573:
known for their strong connection to the land and nature and preserved botanical knowledge, with healers, known as "curandeiros" or "meigas," who relied on local plants for healing purposes The
Asturian landscape, characterized by lush forests and mountainous terrain, provided a rich source of medicinal herbs used in traditional healing practices, with "yerbatos," who possessed extensive knowledge of local plants and their medicinal properties Barcelona, located in the Catalonia region of northeastern Spain, was a hub of cultural exchange during the Middle Ages, fostering the preservation and dissemination of medical knowledge. Catalan herbalists, known as "herbolarios," compiled manuscripts detailing the properties and uses of medicinal plants found in the region. The University of Barcelona, founded in 1450, played a pivotal role in advancing herbal medicine through its botanical gardens and academic pursuits.
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products with supposed health benefits, is increasing in developed countries. This brings attendant risks of toxicity and other effects on human health, despite the safe image of herbal remedies. Herbal medicines have been in use since long before modern medicine existed; there was and often still is little or no knowledge of the pharmacological basis of their actions, if any, or of their safety. The World Health
Organization formulated a policy on traditional medicine in 1991, and since then has published guidelines for them, with a series of monographs on widely used herbal medicines.
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phylogenetic signal". Since many plants that yield pharmaceutical drugs belong to just these groups, and the groups were independently used in three different world regions, the results were taken to mean 1) that these plant groups do have potential for medicinal efficacy, 2) that undefined pharmacological activity is associated with use in traditional medicine, and 3) that the use of a phylogenetic groups for possible plant medicines in one region may predict their use in the other regions.
1405:
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therapeutically sound usage. WHO notes in the strategy that countries are experiencing seven challenges to such implementation, namely in developing and enforcing policy; in integration; in safety and quality, especially in assessment of products and qualification of practitioners; in controlling advertising; in research and development; in education and training; and in the sharing of information.
1526:
1972:
that because a product comes from nature it must be safe: the existence of powerful natural poisons like atropine and nicotine shows this to be untrue. Further, the high standards applied to conventional medicines do not always apply to plant medicines, and dose can vary widely depending on the growth conditions of plants: older plants may be much more toxic than young ones, for instance.
33:
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depict French herbal remedies and their uses. Monasteries and convents served as centers of learning, where monks and nuns cultivated medicinal gardens. Likewise, in Italy, herbalism flourished with contribution
Italian physicians like Matthaeus Platearius who compiled herbal manuscripts, such as the "Circa Instans," which served as practical guides for herbal remedies.
1640:
347:
1609:, powdering, and extraction with alcohol, in each case yielding a mixture of substances. Decoction involves crushing and then boiling the plant material in water to produce a liquid extract that can be taken orally or applied topically. Powdering involves drying the plant material and then crushing it to yield a powder that can be compressed into
5026:"Scientific Opinion on the substantiation of health claims related to various food(s)/food constituent(s) and protection of cells from premature aging, antioxidant activity, antioxidant content and antioxidant properties, and protection of DNA, proteins and lipids from oxidative damage pursuant to Article 13(1) of Regulation (EC) No 1924/20061"
718:, in which livestock, crops and technologies were transferred between the Old World and the Americas in the 15th and 16th centuries. Medicinal herbs arriving in the Americas included garlic, ginger, and turmeric; coffee, tobacco and coca travelled in the other direction. In Mexico, the sixteenth century
3672:
Biodiversity and the
Ecosystem Approach in Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries. Satellite event on the occasion of the Ninth Regular Session of the Commission on Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture. Rome, 12β13 October 2002. Inter-Departmental Working Group on Biological Diversity for Food and
1688:
is marketed aggressively using the claims of traditional medicine. As of 2015, most products made from medicinal plants had not been tested for their safety and efficacy, and products that were marketed in developed economies and provided in the undeveloped world by traditional healers were of uneven
5716:
There is no reliable evidence from human studies that herbal remedies can treat, prevent or cure any type of cancer. Some clinical trials seem to show that certain
Chinese herbs may help people to live longer, might reduce side effects, and help to prevent cancer from coming back. This is especially
1971:
Plant medicines can cause adverse effects and even death, whether by side-effects of their active substances, by adulteration or contamination, by overdose, or by inappropriate prescription. Many such effects are known, while others remain to be explored scientifically. There is no reason to presume
1751:
Plant medicines have often not been tested systematically, but have come into use informally over the centuries. By 2007, clinical trials had demonstrated potentially useful activity in nearly 16% of herbal extracts; there was limited in vitro or in vivo evidence for roughly half the extracts; there
830:
Medicinal plants may provide three main kinds of benefit: health benefits to the people who consume them as medicines; financial benefits to people who harvest, process, and distribute them for sale; and society-wide benefits, such as job opportunities, taxation income, and a healthier labour force.
572:
In the
Iberian Peninsula, the regions of the North remained independent during the period of Islamic occupation, and retained their traditional and indigenous medical practices. Galicia and Asturias, possessed a rich herbal heritage shaped by its Celtic and Roman influences. The Galician people were
422:
Among the Celtic peoples of ancient Europe, herbalism played a vital role in both medicine and spirituality. Druids, the religious leaders of the Celts, were reputed to possess deep knowledge of plants and their medicinal properties. Although written records are scarce, archaeological evidence, such
201:
Medicinal plants are widely used as folk medicine in non-industrialized societies, mainly because they are readily available and cheaper than modern medicines. The annual global export value of the thousands of types of plants with medicinal properties was estimated to be US$ 60 billion per year and
2010:
to development and agriculture. A specific threat is over-collection to meet rising demand for medicines. A case in point was the pressure on wild populations of the
Pacific yew soon after news of taxol's effectiveness became public. The threat from over-collection could be addressed by cultivation
1993:
products have been criticized as not having sufficient standards or scientific evidence to confirm their contents, safety, and presumed efficacy. Companies often make false claims about their herbal products promising health benefits that aren't backed by evidence to generate more sales. The market
826:
estimates, without reliable data, that some 80 percent of the world's population depends mainly on traditional medicine (including but not limited to plants); perhaps some two billion people are largely reliant on medicinal plants. The use of plant-based materials including herbal or natural health
576:
In
Scotland and England, herbalism was deeply rooted in folk traditions and influenced by Celtic, Anglo-Saxon, and Norse practices. Herbal knowledge was passed down through generations, often by wise women known as "cunning folk." The "Physicians of Myddfai," a Welsh herbal manuscript from the 13th
568:
In France, herbalism thrived alongside the practice of medieval medicine, which combined elements of
Ancient Greek and Roman traditions. Catholic monastic orders played a significant role in preserving and expanding herbal knowledge. Manuscripts like the "Tractatus de Herbis" from the 15th century
426:
In the Nordic regions, including
Scandinavia and parts of Germany, herbal medicine was also prevalent in ancient times. The Norse sagas and Eddic poetry often mention the use of herbs for healing purposes. Additionally, archaeological findings, such as the remains of medicinal plants in Viking-age
821:
In modern medicine, around a quarter of the drugs prescribed to patients are derived from medicinal plants, and they are rigorously tested. In other systems of medicine, medicinal plants may constitute the majority of what are often informal attempted treatments, not tested scientifically. The
418:
The Romans had a rich tradition of herbal medicine, drawing upon knowledge inherited from the Greeks and expanding upon it. Notable works include those of Pedanius Dioscorides, whose "De Materia Medica" served as a comprehensive guide to medicinal plants and remained influential for centuries.
1934:
The pharmaceutical industry has remained interested in mining traditional uses of medicinal plants in its drug discovery efforts. Of the 1073 small-molecule drugs approved in the period 1981 to 2010, over half were either directly derived from or inspired by natural substances. Among cancer
1804:
WHO has set out a strategy for traditional medicines with four objectives: to integrate them as policy into national healthcare systems; to provide knowledge and guidance on their safety, efficacy, and quality; to increase their availability and affordability; and to promote their rational,
1763:
level using 20,000 species to compare the medicinal plants of three regions, Nepal, New Zealand and the Cape of South Africa. It discovered that the species used traditionally to treat the same types of condition belonged to the same groups of plants in all three regions, giving a "strong
1792:
The World Health Organization (WHO) has been coordinating a network called the International Regulatory Cooperation for Herbal Medicines to try to improve the quality of medical products made from medicinal plants and the claims made for them. In 2015, only around 20% of countries had
785:
often modified the active ingredients when whole plants were dried, and alkaloids and glycosides purified from plant material started to be preferred. Drug discovery from plants continued to be important through the 20th century and into the 21st, with important anti-cancer drugs from
5590:
865:
in plant defenses. These phytochemicals have potential for use as drugs, and the content and known pharmacological activity of these substances in medicinal plants is the scientific basis for their use in modern medicine, if scientifically confirmed. For instance, daffodils
1094:
1752:
was only phytochemical evidence for around 20%; 0.5% were allergenic or toxic; and some 12% had basically never been studied scientifically. Cancer Research UK caution that there is no reliable evidence for the effectiveness of herbal remedies for cancer.
912:
are bitter-tasting chemicals, very widespread in nature, and often toxic, found in many medicinal plants. There are several classes with different modes of action as drugs, both recreational and pharmaceutical. Medicines of different classes include
1233:
1208:
2011:
of some medicinal plants, or by a system of certification to make wild harvesting sustainable. A report in 2020 by the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew identifies 723 medicinal plants as being at risk of extinction, caused partly by over-collection.
1980:
system, making the drugs last longer in the body and have a cumulative effect. Plant medicines can be dangerous during pregnancy. Since plants may contain many different substances, plant extracts may have complex effects on the human body.
