1616:
1599:
1572:
1571:
1567:
1550:
1545:10.1002/acp.783
1525:
1524:
1520:
1472:
1471:
1467:
1459:
1412:
1407:
1406:
1397:
1384:
1374:
1370:
1355:
1354:
1350:
1320:
1319:
1315:
1277:
1276:
1263:
1221:
1220:
1213:
1177:
1176:
1141:
1091:
1090:
1086:
1050:
1049:
1040:
1002:
1001:
988:
967:(8): 997–1019.
958:
957:
944:
902:
901:
897:
863:
862:
858:
849:
847:
830:
829:
820:
796:10.1.1.515.8790
780:
779:
775:
767:
765:
763:
738:
737:
724:
707:
700:
699:
692:
684:
682:
680:
655:
654:
647:
617:
616:
612:
602:
601:
597:
553:
552:
548:
541:
526:
525:
521:
517:
475:
462:
453:
444:
436:
427:
418:
405:
396:
388:
379:
370:
361:
348:
331:
318:
305:
296:
287:
278:
269:
260:
247:
242:
233:
224:
216:self-monitoring
191:
178:
160:
151:
114:
83:
17:
12:
11:
5:
3920:
3918:
3910:
3909:
3907:Misinformation
3904:
3899:
3894:
3889:
3879:
3878:
3872:
3871:
3869:
3868:
3856:
3843:
3840:
3839:
3836:
3835:
3833:
3832:
3827:
3822:
3817:
3812:
3810:Paul R. McHugh
3807:
3801:
3799:
3795:
3794:
3792:
3791:
3786:
3781:
3776:
3770:
3768:
3764:
3763:
3761:
3760:
3755:
3750:
3745:
3740:
3735:
3730:
3725:
3720:
3715:
3710:
3705:
3700:
3695:
3690:
3685:
3680:
3675:
3670:
3668:Ivan Izquierdo
3665:
3660:
3655:
3650:
3645:
3640:
3635:
3629:
3627:
3620:
3616:
3615:
3613:
3612:
3605:
3595:
3594:
3593:
3583:
3578:
3573:
3568:
3567:
3566:
3556:
3551:
3546:
3541:
3536:
3526:
3521:
3515:
3513:
3509:
3508:
3506:
3505:
3500:
3499:
3498:
3487:
3485:
3481:
3480:
3478:
3477:
3472:
3467:
3462:
3457:
3452:
3447:
3442:
3441:
3440:
3435:
3425:
3419:
3417:
3413:
3412:
3410:
3409:
3404:
3399:
3394:
3389:
3388:
3387:
3376:
3374:
3370:
3369:
3367:
3366:
3361:
3356:
3350:
3348:
3342:
3341:
3339:
3338:
3333:
3332:
3331:
3321:
3316:
3310:
3308:
3302:
3301:
3299:
3298:
3293:
3288:
3283:
3278:
3273:
3268:
3266:Hindsight bias
3263:
3258:
3252:
3250:
3244:
3243:
3241:
3240:
3235:
3230:
3225:
3220:
3215:
3213:Memory erasure
3210:
3205:
3200:
3195:
3194:
3193:
3188:
3183:
3178:
3173:
3171:post-traumatic
3168:
3163:
3158:
3147:
3145:
3139:
3138:
3135:
3134:
3132:
3131:
3126:
3121:
3116:
3111:
3109:Personal-event
3106:
3101:
3096:
3091:
3086:
3085:
3084:
3079:
3074:
3064:
3059:
3053:
3051:
3045:
3044:
3042:
3041:
3039:Working memory
3036:
3028:
3026:
3020:
3019:
3017:
3016:
3011:
3009:Motor learning
3006:
3001:
2996:
2991:
2986:
2980:
2978:
2969:
2965:
2964:
2962:
2961:
2956:
2951:
2945:
2944:
2939:
2934:
2928:
2926:
2925:Basic concepts
2922:
2921:
2916:
2914:
2913:
2906:
2899:
2891:
2884:
2883:
2848:(3): 291–301.
2832:
2786:
2742:
2715:(4): 585–595.
2695:
2668:(1): 119–129.
2652:
2590:
2563:(5): 481–529.
2542:
2493:
2434:
2415:(2): 225–235.
2399:
2366:(2): 300–318.
2350:
2309:
2279:
2230:
2202:
2167:
2128:
2101:(4): 410–419.
2082:
2027:
2000:(2): 237–242.
