Medicinal plants - Knowledge (XXG)

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known for their strong connection to the land and nature and preserved botanical knowledge, with healers, known as "curandeiros" or "meigas," who relied on local plants for healing purposes The Asturian landscape, characterized by lush forests and mountainous terrain, provided a rich source of medicinal herbs used in traditional healing practices, with "yerbatos," who possessed extensive knowledge of local plants and their medicinal properties Barcelona, located in the Catalonia region of northeastern Spain, was a hub of cultural exchange during the Middle Ages, fostering the preservation and dissemination of medical knowledge. Catalan herbalists, known as "herbolarios," compiled manuscripts detailing the properties and uses of medicinal plants found in the region. The University of Barcelona, founded in 1450, played a pivotal role in advancing herbal medicine through its botanical gardens and academic pursuits.

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products with supposed health benefits, is increasing in developed countries. This brings attendant risks of toxicity and other effects on human health, despite the safe image of herbal remedies. Herbal medicines have been in use since long before modern medicine existed; there was and often still is little or no knowledge of the pharmacological basis of their actions, if any, or of their safety. The World Health Organization formulated a policy on traditional medicine in 1991, and since then has published guidelines for them, with a series of monographs on widely used herbal medicines.

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phylogenetic signal". Since many plants that yield pharmaceutical drugs belong to just these groups, and the groups were independently used in three different world regions, the results were taken to mean 1) that these plant groups do have potential for medicinal efficacy, 2) that undefined pharmacological activity is associated with use in traditional medicine, and 3) that the use of a phylogenetic groups for possible plant medicines in one region may predict their use in the other regions.

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therapeutically sound usage. WHO notes in the strategy that countries are experiencing seven challenges to such implementation, namely in developing and enforcing policy; in integration; in safety and quality, especially in assessment of products and qualification of practitioners; in controlling advertising; in research and development; in education and training; and in the sharing of information.

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that because a product comes from nature it must be safe: the existence of powerful natural poisons like atropine and nicotine shows this to be untrue. Further, the high standards applied to conventional medicines do not always apply to plant medicines, and dose can vary widely depending on the growth conditions of plants: older plants may be much more toxic than young ones, for instance.

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depict French herbal remedies and their uses. Monasteries and convents served as centers of learning, where monks and nuns cultivated medicinal gardens. Likewise, in Italy, herbalism flourished with contribution Italian physicians like Matthaeus Platearius who compiled herbal manuscripts, such as the "Circa Instans," which served as practical guides for herbal remedies.

1640: 347: 1609:, powdering, and extraction with alcohol, in each case yielding a mixture of substances. Decoction involves crushing and then boiling the plant material in water to produce a liquid extract that can be taken orally or applied topically. Powdering involves drying the plant material and then crushing it to yield a powder that can be compressed into 5026:"Scientific Opinion on the substantiation of health claims related to various food(s)/food constituent(s) and protection of cells from premature aging, antioxidant activity, antioxidant content and antioxidant properties, and protection of DNA, proteins and lipids from oxidative damage pursuant to Article 13(1) of Regulation (EC) No 1924/20061" 718:, in which livestock, crops and technologies were transferred between the Old World and the Americas in the 15th and 16th centuries. Medicinal herbs arriving in the Americas included garlic, ginger, and turmeric; coffee, tobacco and coca travelled in the other direction. In Mexico, the sixteenth century 3672:

Biodiversity and the Ecosystem Approach in Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries. Satellite event on the occasion of the Ninth Regular Session of the Commission on Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture. Rome, 12–13 October 2002. Inter-Departmental Working Group on Biological Diversity for Food and

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is marketed aggressively using the claims of traditional medicine. As of 2015, most products made from medicinal plants had not been tested for their safety and efficacy, and products that were marketed in developed economies and provided in the undeveloped world by traditional healers were of uneven

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There is no reliable evidence from human studies that herbal remedies can treat, prevent or cure any type of cancer. Some clinical trials seem to show that certain Chinese herbs may help people to live longer, might reduce side effects, and help to prevent cancer from coming back. This is especially

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Plant medicines can cause adverse effects and even death, whether by side-effects of their active substances, by adulteration or contamination, by overdose, or by inappropriate prescription. Many such effects are known, while others remain to be explored scientifically. There is no reason to presume

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Plant medicines have often not been tested systematically, but have come into use informally over the centuries. By 2007, clinical trials had demonstrated potentially useful activity in nearly 16% of herbal extracts; there was limited in vitro or in vivo evidence for roughly half the extracts; there

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Medicinal plants may provide three main kinds of benefit: health benefits to the people who consume them as medicines; financial benefits to people who harvest, process, and distribute them for sale; and society-wide benefits, such as job opportunities, taxation income, and a healthier labour force.