3467:
Atanasov AG, Waltenberger B, Pferschy-Wenzig EM, Linder T, Wawrosch C, Uhrin P, Temml V, Wang L, Schwaiger S, Heiss EH, Rollinger JM, Schuster D, Breuss JM, Bochkov V, Mihovilovic MD, Kopp B, Bauer R, Dirsch VM, Stuppner H (December 2015).
1975:
Plant extracts may interact with conventional drugs, both because they may provide an increased dose of similar compounds, and because some phytochemicals interfere with the body's systems that metabolise drugs in the liver including the
1604:
Medicinal plants are often tough and fibrous, requiring some form of preparation to make them convenient to administer. According to the Institute for Traditional Medicine, common methods for the preparation of herbal medicines include
5554:
315:
ingest medicinal plants when they are ill. Plant samples from prehistoric burial sites are among the lines of evidence that Paleolithic peoples had knowledge of herbal medicine. For instance, a 60,000-year-old Neanderthal burial site,
5703:
1070:
537:
During the Middle Ages, herbalism continued to flourish across Europe, with distinct traditions emerging in various regions, often influenced by cultural, religious, indigenous, and geographical factors.
768:
tree, and then many others. As chemistry progressed, additional classes of potentially active substances were discovered in plants. Commercial extraction of purified alkaloids including morphine began at
5244:
THYMOL is a phenol obtained from thyme oil or other volatile oils used as a stabilizer in pharmaceutical preparations, and as an antiseptic (antibacterial or antifungal) agent. It was formerly used as a
1994:
for dietary supplements and nutraceuticals grew by 5% during the COVID-19 pandemic, which led to the United States taking action to stop the deceptive marketing of herbal products to combat the virus.
1845:
shops of Europe in the 1800s, where pharmacists provided local traditional medicines to customers, which included extracts like morphine, quinine, and strychnine. Therapeutically important drugs like
6785:
2030:
4678:
Hietala, P., Marvola, M., Parviainen, T., Lainonen, H. (August 1987). "Laxative potency and acute toxicity of some anthraquinone derivatives, senna extracts and fractions of senna extracts".
1486:
4516:
Gremigni P, et al. (2003). "The interaction of phosphorus and potassium with seed alkaloid concentrations, yield and mineral content in narrow-leafed lupin (Lupinus angustifolius L.)".
4393:
6211:
415:
In antiquity, various cultures across Europe, including the Romans, Celts, and Nordic peoples, also practiced herbal medicine as a significant component of their healing traditions.
5695:
1385:
1404:
880:. The alkaloids are bitter-tasting and toxic, and concentrated in the parts of the plant such as the stem most likely to be eaten by herbivores; they may also protect against
6901:
5819:
Kala CP, Sajwan BS (2007). "Revitalizing Indian systems of herbal medicine by the National Medicinal Plants Board through institutional networking and capacity building".
1588:
systems. In many medicinal and aromatic plants, plant characteristics vary widely with soil type and cropping strategy, so care is required to obtain satisfactory yields.
5677:"Drug harms in the UK: a multi-criteria decision analysis", by David Nutt, Leslie King and Lawrence Phillips, on behalf of the Independent Scientific Committee on Drugs.
3570:"The Australian Phytochemical Survey: historical aspects of the CSIRO search for new drugs in Australian plants. Historical Records of Australian Science, 9(4), 335β356"
2080:
Tobacco has "probably been responsible for more deaths than any other herb", but it was used as a medicine in the societies encountered by Columbus and was considered a
1041:
4569:
3112:
Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science: Astronomy-Theoretical and applied, v.2 Mathematics and the physical sciences; v.3 Technology, alchemy and life sciences
1261:
5738:
887:
Modern knowledge of medicinal plants is being systematised in the Medicinal Plant Transcriptomics Database, which by 2011 provided a sequence reference for the
818:
more conservatively estimated in 2016 that 17,810 plant species have a medicinal use, out of some 30,000 plants for which a use of any kind is documented.
6777:
2350:
2002:
Where medicinal plants are harvested from the wild rather than cultivated, they are subject to both general and specific threats. General threats include
5871:
5531:
4036:
5664:
5395:
3006:
DΓaz-Puente, JosΓ© Manuel, et al. "Traditional Medicine in Asturias (Northern Spain)." Journal of Ethnopharmacology, vol. 45, no. 2, 1995, pp. 67β74.
1966:
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However, development of plants or extracts having potential medicinal uses is blunted by weak scientific evidence, poor practices in the process of
206:
coordinates a network to encourage safe and rational use. The botanical herbal market has been criticized for being poorly regulated and containing
1305:
of several classes are widespread in plants, having diverse roles in defenses against plant diseases and predators. They include hormone-mimicking
519:
6894:
5084:
Turner, J. V., Agatonovic-Kustrin, S., Glass, B. D. (August 2007). "Molecular aspects of phytoestrogen selective binding at estrogen receptors".
1915:
studies of their activity often provide unreliable data. As a result, phytochemicals have frequently proven unsuitable as the lead substances in
4778:"The High Polyphenol Content of Grapevine Cultivar Tannat Berries Is Conferred Primarily by Genes That Are Not Shared with the Reference Genome"
3086:
1624:
were made by boiling medicinal plants, wrapping them in a cloth, and applying the resulting parcel externally to the affected part of the body.
7201:
7150:
4722:
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1943:
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to search for pharmacologically active substances, and this approach has yielded hundreds of useful compounds. These include the common drugs
6459:
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4659:
4367:
4287:
4258:
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3120:
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2830:
2799:
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2559:
2284:
6730:"Dietary supplements and nutraceuticals market growth during the coronavirus pandemic - implications for consumers and regulatory oversight"
4899:
6679:"Deep Sequencing of Plant and Animal DNA Contained within Traditional Chinese Medicines Reveals Legality Issues and Health Safety Concerns"
5903:
3698:
1935:
treatments, of 185 small-molecule drugs approved in the period from 1981 to 2019, 65% were derived from or inspired by natural substances.
5482:
4747:
320:", in northern Iraq has yielded large amounts of pollen from eight plant species, seven of which are used now as herbal remedies. Also, a
6510:
NekvindovΓ‘ J, Anzenbacher P (July 2007). "Interactions of food and dietary supplements with drug metabolising cytochrome P450 enzymes".
4315:
6887:
6581:
2035:
6862:
5793:
3669:"Impact of Cultivation and Gathering of Medicinal Plants on Biodiversity: Global Trends and Issues 2. Some Figures to start with ..."
802:
Medicinal plants are used with the intention of maintaining health, to be administered for a specific condition, or both, whether in
5341:
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or extracted from plant material, yielding a pure chemical. Extraction can be practical when the compound in question is complex.
7274:
5452:
3328:
1906:
1562:
1085:
3256:
Brater, D. Craig, Daly, Walter J. (2000). "Clinical pharmacology in the Middle Ages: Principles that presage the 21st century".
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2020:
1572:
Medicinal plants demand intensive management. Different species each require their own distinct conditions of cultivation. The
854:
80:
5231:
2748:
1889:, investigating plants used by indigenous peoples for possible medical applications. Some important phytochemicals, including
5732:
Saslis-Lagoudakis CH, Savolainen V, Williamson EM, Forest F, Wagstaff SJ, Baral SR, Watson MF, Pendry CA, Hawkins JA (2012).
4561:
279:, have been used as medicines, not necessarily effectively, from prehistoric times. Spices have been used partly to counter
6778:"United States Files Enforcement Action to Stop Deceptive Marketing of Herbal Tea Product Advertised as Covid-19 Treatment"
5283:
Carrubba, A., Scalenghe, R. (2012). "Scent of Mare Nostrum β Medicinal and Aromatic Plants (MAPs) in Mediterranean soils".
1793:
well-functioning regulatory agencies, while 30% had none, and around half had limited regulatory capacity. In India, where
1525:
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1297:
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products with no scientific research to support their medical claims. Medicinal plants face both general threats, such as
6446:. Novartis Foundation Symposia. Vol. 282. Novartis Foundation Symposium. pp. 154β67, discussion 167β72, 212β8.
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4149:
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1928:
1690:
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Farnsworth states that this figure was based on prescriptions from American community pharmacies between 1959 and 1980.
7211:
3065:
2757:
2373:
2276:
1672:
Plant medicines are in wide use around the world. In most of the developing world, especially in rural areas, local
419:
Additionally, Pliny the Elder's "Naturalis Historia" contains valuable insights into Roman medical plant practices
202:
growing at the rate of 6% per annum. In many countries, there is little regulation of traditional medicine, but the
6207:
5366:"The Methods of Preparation of Herb Formulas: Decoctions, Dried Decoctions, Powders, Pills, Tablets, and Tinctures"
2853:
2456:
1705:
of the Brazilian Amazon, assisted by researchers, have described 101 plant species used for traditional medicines.
815:
5925:
Heinrich M, Bremner P (March 2006). "Ethnobotany and ethnopharmacy--their role for anti-cancer drug development".
7294:
2937:
Ramos-e-Silva Marcia (1999). "Saint Hildegard Von Bingen (1098β1179) "The Light Of Her People And Of Her Time"".
1627:
When modern medicine has identified a drug in a medicinal plant, commercial quantities of the drug may either be
1573:
823:
382:
203:
511:. The book remained the authoritative reference on herbalism for over 1500 years, into the seventeenth century.
5555:"Medicinal plants used in the traditional management of diabetes and its sequelae in Central America: A review"
3842:"The growing use of herbal medicines: issues relating to adverse reactions and challenges in monitoring safety"
2997:
FernΓ‘ndez, Marta. "The Herbalist in Galicia." Ethnobotany Research and Applications, vol. 8, 2010, pp. 263β277.