1980:
1945:
1902:
1875:
1839:
1804:
1777:(1): 100–104.
1758:
1737:(4): 329–338.
1717:
1682:(4): 436–442.
1663:
1614:
1581:(2): 191–200.
1565:
1538:(2): 223–231.
1518:
1465:
1462:on 2021-02-15.
1423:(2): 321–334.
1395:
1386:|journal=
1368:
1348:
1329:(2): 163–182.
1313:
1261:
1234:(1): 419–439.
1211:
1190:(4): 361–366.
1139:
1084:
1063:(3): 339–348.
1038:
1011:(1): 101–109.
986:
942:
895:
876:(5): 585–589.
856:
818:
789:(2): 127–142.
773:
761:
722:
690:
678:
645:
626:(4): 467–476.
610:
595:
566:(3): 343–362.
546:
539:
518:
516:
513:
512:
511:
506:
501:
496:
494:Hindsight bias
491:
486:
481:
474:
471:
461:
458:
452:
449:
443:
440:
435:
432:
426:
423:
417:
414:
404:
401:
395:
392:
387:
384:
378:
375:
369:
366:
360:
357:
347:
344:
330:
327:
317:
314:
304:
301:
295:
292:
286:
283:
277:
274:
268:
265:
259:
256:
246:
243:
241:
238:
232:
229:
223:
220:
190:
187:
177:
174:
159:
156:
150:
149:Susceptibility
147:
128:and the right
126:fusiform gyrus
113:
110:
98:misinformation
82:
79:
65:misattribution
59:suggestibility
15:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3919:
3908:
3905:
3903:
3900:
3898:
3897:Memory biases
3895:
3893:
3890:
3888:
3885:
3884:
3882:
3867:
3857:
3855:
3845:
3844:
3841:
3831:
3828:
3826:
3823:
3821:
3818:
3816:
3813:
3811:
3808:
3806:
3803:
3802:
3800:
3796:
3790:
3789:Clive Wearing
3787:
3785:
3782:
3780:
3777:
3775:
3772:
3771:
3769:
3765:
3759:
3756:
3754:
3753:Endel Tulving
3751:
3749:
3748:Anne Treisman
3746:
3744:
3741:
3739:
3736:
3734:
3731:
3729:
3726:
3724:
3721:
3719:
3716:
3714:
3711:
3709:
3708:Brenda Milner
3706:
3704:
3701:
3699:
3696:
3694:
3693:James McGaugh
3691:
3689:
3686:
3684:
3681:
3679:
3676:
3674:
3671:
3669:
3666:
3664:
3661:
3659:
3658:Sigmund Freud
3656:
3654:
3651:
3649:
3646:
3644:
3641:
3639:
3636:
3634:
3631:
3630:
3628:
3624:
3621:
3617:
3611:
3610:
3606:
3603:
3602:retrospective
3599:
3596:
3592:
3589:
3588:
3587:
3584:
3582:
3581:Muscle memory
3579:
3577:
3574:
3572:
3569:
3565:
3562:
3561:
3560:
3557:
3555:
3552:
3550:
3547:
3545:
3542:
3540:
3537:
3534:
3530:
3527:
3525:
3522:
3520:
3517:
3516:
3514:
3510:
3504:
3501:
3497:
3494:
3493:
3492:
3489:
3488:
3486:
3482:
3476:
3473:
3471:
3468:
3466:
3463:
3461:
3458:
3456:
3453:
3451:
3448:
3446:
3443:
3439:
3436:
3434:
3431:
3430:
3429:
3428:Art of memory
3426:
3424:
3421:
3420:
3418:
3414:
3408:
3405:
3403:
3400:
3398:
3395:
3393:
3390:
3386:
3383:
3382:
3381:
3378:
3377:
3375:
3371:
3365:
3362:
3360:
3357:
3355:
3352:
3351:
3349:
3347:
3343:
3337:
3334:
3330:
3327:
3326:
3325:
3322:
3320:
3317:
3315:
3312:
3311:
3309:
3307:
3303:
3297:
3294:
3292:
3289:
3287:
3284:
3282:
3279:
3277:
3276:Memory biases
3274:
3272:
3269:
3267:
3264:
3262:
3259:
3257:
3256:Confabulation
3254:
3253:
3251:
3249:
3248:Memory errors
3245:
3239:
3236:
3234:
3231:
3229:
3226:
3224:
3221:
3219:
3216:
3214:
3211:
3209:
3206:
3204:
3201:
3199:
3196:
3192:
3189:
3187:
3184:
3182:
3179:
3177:
3174:
3172:
3169:
3167:
3166:post-hypnotic
3164:
3162:
3159:
3157:
3154:
3153:
3152:
3149:
3148:
3146:
3144:
3140:
3130:
3127:
3125:
3122:
3120:
3119:Rote learning
3117:
3115:
3112:
3110:
3107:
3105:
3102:
3100:
3097:
3095:
3094:Hyperthymesia
3092:
3090:
3087:
3083:
3080:
3078:
3075:
3073:
3070:
3069:
3068:
3065:
3063:
3060:
3058:
3057:Active recall
3055:
3054:
3052:
3050:
3046:
3040:
3037:
3034:
3030:
3029:
3027:
3025:
3021:
3015:
3012:
3010:
3007:
3005:
3002:
3000:
2997:
2995:
2992:
2990:
2987:
2985:
2982:
2981:
2979:
2977:
2973:
2970:
2966:
2960:
2957:
2955:
2954:Consolidation
2952:
2950:
2947:
2946:
2943:
2940:
2938:
2935:
2933:
2930:
2929:
2927:
2923:
2919:
2912:
2907:
2905:
2900:
2898:
2893:
2892:
2889:
2879:
2875:
2871:
2867:
2863:
2859:
2855:
2851:
2847:
2843:
2836:
2833:
2828:
2824:
2820:
2816:
2812:
2808:
2804:
2800:
2793:
2791:
2787:
2782:
2778:
2774:
2770:
2766:
2762:
2758:
2751:
2749:
2747:
2743:
2738:
2734:
2730:
2726:
2722:
2718:
2714:
2710:
2706:
2699:
2696:
2691:
2687:
2683:
2679:
2675:
2671:
2667:
2663:
2656:
2653:
2648:
2644:
2639:
2634:
2630:
2626:
2621:
2616:
2612:
2608:
2604:
2597:
2595:
2591:
2586:
2582:
2578:
2574:
2570:
2566:
2562:
2558:
2551:
2549:
2547:
2543:
2538:
2534:
2530:
2526:
2522:
2518:
2514:
2510:
2502:
2500:
2498:
2494:
2489:
2485:
2480:
2475:
2471:
2467:
2462:
2457:
2453:
2449:
2445:
2438:
2435:
2430:
2426:
2422:
2418:
2414:
2410:
2403:
2400:
2395:
2389:
2381:
2377:
2373:
2369:
2365:
2361:
2354:
2351:
2346:
2340:
2332:
2328:
2324:
2320:
2313:
2310:
2305:
2301:
2297:
2293:
2289:
2283:
2280:
2275:
2269:
2261:
2257:
2253:
2249:
2245:
2241:
2234:
2231:
2227:
2224:
2220:
2216:
2212:
2206:
2203:
2198:
2194:
2190:
2186:
2182:
2178:
2171:
2168:
2163:
2159:
2155:
2151:
2147:
2143:
2139:
2132:
2129:
2124:
2120:
2116:
2112:
2108:
2104:
2100:
2096:
2089:
2087:
2083:
2078:
2074:
2070:
2066:
2062:
2058:
2054:
2050:
2046:
2042:
2038:
2031:
2028:
2023:
2019:
2015:
2011:
2007:
2003:
1999:
1995:
1991:
1984:
1981:
1976:
1972:
1968:
1964:
1960:
1956:
1949:
1946:
1941:
1937:
1933:
1929:
1925:
1921:
1917:
1913:
1906:
1903:
1898:
1894:
1890:
1886:
1879:
1876:
1871:
1867:
1863:
1856:
1854:
1852:
1850:
1848:
1846:
1844:
1840:
1835:
1831:
1827:
1823:
1819:
1815:
1808:
1805:
1800:
1796:
1792:
1788:
1784:
1780:
1776:
1772:
1765:
1763:
1759:
1754:
1750:
1745:
1740:
1736:
1732:
1728:
1721:
1718:
1713:
1709:
1705:
1701:
1697:
1693:
1689:
1685:
1681:
1677:
1670:
1668:
1664:
1659:
1653:
1645:
1641:
1637:
1633:
1629:
1625:
1618:
1615:
1610:
1604:
1596:
1592:
1588:
1584:
1580:
1576:
1569:
1566:
1561:
1555:
1546:
1541:
1537:
1533:
1529:
1522:
1519:
1514:
1510:
1506:
1502:
1497:
1492:
1488:
1484:
1481:(1): 96–103.