2304:
1894:
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92:
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139:, who worked in the Roman army, documented over 1000 recipes for medicines using over 600 medicinal plants in
5527:
4032:
2822:
2110:
1838:
643:
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503:, working for the Roman army, documented over 1000 recipes for medicines using over 600 medicinal plants in
287:) were the original source of most plant medicines. Human settlements are often surrounded by weeds used as
195:
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7232:
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Zhang J, Wider B, Shang H, Li X, Ernst E (2012). "Quality of herbal medicines: Challenges and solutions".
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bacteria, especially in hot climates, and especially in meat dishes that spoil more readily. Angiosperms (
5319:
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3618:"People, plants and health: a conceptual framework for assessing changes in medicinal plant consumption"
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4222:"Transcriptome Characterization, Sequencing, And Assembly Of Medicinal Plants Relevant To Human Health"
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to minimise problems with pests and plant diseases. Cultivation may be traditional or may make use of
781:
in 1853. Around the end of the 19th century, the mood of pharmacy turned against medicinal plants, as
230:
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Wills, Tarrin. "Herbal Medicine in the Viking Age." Viking Magazine, vol. 80, no. 3, 2017, pp. 22-27.
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has been practised for centuries, herbal remedies are the responsibility of a government department,
1713:
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Below are several examples of active plant ingredients that provide medicinal plant uses for humans.
3342:
1613:. Alcohol extraction involves soaking the plant material in cold wine or distilled spirit to form a
423:
as the discovery of medicinal plants at Celtic sites, provides insight into their herbal practices
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6327:"The importance of using scientific principles in the development of medicinal agents from plants"
3375:"The role of New World biodiversity in the transformation of Mediterranean landscapes and culture"
2979:
Givens, Jean A. "The Tractatus de Herbis: A Thirteenth-Century Herbal." The British Library, 1982.
1600:
A Medieval physician preparing an extract from a medicinal plant, from an Arabic Dioscorides, 1224
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Coghlan ML, Haile J, Houston J, Murray DC, White NE, Moolhuijzen P, Bellgard MI, Bunce M (2012).
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Givens, Jean A. "The Tractatus de Herbis: A Thirteenth-Century Herbal." The British Library, 1982
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The place of plants in medicine was radically altered in the 19th century by the application of
533:, showing a physician talking to a female patient in a garden, while servants prepare medicines.
326:
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VallΓ¨s, Joan. "Botany and Medicine in Medieval Barcelona." Dynamis, vol. 19, 1999, pp. 349β377.
2371:
Billing J, Sherman PW (March 1998). "Antimicrobial functions of spices: why some like it hot".
2149:"Plants protect themselves from herbivores by optimizing the distribution of chemical defenses"
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in Central America, of which seven had been identified in at least three separate studies. The
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6403:"Which botanicals or other unconventional anticancer agents should we take to clinical trial?"
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1919:. In the United States over the period 1999 to 2012, despite several hundred applications for
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makes use of a wide variety of plants, among other materials and techniques. Researchers from
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3470:"Discovery and resupply of pharmacologically active plant-derived natural products: A review"
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1452:. They are strongly aromatic and serve to repel herbivores. Their scent makes them useful in
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2168:
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588:, adding their own commentaries. Herbalism flourished in the Islamic world, particularly in
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6854:
5258:"WHO Guidelines on Good Agricultural and Collection Practices (GACP) for Medicinal Plants"
3815:
1977:
1876:, used as anti-cancer drugs, were discovered in the 1950s from the Madagascar periwinkle,
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321:
288:
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The man credited with the introduction of digitalis into the practice of medicine was
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Lead Compounds from Medicinal Plants for the Treatment of Neurodegenerative Diseases
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303:. Humans were not alone in using herbs as medicines: some animals such as non-human
178:. The compounds found in plants are diverse, with most in four biochemical classes:
7084:
6839:
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477:
435:
5657:"Scoring drugs. A new study suggests alcohol is more harmful than heroin or crack"
4862:"Requirement of metabolic activation for estrogenic activity of Pueraria mirifica"
4435:
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1676:, including herbalism, is the only source of health care for people, while in the
1255:. The plant was used on heart conditions long before the glycoside was identified.
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770:
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481:
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5365:
5042:
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3389:
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17:
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1558:
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1360:
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1054:
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1002:
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930:
909:
904:
850:
757:
737:
597:
584:, scholars translated many classical Greek texts including Dioscorides into
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523:Illustration of a 1632 copy of
330:, whose body was frozen in the
6853:Briggs H (30 September 2020).
6444:Dietary Supplements and Health
6240:. Springer. pp. 217β218.
4713:Akolkar, Praful (2012-12-27).
1161:made from such plants include
835:, and insufficient financing.
752:in 1806, and soon followed by
708:The English Physician Enlarged
1:
6380:10.1016/S0378-8741(00)00394-9
6290:10.1016/S0002-9343(97)00397-5
5860:. World Health Organization.
5431:10.1016/S0006-2952(96)00654-5
5000:10.1016/S0378-8741(80)81015-4
4926:Journal of AOAC International
4866:Journal of Veterinary Science
4680:Pharmacology & Toxicology
4652:10.1016/S0378-6080(09)03148-1
4436:10.1016/j.metabol.2008.01.013
4104:10.1016/S1099-4831(06)63003-4
4061:Hayat, S., Ahmad, A. (2007).
3991:10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e31145
3737:"Medicinal plants in therapy"
2747:Dwivedi G, Dwivedi S (2007).
2637:10.1016/S0140-6736(05)79939-6
2618:Capasso, L. (December 1998).
2525:10.1016/S0378-8741(00)00385-8
2430:10.1016/S1090-5138(00)00068-4
1371:, the astringent rind of the
1298:Health effects of polyphenols
1084:binds directly to the body's
355:
246:
148:
129:
114:
6696:10.1371/journal.pgen.1002657
6584:. Quackwatch. Archived from
6368:Journal of Ethnopharmacology
6246:10.1007/978-90-481-2448-0_34
5559:Journal of Ethnopharmacology
5392:"9 weird medieval medicines"
5119:Wiart C (2014). "Terpenes".
4988:Journal of Ethnopharmacology
4746:. Texas A&M University.
4354:Aniszewski, Tadeusz (2007).
4220:Soejarto DD (1 March 2011).
3109:Rashed R, Morelon R (1996).
2597:10.1126/science.190.4217.880
2512:Journal of Ethnopharmacology
2475:Journal of Ethnopharmacology
2418:Evolution and Human Behavior
2235:10.5483/BMBRep.2017.50.3.221
1929:Food and Drug Administration
1691:Traditional Chinese medicine
929:), the traditional medicine
855:defending against herbivores
485:. In the fourth century BC,
113:are listed on clay tablets,
6746:10.1016/j.phanu.2021.100282
6154:Journal of Natural Products
4961:Brown D, Walton NJ (1999).
4356:Alkaloids β secrets of life
4329:(2): 96β105. Archived from
3897:. CRC Press. pp. 4β5.
3083:"Pharmaceutics and Alchemy"
3066:University of Toronto Press
2758:National Informatics Centre
2374:Quarterly Review of Biology
2277:University of Toronto Press
1697:found 104 species used for
876:, licensed for use against
476:. This was expanded in the
154:; this formed the basis of
7311:
6621:10.1016/j.ctim.2011.09.004
6539:MCN Am J Matern Child Nurs
6452:10.1002/9780470319444.ch11
6208:Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew
6105:Future Medicinal Chemistry
5939:10.2174/138945006776054988
5364:Dharmananda S (May 1997).
4835:Muller-Schwarze D (2006).
4715:"Pharmacognosy of Rhubarb"
4485:10.1177/014107680409700614
4253:. CRC Press. p. 123.
2854:Cambridge University Press
1964:
1830:
1743:, traditionally given for
1657:
1556:
1430:
1367:for medicinal effects. In
1291:
1132:
902:
842:
816:Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew
729:
255:
7271:
6910:Medicinal herbs and fungi
5571:10.1016/j.jep.2016.02.034
5481:Chan M (19 August 2015).
5390:Mount T (20 April 2015).
4597:Chemistry Central Journal
4189:10.1002/14651858.CD005593
3846:Frontiers in Pharmacology
3181:10.1017/S1062798708000215
2488:10.1016/j.jep.2004.03.002
2459:(volume 13, 15th edition)
2124:10.1136/bmj.329.7479.1408
1574:World Health Organization
824:World Health Organization
204:World Health Organization
6656:10.1001/jama.290.11.1505
6007:Environ. Health Perspect
5419:Biochemical Pharmacology
5043:10.2903/j.efsa.2010.1489
4888:10.4142/jvs.2002.3.4.273
4467:Charlton A (June 2004).
4247:Meskin, Mark S. (2002).
3859:10.3389/fphar.2013.00177
1895:epigallocatechin gallate
1582:conservation agriculture
1221:anthraquinone glycosides
712:Early Modern exploration
6824:10.1038/nplants.2016.64
6401:Vickers, A. J. (2007).
5761:10.1073/pnas.1202242109
5326:. Elsevier Ltd.: 1β34.
5324:Chinese Herbal Formulas
5129:10.1016/C2011-0-09611-4
4939:10.1093/jaoac/89.4.1138
4610:10.1186/1752-153X-7-170
4532:10.1023/A:1024828131581
4282:. Springer. p. 3.
3536:10.4103/0973-7847.95849
3388:: 69β93. Archived from
3270:10.1067/mcp.2000.106465
2823:Oxford University Press
2546:Sumner, Judith (2000).
2457:Encyclopædia Britannica
2174:10.1073/pnas.2120277119
2111:British Medical Journal
1859:(from the Pacific yew,
1839:pharmaceutical industry
1363:without proof or legal
726:19th and 20th centuries
547:Benedictine monasteries
83:and protection against
7233:Doctrine of signatures
6582:"The herbal minefield"
4796:10.1105/tpc.113.118810
4642:Chan K, Lin T (2009).
4316:"Herbalism - A Review"
3635:10.1186/1746-4269-8-43
3474:Biotechnology Advances
3103:Botany and agriculture
2153:Proc Natl Acad Sci USA
2104:Lichterman BL (2004).
1962:
1828:
1789:
1748:
1655:
1601:
1576:recommends the use of
1554:
1531:Thymol is one of many
1480:(anti-worm medicine).
857:or, in the example of
673:
534:
505:
366:
253:
239:
141:
61:
6019:10.1289/ehp.01109s169
5485:. WHO. Archived from
3794:10.2471/BLT.07.042820
3523:Pharmacognosy Reviews
3517:Petrovska BB (2012).
3427:10.1353/jhi.2008.0017
3139:The New Healing Herbs
3037:The New Healing Herbs
1965:Further information:
1946:
1852:Camptotheca acuminata
1831:Further information:
1816:
1775:
1731:
1658:Further information:
1642:
1599:
1548:
1431:Further information:
1292:Further information:
1223:, has been used as a
1133:Further information:
1053:is the source of the
933:(from plants such as
903:Further information:
843:Further information:
792:Madagascar periwinkle
730:Further information:
665:
631:The Canon of Medicine
530:The Canon of Medicine
522:
461:Shennong Ben Cao Jing
456:Chinese pharmacopoeia
434:as documented in the
349:
256:Further information:
233:
35:
7228:Alternative medicine
5927:Current Drug Targets
5800:on September 1, 2013
5181:Singsaas EL (2000).
5063:. Indus Publishing.
3711:on 19 September 2017
3622:J Ethnobiol Ethnomed
3586:10.1071/hr9930940335
3352:10.1257/jep.24.2.163
3308:The Edinburgh Review
3136:Castleman M (2001).
3034:Castleman M (2001).
2914:Taylor & Francis
2461:. 1993. p. 609.
1989:Herbal medicine and
1817:The anticancer drug
1714:use of illegal drugs
1682:alternative medicine
1674:traditional medicine
998:Rauvolfia serpentina
808:traditional medicine
501:Pedanius Dioscorides
258:History of herbalism
73:traditional medicine
7151:Echigoshirayukidake
6068:2014Natur.513..481B
5752:2012PNAS..10915835S
5663:. 2 November 2010.
5611:Milliken W (2015).
5503:. NIH. April 2009.
5489:on August 22, 2015.
5264:on October 20, 2009
5228:"Thymol (CID=6989)"
4387:"Atropa Belladonna"
4148:. Drugs.com. 2017.
3818:on January 24, 2010
3373:Heywood VH (2012).
3305:(1923). "Herbals".
2877:Arsdall AV (2002).
2589:1975Sci...190..880S
2165:2022PNAS..11920277G
1879:Catharanthus roseus
1686:dietary supplements
1448:plants such as the
1357:dietary supplements
1272:atrial fibrillation
1032:Catharanthus roseus
878:Alzheimer's disease
853:advantage, such as
839:Phytochemical basis
720:Badianus Manuscript
606:The Book of Simples
559:Hildegard of Bingen
309:monarch butterflies
262:History of pharmacy
220:habitat destruction
194:. Few of these are
7207:Japanese herbology
7185:Regional practices
6485:Aust Fam Physician
6407:J Soc Integr Oncol
6325:Talalay P (2001).
6013:(Suppl 1): 69β75.
5700:Cancer Research UK
5155:American Scientist
4719:PharmaXChange.info
3142:. Rodale. p.
3058:Collins M (2000).
3040:. Rodale. p.
2767:on 10 October 2008
2315:(4 Suppl): S4β24.
2269:Collins M (2000).
1991:dietary supplement
1963:
1829:
1790:
1749:
1736:tree contains the
1718:psychoactive drugs
1656:
1653:Marrakesh, Morocco
1602:
1555:
1353:maritime pine bark
1245:Digitalis purpurea
1188:lily of the valley
1180:cardiac glycosides
1050:Papaver somniferum
716:Columbian Exchange
714:and the resulting
698:in 1597, based on
674:
582:Islamic Golden Age
535:
496:Historia plantarum
432:Ayurvedic medicine
367:
254:
62:
7282:
7281:
7202:Islamic herbology
7192:Chinese herbology
7060:Purple coneflower
6728:Lordan R (2021).
6588:on 18 August 2018
6461:978-0-470-31944-4
6331:Academic Medicine
6255:978-90-481-2447-3
6166:10.1021/np200906s
6117:10.4155/fmc.14.60
6062:(7519): 481β483.
5972:(11): 1231β1235.
5962:"Vinca Alkaloids"
5867:978-92-4-150609-0
5696:"Herbal medicine"
5297:10.1002/jsfa.5630
5138:978-0-12-398373-2
5098:10.1002/jps.20987
5070:978-81-7387-162-7
4972:978-981-02-2773-9
4846:978-0-521-36377-8
4790:(12): 4777β4788.
4762:William Withering
4661:978-0-444-53294-7
4369:978-0-444-52736-3
4289:978-0-387-85497-7
4260:978-1-58716-083-7
4113:978-0-12-469563-4
4076:978-1-4020-5183-8
3904:978-1-4987-5096-7
3673:Agriculture. Rome
3153:978-1-57954-304-4
3122:978-0-415-02063-3
3075:978-0-8020-8313-5
3051:978-1-57954-304-4
2923:978-1-57958-090-2
2904:Mills FA (2000).
2890:978-0-415-93849-5
2863:978-0-521-64380-1
2832:978-0-19-514017-0
2801:978-0-88192-483-1
2786:Sumner J (2000).
2685:978-0-88192-483-1
2670:Sumner J (2000).
2583:(4217): 880β881.
2561:978-0-88192-483-1
2286:978-0-8020-8313-5
1950:Datura stramonium
1841:has roots in the
1710:recreational uses
1684:including use of
1664:Psychoactive drug
1535:found in plants.
1270:is used to treat
1253:cardiac glycoside
1216:Senna alexandrina
1155:Alexandrian senna
1109:tropane alkaloids
1105:Atropa belladonna
1101:Deadly nightshade
738:chemical analysis
704:Nicholas Culpeper
694:wrote his famous
669:The Grete Herball
636:Abu-Rayhan Biruni
622:Corpus of Simples
543:Early Middle Ages
507:De materia medica
450:, which contains
267:Prehistoric times
245:, seen here in a
241:De materia medica
143:De materia medica
46:active metabolite
16:(Redirected from
7302:
7295:Medicinal plants
7263:Medicinal plants
7221:Related subjects
7212:Korean herbology
7197:Indian herbology
7156:Lingzhi mushroom
6904:
6897:
6890:
6881:
6875:
6874:
6872:
6870:
6850:
6844:
6843:
6807:
6798:
6797:
6795:
6793:
6774:
6768:
6767:
6757:
6725:
6719:
6718:
6708:
6698:
6674:
6668:
6667:
6639:
6633:
6632:
6615:(1β2): 100β106.
6604:
6598:
6597:
6595:
6593:
6577:
6571:
6570:
6534:
6528:
6527:
6507:
6501:
6500:
6480:
6474:
6473:
6439:
6433:
6432:
6422:
6398:
6392:
6391:
6374:(2β3): 141β164.
6363:
6357:
6356:
6346:
6322:
6316:
6315:
6313:
6312:
6306:
6300:. Archived from
6275:
6269:Ernst E (1998).
6266:
6260:
6259:
6233:
6227:
6226:
6224:
6222:
6216:
6205:
6197:
6188:
6187:
6177:
6145:
6139:
6138:
6128:
6096:
6090:
6089:
6079:
6047:
6041:
6040:
6030:
5998:
5992:
5991:
5981:
5957:
5951:
5950:
5922:
5916:
5915:
5913:
5911:
5892:
5886:
5885:
5883:
5882:
5876:
5859:
5848:
5837:
5836:
5816:
5810:
5809:
5807:
5805:
5790:
5784:
5783:
5773:
5763:
5746:(39): 15835β40.
5729:
5720:
5719:
5713:
5711:
5692:
5686:
5685:
5674:
5672:
5653:
5647:
5646:
5634:
5628:
5627:
5625:
5624:
5608:
5602:
5601:
5599:
5598:
5550:
5544:
5543:
5541:
5539:
5523:
5517:
5516:
5514:
5512:
5497:
5491:
5490:
5478:
5469:
5468:
5466:
5464:
5449:
5443:
5442:
5414:
5408:
5407:
5405:
5403:
5387:
5381:
5380:
5378:
5377:
5361:
5355:
5354:
5352:
5350:
5335:
5315:
5309:
5308:
5291:(6): 1150β1170.
5280:
5274:
5273:
5271:
5269:
5254:
5248:
5247:
5241:
5239:
5224:
5213:
5212:
5202:
5178:
5172:
5171:
5162:(4): 499Aβ500A.
5149:
5143:
5142:
5116:
5110:
5109:
5081:
5075:
5074:
5054:
5048:
5047:
5045:
5021:
5012:
5011:
4983:
4977:
4976:
4958:
4952:
4951:
4941:
4917:
4911:
4910:
4908:
4907:
4881:
4857:
4851:
4850:
4832:
4826:
4825:
4815:
4773:
4767:
4766:
4757:
4755:
4740:
4734:
4733:
4731:
4730:
4710:
4704:
4703:
4675:
4666:
4665:
4639:
4633:
4632:
4622:
4612:
4588:
4582:
4581:
4579:
4577:
4558:
4552:
4551:
4513:
4507:
4506:
4496:
4464:
4458:
4457:
4447:
4415:
4409:
4408:
4406:
4404:
4398:
4391:
4383:
4374:
4373:
4351:
4345:
4344:
4342:
4341:
4335:
4320:
4311:
4294:
4293:
4271:
4265:
4264:
4244:
4238:
4237:
4235:
4233:
4217:
4211:
4210:
4200:
4168:
4162:
4161:
4159:
4157:
4142:
4136:
4135:
4125:
4087:
4081:
4080:
4068:
4058:
4052:
4051:
4046:
4044:
4029:
4014:
4013:
4003:
3993:
3969:
3963:
3962:
3944:
3920:
3909:
3908:
3891:Singh A (2016).