1480:
1476:
1469:
1466:
1458:
1454:
1450:
1446:
1442:
1438:
1434:
1430:
1426:
1422:
1418:
1411:
1404:
1402:
1400:
1396:
1391:
1379:
1371:
1365:
1361:
1360:
1352:
1349:
1344:
1340:
1336:
1332:
1328:
1324:
1317:
1314:
1309:
1305:
1301:
1297:
1293:
1289:
1285:
1281:
1274:
1272:
1270:
1268:
1266:
1262:
1257:
1253:
1249:
1245:
1241:
1237:
1233:
1229:
1225:
1218:
1216:
1212:
1207:
1203:
1198:
1193:
1189:
1185:
1181:
1174:
1172:
1170:
1168:
1166:
1164:
1162:
1160:
1158:
1156:
1154:
1152:
1150:
1148:
1146:
1144:
1140:
1135:
1131:
1127:
1123:
1119:
1115:
1111:
1107:
1103:
1099:
1095:
1088:
1085:
1080:
1076:
1071:
1066:
1062:
1058:
1054:
1047:
1045:
1043:
1039:
1034:
1030:
1026:
1022:
1018:
1014:
1010:
1006:
999:
997:
995:
993:
991:
987:
982:
978:
974:
970:
966:
962:
955:
953:
951:
949:
947:
943:
938:
934:
930:
926:
922:
918:
914:
910:
906:
899:
896:
891:
887:
883:
879:
875:
871:
867:
860:
857:
846:
842:
838:
834:
827:
825:
823:
819:
814:
810:
806:
802:
797:
792:
788:
784:
777:
774:
764:
758:
754:
750:
746:
742:
735:
733:
731:
729:
727:
723:
718:
712:
704:
697:
695:
691:
681:
675:
671:
667:
663:
659:
652:
650:
646:
641:
637:
633:
629:
625:
621:
614:
611:
606:
599:
596:
591:
587:
582:
577:
573:
569:
565:
561:
557:
550:
547:
542:
536:
532:
531:
523:
520:
514:
510:
507:
505:
502:
500:
497:
495:
492:
490:
487:
485:
482:
480:
479:Confabulation
477:
476:
472:
470:
467:
459:
457:
450:
448:
441:
439:
433:
431:
424:
422:
415:
413:
411:
402:
400:
393:
391:
385:
383:
376:
374:
367:
365:
358:
356:
354:
345:
343:
340:
336:
328:
326:
322:
315:
313:
311:
302:
300:
293:
291:
284:
282:
276:State of mind
275:
273:
266:
264:
257:
255:
253:
244:
239:
237:
230:
228:
221:
219:
217:
213:
209:
204:
200:
196:
188:
186:
184:
175:
173:
170:
164:
157:
155:
148:
146:
144:
140:
135:
131:
127:
122:
118:
111:
109:
105:
103:
99:
95:
91:
87:
80:
78:
76:
70:
68:
66:
61:
60:
55:
50:
41:
37:
34:
30:
26:
22:
3820:Ben Pridmore
3738:Larry Squire
3648:Susan Clancy
3607:
3491:Memory sport
3416:Other topics
3306:False memory
3290:
3261:Cryptomnesia
3238:Weapon focus
3198:Decay theory
2959:Neuroanatomy
2918:Human memory
2845:
2841:
2835:
2802:
2798:
2767:(2): 77–88.
2764:
2760:
2712:
2708:
2698:
2665:
2661:
2655:
2613:(1): 61–69.
2610:
2606:
2560:
2556:
2512:
2508:
2451:
2447:
2437:
2412:
2408:
2402:
2388:cite journal
2363:
2359:
2353:
2339:cite journal
2325:(1): 87–98.
2322:
2318:
2312:
2298:(1): 48–59.
2295:
2291:
2282:
2268:cite journal
2246:(1): 53–67.
2243:
2239:
2233:
2221:(1): 26–40.
2218:
2214:
2205:
2183:(1): 48–59.
2180:
2176:
2170:
2145:
2141:
2131:
2098:
2094:
2044:
2040:
2030:
1997:
1993:
1983:
1961:(1): 26–32.
1958:
1954:
1948:
1918:(1): 77–80.