3888:
3882:
3881:
3871:
3861:
3837:
3828:
3827:
3825:
3823:
3814:. Archived from
3805:
3773:
3767:
3766:
3756:
3732:
3721:
3720:
3718:
3716:
3710:
3703:
3695:
3689:
3688:
3686:
3684:
3664:
3658:
3657:
3647:
3637:
3613:
3600:
3599:
3598:
3597:
3565:
3559:
3558:
3548:
3538:
3514:
3508:
3507:
3497:
3480:(8): 1582β1614.
3464:
3447:
3446:
3410:
3404:
3403:
3401:
3400:
3394:
3379:
3370:
3364:
3363:
3345:
3323:
3317:
3316:
3299:
3290:
3289:
3253:
3247:
3246:
3218:
3212:
3211:
3191:
3185:
3184:
3164:
3158:
3157:
3133:
3127:
3126:
3106:
3098:
3096:
3094:
3079:
3055:
3031:
3025:
3022:
3016:
3013:
3007:
3004:
2998:
2995:
2989:
2986:
2980:
2977:
2971:
2970:
2934:
2928:
2927:
2901:
2895:
2894:
2874:
2868:
2867:
2846:Grene M (2004).
2843:
2837:
2836:
2812:
2806:
2805:
2783:
2777:
2776:
2774:
2772:
2766:
2760:. Archived from
2755:
2744:
2738:
2735:
2729:
2726:
2720:
2717:
2711:
2708:
2702:
2696:
2690:
2689:
2667:
2658:
2657:
2639:
2615:
2609:
2608:
2572:
2566:
2565:
2543:
2537:
2536:
2506:
2500:
2499:
2482:(2β3): 163β166.
2469:
2463:
2462:
2451:
2442:
2441:
2413:
2407:
2406:
2368:
2362:
2361:
2359:
2358:
2332:
2300:
2291:
2290:
2266:
2257:
2256:
2246:
2214:
2197:
2196:
2186:
2176:
2144:
2138:
2137:
2135:
2101:
2085:
2078:
2072:
2065:Coptis chinensis
2061:
2055:
2052:
1862:Taxus brevifolia
1824:Taxus brevifolia
1776:The practice of
1732:The bark of the
1553:, Tasmania, 2010
1528:
1504:), contains the
1489:
1407:
1388:
1264:
1236:
1211:
1097:
1073:
1047:The opium poppy
1044:
833:drug development
648:John of St Amand
510:
444:Sushruta Samhita
383:ancient Egyptian
360:
357:
289:herbal medicines
285:flowering plants
251:
248:
244:
153:
150:
146:
134:
131:
119:
116:
65:Medicinal plants
21:
7310:
7309:
7305:
7304:
7303:
7301:
7300:
7299:
7285:
7284:
7283:
7278:
7267:
7216:
7180:
7141:Almond mushroom
7129:
6911:
6908:
6878:
6868:
6866:
6852:
6851:
6847:
6809:
6808:
6801:
6791:
6789:
6776:
6775:
6771:
6734:Pharmanutrition
6727:
6726:
6722:
6689:(4): e1002657.
6676:
6675:
6671:
6641:
6640:
6636:
6606:
6605:
6601:
6591:
6589:
6579:
6578:
6574:
6536:
6535:
6531:
6512:Ceska Slov Farm
6509:
6508:
6504:
6482:
6481:
6477:
6462:
6441:
6440:
6436:
6400:
6399:
6395:
6365:
6364:
6360:
6324:
6323:
6319:
6310:
6308:
6304:
6273:
6268:
6267:
6263:
6256:
6235:
6234:
6230:
6220:
6218:
6214:
6203:
6199:
6198:
6191:
6147:
6146:
6142:
6111:(11): 1265β90.
6098:
6097:
6093:
6077:10.1038/513481a
6049:
6048:
6044:
6000:
5999:
5995:
5959:
5958:
5954:
5924:
5923:
5919:
5909:
5907:
5894:
5893:
5889:
5880:
5878:
5874:
5868:
5857:
5850:
5849:
5840:
5821:Current Science
5818:
5817:
5813:
5803:
5801:
5792:
5791:
5787:
5731:
5730:
5723:
5709:
5707:
5694:
5693:
5689:
5670:
5668:
5655:
5654:
5650:
5636:
5635:
5631:
5622:
5620:
5615:. Kew Gardens.
5610:
5609:
5605:
5596:
5594:
5552:
5551:
5547:
5537:
5535:
5530:. Kew Gardens.
5525:
5524:
5520:
5510:
5508:
5499:
5498:
5494:
5480:
5479:
5472:
5462:
5460:
5459:on 27 July 2008
5451:
5450:
5446:
5416:
5415:
5411:
5401:
5399:
5389:
5388:
5384:
5375:
5373:
5363:
5362:
5358:
5348:
5346:
5344:
5318:Yang Y (2010).
5317:
5316:
5312:
5282:
5281:
5277:
5267:
5265:
5256:
5255:
5251:
5237:
5235:
5226:
5225:
5216:
5187:New Phytologist
5180:
5179:
5175:
5151:
5150:
5146:
5139:
5118:
5117:
5113:
5083:
5082:
5078:
5071:
5056:
5055:
5051:
5023:
5022:
5015:
4985:
4984:
4980:
4973:
4960:
4959:
4955:
4919:
4918:
4914:
4905:
4903:
4879:10.1.1.617.1507
4859:
4858:
4854:
4847:
4834:
4833:
4829:
4775:
4774:
4770:
4753:
4751:
4742:
4741:
4737:
4728:
4726:
4712:
4711:
4707:
4677:
4676:
4669:
4662:
4641:
4640:
4636:
4590:
4589:
4585:
4575:
4573:
4566:IUPHAR Database
4560:
4559:
4555:
4515:
4514:
4510:
4466:
4465:
4461:
4417:
4416:
4412:
4402:
4400:
4396:
4389:
4385:
4384:
4377:
4370:
4362:. p. 182.
4353:
4352:
4348:
4339:
4337:
4333:
4318:
4313:
4312:
4297:
4290:
4273:
4272:
4268:
4261:
4246:
4245:
4241:
4231:
4229:
4219:
4218:
4214:
4183:(1): CD005593.
4170:
4169:
4165:
4155:
4153:
4144:
4143:
4139:
4114:
4089:
4088:
4084:
4077:
4060:
4059:
4055:
4042:
4040:
4031:
4030:
4017:
3971:
3970:
3966:
3922:
3921:
3912:
3905:
3890:
3889:
3885:
3840:Ekor M (2013).
3839:
3838:
3831:
3821:
3819:
3775:
3774:
3770:
3734:
3733:
3724:
3714:
3712:
3708:
3701:
3697:
3696:
3692:
3682:
3680:
3666:
3665:
3661:
3615:
3614:
3603:
3595:
3593:
3567:
3566:
3562:
3516:
3515:
3511:
3466:
3465:
3450:
3412:
3411:
3407:
3398:
3396:
3392:
3377:
3372:
3371:
3367:
3343:10.1.1.232.9242
3325:
3324:
3320:
3301:
3300:
3293:
3264:(5): 447β450 .
3255:
3254:
3250:
3220:
3219:
3215:
3198:(in Croatian).
3193:
3192:
3188:
3175:(2): 219β227 .
3169:European Review
3166:
3165:
3161:
3154:
3135:
3134:
3130:
3123:
3108:
3100:
3092:
3090:
3081:
3076:
3068:. p. 115.
3057:
3052:
3033:
3032:
3028:
3023:
3019:
3014:
3010:
3005:
3001:
2996:
2992:
2987:
2983:
2978:
2974:
2936:
2935:
2931:
2924:
2916:. p. 179.
2903:
2902:
2898:
2891:
2876:
2875:
2871:
2864:
2845:
2844:
2840:
2833:
2814:
2813:
2809:
2802:
2785:
2784:
2780:
2770:
2768:
2764:
2753:
2746:
2745:
2741:
2736:
2732:
2727:
2723:
2718:
2714:
2709:
2705:
2701:, pp. 1β5.