1915:
1911:
1905:
1891:(1): 43–52.
1888:
1884:
1878:
1869:
1865:
1817:
1813:
1807:
1774:
1770:
1734:
1730:
1720:
1679:
1675:
1652:cite journal
1627:
1623:
1617:
1603:cite journal
1578:
1574:
1568:
1554:cite journal
1535:
1531:
1521:
1478:
1474:
1468:
1457:the original
1420:
1416:
1358:
1351:
1326:
1322:
1316:
1286:(1): 20–23.
1283:
1279:
1231:
1227:
1187:
1183:
1101:
1097:
1087:
1060:
1056:
1008:
1004:
964:
960:
915:(1): 19–31.
912:
908:
898:
873:
869:
859:
848:. Retrieved
836:
786:
782:
776:
766:, retrieved
744:
702:
683:, retrieved
661:
623:
619:
613:
603:Davis, Ben.
598:
563:
559:
549:
529:
522:
509:Weapon focus
463:
454:
445:
437:
434:Implications
428:
419:
409:
406:
397:
389:
380:
371:
362:
349:
332:
323:
319:
309:
306:
297:
294:Anticipation
288:
279:
270:
261:
248:
234:
225:
202:
198:
192:
182:
179:
168:
165:
161:
152:
141:for vision.
115:
106:
84:
71:
63:
57:
46:
20:
18:
3678:Eric Kandel
3626:Researchers
3598:Prospective
3549:Free recall
3503:Shas Pollak
3156:anterograde
3072:Declarative
2805:(1): 1–16.
2515:(1): 1–12.
2288:Blagrove, M
2047:: 164–171.
1872:(1): 17–28.
1630:: 111–118.
1104:: 199–208.
442:Variability
3881:Categories
3713:Lynn Nadel
3591:intertrial
3576:Metamemory
3564:flashbacks
3484:In society
3181:retrograde
3143:Forgetting
3114:Procedural
3024:Short-term
2994:Eyewitness
850:2021-05-10
768:2021-05-10
685:2021-05-10
515:References
212:absorption
102:yield sign
3465:Nutrition
3373:In groups
3186:selective
3161:childhood
3089:Flashbulb
3049:Long-term
2949:Attention
2862:0956-7976
2781:2211-3681
2737:149896487
2729:1099-0720
2682:0007-1269
2629:0888-4080
2577:0965-8211
2537:142215554
2529:1046-1310
2470:0956-7976
2429:0888-4080
2260:144438008
2226:0898-929X
2197:1076-898X
2162:1099-0720
2061:0306-4530
1994:Cognition
1834:145682214
1696:0965-8211
1505:1079-5014
1437:1939-1285
1388:ignored (
1378:cite book
1343:0888-4080
1300:0963-7214
1248:0066-4308
1118:1074-7427
929:0096-1515
890:143526400
791:CiteSeerX
711:cite book
410:increases
134:occipital
94:stop sign
3767:Patients
3438:mnemonic
3433:chunking
3099:Implicit
3082:Semantic
3077:Episodic
3067:Explicit
2932:Encoding
2870:25589599
2827:16314512
2690:23320446
2647:26949288
2585:10197161
2488:28895452
2380:27038956
2123:17256678
2115:18432485
2077:54457443
2069:30562688
2022:15833599
2014:20869046
1975:12009174
1940:13424525
1932:12564758
1799:14101134
1712:27539511
1704:18432487
1513:31075169
1453:10651997
1445:17352614
1308:54061899
1256:10074684
1206:16027179
1126:28442391
1079:20805535
1033:25328659
1025:12653492
981:58925370
813:12075691
590:22084495
473:See also
130:temporal
3586:Priming
3512:Related
3455:Emotion
3151:Amnesia
2989:Eidetic
2976:Sensory
2937:Storage
2878:4869911
2819:3156942
2638:4776340
2479:5673564
1791:2522502
1753:3762387
1644:8467368
1595:4056764
1134:4421445
581:3213001
310:placebo
208:empathy
81:Methods
3892:Memory
3619:People
3604:memory
3535:memory
3475:Trauma
3014:Visual
3004:Iconic
2999:Haptic
2984:Echoic
2942:Recall
2876:
2868:
2860:
2825:
2817:
2779:
2735:
2727:
2688:
2680:
2645:
2635:
2627:
2583:
2575:
2557:Memory
2535:
2527:
2486:
2476:
2468:
2427:
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