2697:
2693:
2686:
2669:
2668:
2661:
2617:
2616:
2612:
2574:
2573:
2569:
2562:
2545:
2544:
2540:
2508:
2507:
2503:
2471:
2470:
2466:
2453:
2452:
2445:
2415:
2414:
2410:
2370:
2369:
2365:
2356:
2354:
2302:
2301:
2294:
2287:
2268:
2267:
2260:
2216:
2215:
2200:
2146:
2145:
2141:
2103:
2102:
2098:
2094:
2089:
2088:
2079:
2075:
2062:
2058:
2053:
2049:
2044:
2017:
2000:
1987:
1978:cytochrome P450
1969:
1947:The Thornapple
1941:
1921:new drug status
1909:, meaning that
1867:Vinca alkaloids
1835:
1811:
1770:
1726:
1678:developed world
1670:
1647:'s shop in the
1637:
1594:
1586:no-till farming
1570:
1565:
1557:Main articles:
1543:
1536:
1529:
1520:
1502:Thymus vulgaris
1490:
1435:
1429:
1422:
1408:
1399:
1389:
1309:and astringent
1300:
1290:
1283:
1265:
1256:
1237:
1228:
1212:
1190:. They include
1137:
1131:
1124:
1098:
1089:
1074:
1065:
1045:
907:
901:
847:
841:
804:modern medicine
800:
734:
728:
700:Rembert Dodoens
660:
563:Causae et Curae
517:
358:
344:
327:Γtzi the Iceman
269:
264:
249:
237:'s 1st century
228:
151:
132:
117:
69:medicinal herbs
40:trees contains
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
7308:
7306:
7298:
7297:
7287:
7286:
7280:
7279:
7272:
7269:
7268:
7266:
7265:
7260:
7255:
7250:
7245:
7240:
7235:
7230:
7224:
7222:
7218:
7217:
7215:
7214:
7209:
7204:
7199:
7194:
7188:
7186:
7182:
7181:
7179:
7178:
7173:
7171:Morel mushroom
7168:
7163:
7158:
7153:
7148:
7146:Chaga mushroom
7143:
7137:
7135:
7131:
7130:
7128:
7127:
7122:
7117:
7112:
7107:
7102:
7097:
7092:
7087:
7082:
7077:
7072:
7067:
7062:
7057:
7052:
7047:
7042:
7037:
7032:
7027:
7022:
7017:
7012:
7007:
7002:
6997:
6992:
6987:
6982:
6977:
6972:
6967:
6962:
6961:
6960:
6950:
6945:
6940:
6935:
6930:
6925:
6919:
6917:
6913:
6912:
6909:
6907:
6906:
6899:
6892:
6884:
6877:
6876:
6845:
6799:
6769:
6720:
6669:
6650:(11): 1505β9.
6634:
6599:
6572:
6529:
6502:
6491:(11): 1070β5.
6475:
6460:
6434:
6393:
6358:
6317:
6284:(2): 170β178.
6261:
6254:
6228:
6189:
6140:
6091:
6042:
5993:
5952:
5933:(3): 239β245.
5917:
5887:
5866:
5838:
5827:(6): 797β806.
5811:
5785:
5721:
5687:
5648:
5629:
5603:
5545:
5526:Giovannini P.
5518:
5492:
5470:
5444:
5425:(2): 121β133.
5409:
5382:
5356:
5342:
5310:
5275:
5249:
5214:
5173:
5144:
5137:
5111:
5092:(8): 1879β85.
5076:
5069:
5049:
5013:
4978:
4971:
4953:
4932:(4): 1138β46.
4912:
4872:(4): 273β277.
4852:
4845:
4827:
4783:The Plant Cell
4768:
4735:
4705:
4667:
4660:
4634:
4583:
4553:
4526:(2): 413β427.
4519:Plant and Soil
4508:
4479:(6): 292β296.
4459:
4430:(5): 712β717.
4410:
4375:
4368:
4346:
4295:
4288:
4266:
4259:
4239:
4212:
4163:
4137:
4112:
4082:
4075:
4053:
4015:
3984:(10): e31145.
3964:
3910:
3903:
3883:
3829:
3788:(8): 577β656.
3768:
3747:(6): 965β981.
3722:
3690:
3659:
3601:
3560:
3509:
3448:
3421:(2): 169β192.
3405:
3365:
3336:(2): 163β188.
3318:
3291:
3248:
3235:10.1086/372742
3229:(3): 203β212.
3213:
3202:(2): 117β120.
3186:
3159:
3152:
3128:
3121:
3105:. p. 815.
3074:
3050:
3026:
3017:
3008:
2999:
2990:
2981:
2972:
2945:(4): 315β320.
2929:
2922:
2896:
2889:
2869:
2862:
2856:. p. 11.
2838:
2831:
2815:Wu JN (2005).
2807:
2800:
2794:. p. 18.
2778:
2739:
2730:
2721:
2712:
2703:
2699:Petrovska 2012
2691:
2684:
2678:. p. 17.
2659:
2630:(9143): 1864.
2610:
2567:
2560:
2554:. p. 16.
2538:
2501:
2464:
2443:
2424:(3): 147β163.
2408:
2387:10.1086/420058
2363:
2292:
2285:
2279:. p. 32.
2258:
2229:(3): 111β116.
2217:Ahn K (2017).
2198:
2139:
2118:(7479): 1408.
2095:
2093:
2090:
2087:
2086:
2073:
2056:
2046:
2045:
2043:
2040:
2039:
2038:
2033:
2028:
2023:
2016:
2013:
2004:climate change
1999:
1996:
1986:
1983:
1940:
1937:
1925:botanical drug
1917:drug discovery
1833:Drug discovery
1810:
1809:Drug discovery
1807:
1769:
1766:
1725:
1722:
1668:Drug discovery
1636:
1633:
1593:
1590:
1569:
1566:
1542:
1539:
1538:
1537:
1530:
1523:
1521:
1491:
1484:
1456:, whether for
1454:essential oils
1428:
1425:
1424:
1423:
1415:phytoestrogens
1409:
1402:
1400:
1396:phytoestrogens
1390:
1383:
1355:, are sold as
1307:phytoestrogens
1289:
1286:
1285:
1284:
1278:and sometimes
1276:atrial flutter
1266:
1259:
1257:
1238:
1231:
1229:
1227:for millennia.
1213:
1206:
1157:. Plant-based
1130:
1127:
1126:
1125:
1099:
1092:
1090:
1075:
1068:
1066:
1046:
1039:
900:
897:
893:phytochemicals
859:salicylic acid
845:Phytochemistry
840:
837:
799:
796:
779:salicylic acid
727:
724:
706:published his
659:
656:
652:pharmacopoeias
650:wrote further
644:Peter of Spain
600:(936β1013) of
516:
513:
359: 1550 BC
343:
340:
273:culinary herbs
268:
265:
227:
224:
216:climate change
156:pharmacopoeias
133: 1550 BC
118: 3000 BC
67:, also called
42:salicylic acid
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
7307:
7296:
7293:
7292:
7290:
7277:
7276:
7270:
7264:
7261:
7259:
7256:
7254:
7251:
7249:
7246:
7244:
7241:
7239:
7236:
7234:
7231:
7229:
7226:
7225:
7223:
7219:
7213:
7210:
7208:
7205:
7203:
7200:
7198:
7195:
7193:
7190:
7189:
7187:
7183:
7177:
7174:
7172:
7169:
7167:
7164:
7162:
7159:
7157:
7154:
7152:
7149:
7147:
7144:
7142:
7139:
7138:
7136:
7132:
7126:
7123:
7121:
7118:
7116:
7113:
7111:
7108:
7106:
7103:
7101:
7098:
7096:
7093:
7091:
7088:
7086:
7083:
7081:
7080:Summer savory
7078:
7076:
7073:
7071:
7068:
7066:
7063:
7061:
7058:
7056:
7053:
7051:
7048:
7046:
7043:
7041:
7038:
7036:
7033:
7031:
7028:
7026:
7023:
7021:
7018:
7016:
7013:
7011:
7008:
7006:
7003:
7001:
6998:
6996:
6993:
6991:
6988:
6986:
6983:
6981:
6978:
6976:
6973:
6971:
6968:
6966:
6963:
6959:
6956:
6955:
6954:
6951:
6949:
6946:
6944:
6941:
6939:
6936:
6934:
6931:
6929:
6926:
6924:
6921:
6920:
6918:
6914:
6905:
6900:
6898:
6893:
6891:
6886:
6885:
6882:
6864:
6860:
6856:
6849:
6846:
6841:
6837:
6833:
6829:
6825:
6821:
6817:
6813:
6812:Nature Plants
6806:
6804:
6800:
6787:
6783:
6779:
6773:
6770:
6765:
6761:
6756:
6751:
6747:
6743:
6739:
6735:
6731:
6724:
6721:
6716:
6712:
6707:
6702:
6697:
6692:
6688:
6684:
6683:PLOS Genetics
6680:
6673:
6670:
6665:
6661:
6657:
6653:
6649:
6645:
6638:
6635:
6630:
6626:
6622:
6618:
6614:
6610:
6603:
6600:
6587:
6583:
6576:
6573:
6568:
6564:
6560:
6556:
6552:
6548:
6544:
6540:
6533:
6530:
6525:
6521:
6518:(4): 165β73.
6517:
6513:
6506:
6503:
6498:
6494:
6490:
6486:
6479:
6476:
6471:
6467:
6463:
6457:
6453:
6449:
6445:
6438:
6435:
6430:
6426:
6421:
6416:
6412:
6408:
6404:
6397:
6394:
6389:
6385:
6381:
6377:
6373:
6369:
6362:
6359:
6354:
6350:
6345:
6340:
6337:(3): 238β47.
6336:
6332:
6328:
6321:
6318:
6307:on 2019-11-05
6303:
6299:
6295:
6291:
6287:
6283:
6279:
6272:
6265:
6262:
6257:
6251:
6247:
6243:
6239:
6232:
6229:
6213:
6209:
6202:
6196:
6194:
6190:
6185:
6181:
6176:
6171:
6167:
6163:
6160:(3): 311β35.
6159:
6155:
6151:
6144:
6141:
6136:
6132:
6127:
6122:
6118:
6114:
6110:
6106:
6102:
6095:
6092:
6087:
6083:
6078:
6073:
6069:
6065:
6061:
6057:
6053:
6046:
6043:
6038:
6034:
6029:
6024:
6020:
6016:
6012:
6008:
6004:
5997:
5994:
5989:
5985:
5980:
5975:
5971:
5967:
5963:
5956:
5953:
5948:
5944:
5940:
5936:
5932:
5928:
5921:
5918:
5905:
5901:
5897:
5891:
5888:
5873:
5869:
5863:
5856:
5855:
5847:
5845:
5843:
5839:
5834:
5830:
5826:
5822:
5815:
5812:
5799:
5795:
5789:
5786:
5781:
5777:
5772:
5767:
5762:
5757:
5753:
5749:
5745:
5741:
5740:
5735:
5728:
5726:
5722:
5718:
5705:
5701:
5697:
5691:
5688:
5684:
5682:
5681:
5666:
5662:
5661:The Economist
5658:
5652:
5649:
5644:
5640:
5633:
5630:
5618:
5614:
5607:
5604:
5592:
5588:
5584:
5580:
5576:
5572:
5568:
5564:
5560:
5556:
5549:
5546:
5533:
5529:
5522:
5519:
5506:
5502:
5496:
5493:
5488:
5484:
5477:
5475:
5471:
5458:
5454:
5448:
5445:
5440:
5436:
5432:
5428:
5424:
5420:
5413:
5410:
5397:
5393:
5386:
5383:
5371:
5367:
5360:
5357:
5345:
5343:9780702031328
5339:
5334:
5329:
5325:
5321:
5314:
5311:
5306:
5302:
5298:
5294:
5290:
5286:
5279:
5276:
5263:
5259:
5253:
5250:
5246:
5233:
5229:
5223:
5221:
5219:
5215:
5210:
5206:
5201:
5196:
5192:
5188:
5184:
5177:
5174:
5169:
5165:
5161:
5157:
5156:
5148:
5145:
5140:
5134:
5130:
5126:
5122:
5115:
5112:
5107:
5103:
5099:
5095:
5091:
5087:
5080:
5077:
5072:
5066:
5062:
5061:
5053:
5050:
5044:
5039:
5035:
5031:
5027:
5020:
5018:
5014:
5009:
5005:
5001:
4997:
4994:(4): 337β44.
4993:
4989:
4982:
4979:
4974:
4968:
4964:
4957:
4954:
4949:
4945:
4940:
4935:
4931:
4927:
4923:
4916:
4913:
4901:
4897:
4893:
4889:
4885:
4880:
4875:
4871:
4867:
4863:
4856:
4853:
4848:
4842:
4838:
4831:
4828:
4823:
4819:
4814:
4809:
4805:
4801:
4797:
4793:
4789:
4785:
4784:
4779:
4772:
4769:
4765:
4763:
4749:
4745:
4739:
4736:
4724:
4720:
4716:
4709:
4706:
4701:
4697:
4693:
4689:
4685:
4681:
4674:
4672:
4668:
4663:
4657:
4653:
4649:
4645:
4638:
4635:
4630:
4626:
4621:
4616:
4611:
4606:
4602:
4598:
4594:
4587:
4584:
4571:
4567:
4563:
4557:
4554:
4549:
4545:
4541:
4537:
4533:
4529:
4525:
4521:
4520:
4512:
4509:
4504:
4500:
4495:
4490:
4486:
4482:
4478:
4474:
4470:
4463:
4460:
4455:
4451:
4446:
4441:
4437:
4433:
4429:
4425:
4421:
4414:
4411:
4395:
4388:
4382:
4380:
4376:
4371:
4365:
4361:
4358:. Amsterdam:
4357:
4350:
4347:
4336:on 2017-02-17
4332:
4328:
4324:
4317:
4310:
4308:
4306:
4304:
4302:
4300:
4296:
4291:
4285:
4281:
4277:
4270:
4267:
4262:
4256:
4252:
4251:
4243:
4240:
4227:
4223:
4216:
4213:
4208:
4204:
4199:
4194:
4190:
4186:
4182:
4178:
4174:
4167:
4164:
4151:
4147:
4146:"Galantamine"
4141:
4138:
4133:
4129:
4124:
4119:
4115:
4109:
4105:
4101:
4097:
4093:
4086:
4083:
4078:
4072:
4067:
4066:
4057:
4054:
4050:
4038:
4034:
4028:
4026:
4024:
4022:
4020:
4016:
4011:
4007:
4002:
3997:
3992:
3987:
3983:
3979:
3975:
3968:
3965:
3960:
3956:
3952:
3948:
3943:
3938:
3934:
3930:
3926:
3919:
3917:
3915:
3911:
3906:
3900:
3896:
3895:
3887:
3884:
3879:
3875:
3870:
3865:
3860:
3855:
3851:
3847:
3843:
3836:
3834:
3830:
3817:
3813:
3809:
3804:
3799:
3795:
3791:
3787:
3783:
3779:
3772:
3769:
3764:
3760:
3755:
3750:
3746:
3742:
3738:
3731:
3729:
3727:
3723:
3707:
3700:
3694:
3691:
3678:
3674:
3670:
3663:
3660:
3655:
3651:
3646:
3641:
3636:
3631:
3627:
3623:
3619:
3612:
3610:
3608:
3606:
3602:
3591:
3587:
3583:
3579:
3575:
3571:
3564:
3561:
3556:
3552:
3547:
3542:
3537:
3532:
3528:
3524:
3520:
3513:
3510:
3505:
3501:
3496:
3491:
3487:
3483:
3479:
3475:
3471:
3463:
3461:
3459:
3457:
3455:
3453:
3449:
3444:
3440:
3436:
3432:
3428:
3424:
3420:
3416:
3409:
3406:
3395:on 2017-02-27
3391:
3387:
3383:
3376:
3369:
3366:
3361:
3357:
3353:
3349:
3344:
3339:
3335:
3331:
3330:
3322:
3319:
3314:
3310:
3309:
3304:
3298:
3296:
3292:
3287:
3283:
3279:
3275:
3271:
3267:
3263:
3259:
3252:
3249:
3244:
3240:
3236:
3232:
3228:
3224:
3217:
3214:
3209:
3205:
3201:
3197:
3190:
3187:
3182:
3178:
3174:
3170:
3163:
3160:
3155:
3149:
3145:
3141:
3140:
3132:
3129:
3124:
3118:
3115:. Routledge.
3114:
3113:
3104:
3088:
3084:
3077:
3071:
3067:
3063:
3062:
3053:
3047:
3043:
3039:
3038:
3030:
3027:
3021:
3018:
3012:
3009:
3003:
3000:
2994:
2991:
2985:
2982:
2976:
2973:
2968:
2964:
2960:
2956:
2952:
2948:
2944:
2940:
2933:
2930:
2925:
2919:
2915:
2911:
2907:
2900:
2897:
2892:
2886:
2882:
2881:
2873:
2870:
2865:
2859:
2855:
2851:
2850:
2842:
2839:
2834:
2828:
2825:. p. 6.
2824:
2820:
2819:
2811:
2808:
2803:
2797:
2793:
2789:
2782:
2779:
2763:
2759:
2752:
2751:
2743:
2740:
2734:
2731:
2725:
2722:
2716:
2713:
2707:
2704:
2700:
2695:
2692:
2687:
2681:
2677:
2673:
2666:
2664:
2660:
2655:
2651:
2647:
2643:
2638:
2633:
2629:
2625:
2621:
2614:
2611:
2606:
2602:
2598:
2594:
2590:
2586:
2582:
2578:
2571:
2568:
2563:
2557:
2553:
2549:
2542:
2539:
2534:
2530:
2526:
2522:
2518:
2514:
2513:
2505:
2502:
2497:
2493:
2489:
2485:
2481:
2477:
2476:
2468:
2465:
2460:
2458:
2450:
2448:
2444:
2439:
2435:
2431:
2427:
2423:
2419:
2412:
2409:
2404:
2400:
2396:
2392:
2388:
2384:
2380:
2376:
2375:
2367:
2364:
2352:
2348:
2344:
2340:
2336:
2331:
2326:
2322:
2318:
2314:
2310:
2306:
2299:
2297:
2293:
2288:
2282:
2278:
2274:
2273:
2265:
2263:
2259:
2254:
2250:
2245:
2240:
2236:
2232:
2228:
2224:
2220:
2213:
2211:
2209:
2207:
2205:
2203:
2199:
2194:
2190:
2185:
2180:
2175:
2170:
2166:
2162:
2158:
2154:
2150:
2143:
2140:
2134:
2129:
2125:
2121:
2117:
2113:
2112:
2107:
2100:
2097:
2091:
2083:
2077:
2074:
2070:
2066:
2060:
2057:
2051:
2048:
2041:
2037:
2034:
2032:
2029:
2027:
2026:Ethnomedicine
2024:
2022:
2019:
2018:
2014:
2012:
2009:
2005:
1997:
1995:
1992:
1984:
1982:
1979:
1973:
1968:
1960:
1956:
1952:
1951:
1945:
1938:
1936:
1932:
1930:
1926:
1922:
1918:
1914:
1913:
1908:
1904:
1900:
1896:
1892:
1888:
1883:
1881:
1880:
1875:
1871:
1868:
1864:
1863:
1858:
1854:
1853:
1848:
1844:
1840:
1834:
1826:
1825:
1820:
1815:
1808:
1806:
1802:
1800:
1796:
1787:
1783:
1779:
1774:
1767:
1765:
1762:
1758:
1753:
1746:
1742:
1739:
1735:
1730:
1724:Effectiveness
1723:
1721:
1719:
1715:
1711:
1706:
1704:
1700:
1696:
1692:
1687:
1683:
1679:
1675:
1669:
1665:
1661:
1654:
1650:
1646:
1641:
1634:
1632:
1630:
1625:
1623:
1618:
1616:
1612:
1608:
1598:
1591:
1589:
1587:
1583:
1579:
1575:
1567:
1564:
1560:
1552:
1551:opium poppies
1547:
1540:
1534:
1527:
1522:
1518:
1514:
1510:
1507:
1503:
1499:
1495:
1494:essential oil
1488:
1483:
1481:
1479:
1475:
1471:
1467:
1463:
1459:
1455:
1451:
1447:
1443:
1439:
1434:
1426:
1420:
1416:
1412:
1406:
1401:
1397:
1394:, containing
1393:
1387:
1382:
1380:
1378:
1374:
1370:
1366:
1365:health claims
1362:
1358:
1354:
1350:
1346:
1341:
1339:
1335:
1331:
1327:
1323:
1321:
1316:
1315:gynecological
1312:
1308:
1304:
1299:
1295:
1287:
1281:
1280:heart failure
1277:
1273:
1269:
1263:
1258:
1254:
1250:
1246:
1242:
1235:
1230:
1226:
1222:
1219:, containing
1218:
1217:
1210:
1205:
1203:
1201:
1197:
1193:
1189:
1185:
1181:
1176:
1174:
1173:
1168:
1164:
1160:
1156:
1152:
1148:
1144:
1141:
1140:Anthraquinone
1136:
1128:
1122:
1118:
1114:
1110:
1106:
1102:
1096:
1091:
1087:
1083:
1079:
1076:The alkaloid
1072:
1067:
1063:
1059:
1056:
1052:
1051:
1043:
1038:
1036:
1034:
1033:
1028:
1024:
1023:
1018:
1014:
1013:
1008:
1004:
1000:
999:
994:
990:
986:
982:
978:
974:
973:
968:
964:
963:
958:
954:
953:
948:
944:
943:
938:
937:
932:
928:
924:
920:
916:
911:
906:
898:
896:
894:
890:
889:transcriptome
885:
883:
879:
875:
871:
870:
864:
860:
856:
852:
846:
838:
836:
834:
828:
825:
819:
817:
813:
809:
805:
797:
795:
793:
789:
784:
780:
776:
772:
767:
763:
759:
755:
751:
747:
743:
739:
733:
732:Pharmacognosy
725:
723:
721:
717:
713:
709:
705:
701:
697:
693:
689:
688:
687:Grete Herball
683:
679:
671:
670:
664:
657:
655:
653:
649:
645:
641:
637:
633:
632:
627:
623:
619:
615:
611:
607:
603:
599:
595:
591:
587:
583:
578:
574:
570:
566:
564:
560:
556:
552:
548:
544:
539:
532:
531:
526:
521:
514:
512:
509:
508:
502:
498:
497:
492:
488:
484:
483:
479:
475:
471:
468:for leprosy,
467:
463:
462:
457:
453:
449:
445:
441:
437:
433:
428:
424:
420:
416:
413:
411:
407:
403:
399:
395:
391:
387:
386:Ebers Papyrus
384:
380:
376:
372:
364:
363:Ancient Egypt
353:
352:Ebers Papyrus
348:
342:Ancient times
341:
339:
337:
333:
329:
328:
323:
319:
314:
310:
306:
302:
298:
294:
290:
286:
282:
281:food spoilage
278:
274:
266:
263:
259:
243:
242:
236:
232:
225:
223:
221:
217:
213:
212:pseudoscience
209:
205:
199:
197:
193:
189:
185:
181:
177:
173:
169:
165:
161:
157:
145:
144:
138:
127:
126:ancient Egypt
123:
122:Ebers Papyrus
112:
108:
103:
101:
98:
94:
90:
86:
82:
78:
74:
70:
66:
59:
55:
51:
47:
43:
39:
34:
30:
19:
18:Medical plant
7273:
7262:
7115:White willow
7085:Tea tree oil
7035:Marsh-mallow
6943:Asthma-plant
6869:30 September
6867:. Retrieved
6858:
6848:
6818:(5): 16064.
6815:
6811:
6790:. Retrieved
6781:
6772:
6737:
6733:
6723:
6686:
6682:
6672:
6647:
6643:
6637:
6612:
6608:
6602:
6590:. Retrieved
6586:the original
6575:
6545:(3): 201β6.
6542:
6538:
6532:
6515:
6511:
6505:
6488:
6484:
6478:
6443:
6437:
6413:(3): 125β9.
6410:
6406:
6396:
6371:
6367:
6361:
6334:
6330:
6320:
6309:. Retrieved
6302:the original
6281:
6277:
6264:
6237:
6231:
6221:30 September
6219:. Retrieved
6157:
6153:
6143:
6108:
6104:
6094:
6059:
6055:
6045:
6010:
6006:
5996:
5969:
5965:
5955:
5930:
5926:
5920:
5908:. Retrieved
5899:
5890:
5879:. Retrieved
5853:
5824:
5820:
5814:
5802:. Retrieved
5798:the original
5788:
5743:
5737:
5715:
5708:. Retrieved
5690:
5678:
5676:
5669:. Retrieved
5660:
5651:
5642:
5638:
5632:
5621:. Retrieved
5606:
5595:. Retrieved
5562:
5558:
5548:
5536:. Retrieved
5521:
5509:. Retrieved
5495:
5487:the original
5461:. Retrieved
5457:the original
5447:
5422:
5418:
5412:
5402:27 September
5400:. Retrieved
5385:
5374:. Retrieved
5359:
5347:. Retrieved
5323:
5313:
5288:
5284:
5278:
5266:. Retrieved
5262:the original
5252:
5243:
5236:. Retrieved
5190:
5186:
5176:
5159:
5153:
5147:
5120:
5114:
5089:
5085:
5079:
5059:
5052:
5033:
5030:EFSA Journal
5029:
4991:
4987:
4981:
4962:
4956:
4929:
4925:
4915:
4904:. Retrieved
4869:
4865:
4855:
4836:
4830:
4787:
4781:
4771:
4759:
4752:. Retrieved
4738:
4727:. Retrieved
4718:
4708:
4686:(2): 153β6.
4683:
4679:
4643:
4637:
4603:(1): 43β56.
4600:
4596:
4586:
4574:. Retrieved
4565:
4556:
4523:
4517:
4511:
4476:
4472:
4462:
4427:
4423:
4413:
4401:. Retrieved
4355:
4349:
4338:. Retrieved
4331:the original
4326:
4322:
4279:
4269:
4249:
4242:
4230:. Retrieved
4215:
4180:
4176:
4166:
4154:. Retrieved
4140:
4095:
4091:
4085:
4064:
4056:
4048:
4041:. Retrieved
3981:
3977:
3967:
3935:(1): 11β48.
3932:
3928:
3893:
3886:
3852:(3): 202β4.
3849:
3845:
3822:22 September
3820:. Retrieved
3816:the original
3785:
3781:
3771:
3744:
3740:
3715:25 September
3713:. Retrieved
3706:the original
3693:
3683:25 September
3681:. Retrieved
3671:
3662:
3625:
3621:
3594:, retrieved
3577:
3573:
3563:
3526:
3522:
3512:
3477:
3473:
3418:
3414:
3408:
3397:. Retrieved
3390:the original
3385:
3381:
3368:
3333:
3327:
3321:
3312:
3306:
3261:
3257:
3251:
3226:
3222:
3216:
3199:
3195:
3189:
3172:
3168:
3162:
3138:
3131:
3111:
3102:
3091:. Retrieved
3060:
3036:
3029:
3020:
3011:
3002:
2993:
2984:
2975:
2942:
2938:
2932:
2909:
2899:
2879:
2872:
2848:
2841:
2817:
2810:
2792:Timber Press
2787:
2781:
2769:. Retrieved
2762:the original
2749:
2742:
2733:
2724:
2715:
2706:
2694:
2676:Timber Press
2671:
2627:
2623:
2613:
2580:
2576:
2570:
2552:Timber Press
2547:
2541:
2519:(1): 19β23.
2516:
2510:
2504:
2479:
2473:
2467:
2455:
2421:
2417:
2411:
2378:
2372:
2366:
2355:. Retrieved
2312:
2309:Med. J. Aust
2308:
2271:
2226:
2222:
2156:
2152:
2142:
2115:
2109:
2099:
2076:
2064:
2059:
2050:
2008:habitat loss
2001:
1988:
1974:
1970:
1959:hallucinogen
1948:
1933:
1910:
1884:
1877:
1860:
1850:
1847:camptothecin
1836:
1822:
1803:
1791:
1757:phylogenetic
1754:
1750:
1707:
1671:
1626:
1620:Traditional
1619:
1603:
1571:
1501:
1498:common thyme
1470:aromatherapy
1436:
1377:punicalagins
1342:
1318:
1301:
1244:
1214:
1177:
1170:
1138:
1104:
1048:
1030:
1020:
1010:
996:
970:
960:
950:
940:
934:
908:
886:
867:
851:evolutionary
848:
829:
820:
801:
735:
719:
707:
695:
685:
678:Early Modern
675:
667:
658:Early Modern
629:
621:
609:
605:
579:
575:
571:
567:
562:
555:herb gardens
540:
536:
528:
494:
491:Theophrastus
480:
478:Tang dynasty
459:
436:Atharva Veda
429:
425:
421:
417:
414:
368:
325:
270:
200:
152: 60 AD
104:
68:
64:
63:
54:relieve pain
36:The bark of
29:
7238:Herb garden
7045:Opium poppy
6958:medical use
6592:17 November
5671:26 February
5511:26 February
5463:26 February
5268:26 February
5238:26 February
5036:(2): 1489.
4754:26 February
4576:26 February
4403:26 February
4043:18 February
3529:(11): 1β5.
2381:(1): 3β49.
2223:BMB Reports
1923:, only two
1903:resveratrol
1887:ethnobotany
1874:vinblastine
1870:vincristine
1695:Kew Gardens
1629:synthesised
1592:Preparation
1568:Cultivation
1541:In practice
1506:monoterpene
1411:Polyphenols
1373:pomegranate
1345:grape seeds
1303:Polyphenols
1288:Polyphenols
1247:, contains
1121:hyoscyamine
1117:scopolamine
1027:vincristine
1022:Vinca minor
981:opium poppy
923:hyoscyamine
919:scopolamine
874:galantamine
754:ipecacuanha
692:John Gerard
515:Middle Ages
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