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In the Iberian Peninsula, the regions of the North remained independent during the period of Islamic occupation, and retained their traditional and indigenous medical practices. Galicia and Asturias, possessed a rich herbal heritage shaped by its Celtic and Roman influences. The Galician people were

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Among the Celtic peoples of ancient Europe, herbalism played a vital role in both medicine and spirituality. Druids, the religious leaders of the Celts, were reputed to possess deep knowledge of plants and their medicinal properties. Although written records are scarce, archaeological evidence, such

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Medicinal plants are widely used as folk medicine in non-industrialized societies, mainly because they are readily available and cheaper than modern medicines. The annual global export value of the thousands of types of plants with medicinal properties was estimated to be US$ 60 billion per year and

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to development and agriculture. A specific threat is over-collection to meet rising demand for medicines. A case in point was the pressure on wild populations of the Pacific yew soon after news of taxol's effectiveness became public. The threat from over-collection could be addressed by cultivation

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products have been criticized as not having sufficient standards or scientific evidence to confirm their contents, safety, and presumed efficacy. Companies often make false claims about their herbal products promising health benefits that aren't backed by evidence to generate more sales. The market

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estimates, without reliable data, that some 80 percent of the world's population depends mainly on traditional medicine (including but not limited to plants); perhaps some two billion people are largely reliant on medicinal plants. The use of plant-based materials including herbal or natural health

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In Scotland and England, herbalism was deeply rooted in folk traditions and influenced by Celtic, Anglo-Saxon, and Norse practices. Herbal knowledge was passed down through generations, often by wise women known as "cunning folk." The "Physicians of Myddfai," a Welsh herbal manuscript from the 13th

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In France, herbalism thrived alongside the practice of medieval medicine, which combined elements of Ancient Greek and Roman traditions. Catholic monastic orders played a significant role in preserving and expanding herbal knowledge. Manuscripts like the "Tractatus de Herbis" from the 15th century

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In the Nordic regions, including Scandinavia and parts of Germany, herbal medicine was also prevalent in ancient times. The Norse sagas and Eddic poetry often mention the use of herbs for healing purposes. Additionally, archaeological findings, such as the remains of medicinal plants in Viking-age

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In modern medicine, around a quarter of the drugs prescribed to patients are derived from medicinal plants, and they are rigorously tested. In other systems of medicine, medicinal plants may constitute the majority of what are often informal attempted treatments, not tested scientifically. The

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The Romans had a rich tradition of herbal medicine, drawing upon knowledge inherited from the Greeks and expanding upon it. Notable works include those of Pedanius Dioscorides, whose "De Materia Medica" served as a comprehensive guide to medicinal plants and remained influential for centuries.

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The pharmaceutical industry has remained interested in mining traditional uses of medicinal plants in its drug discovery efforts. Of the 1073 small-molecule drugs approved in the period 1981 to 2010, over half were either directly derived from or inspired by natural substances. Among cancer

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WHO has set out a strategy for traditional medicines with four objectives: to integrate them as policy into national healthcare systems; to provide knowledge and guidance on their safety, efficacy, and quality; to increase their availability and affordability; and to promote their rational,

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level using 20,000 species to compare the medicinal plants of three regions, Nepal, New Zealand and the Cape of South Africa. It discovered that the species used traditionally to treat the same types of condition belonged to the same groups of plants in all three regions, giving a "strong

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The World Health Organization (WHO) has been coordinating a network called the International Regulatory Cooperation for Herbal Medicines to try to improve the quality of medical products made from medicinal plants and the claims made for them. In 2015, only around 20% of countries had

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often modified the active ingredients when whole plants were dried, and alkaloids and glycosides purified from plant material started to be preferred. Drug discovery from plants continued to be important through the 20th century and into the 21st, with important anti-cancer drugs from

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in plant defenses. These phytochemicals have potential for use as drugs, and the content and known pharmacological activity of these substances in medicinal plants is the scientific basis for their use in modern medicine, if scientifically confirmed. For instance, daffodils

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was only phytochemical evidence for around 20%; 0.5% were allergenic or toxic; and some 12% had basically never been studied scientifically. Cancer Research UK caution that there is no reliable evidence for the effectiveness of herbal remedies for cancer.

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are bitter-tasting chemicals, very widespread in nature, and often toxic, found in many medicinal plants. There are several classes with different modes of action as drugs, both recreational and pharmaceutical. Medicines of different classes include

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of some medicinal plants, or by a system of certification to make wild harvesting sustainable. A report in 2020 by the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew identifies 723 medicinal plants as being at risk of extinction, caused partly by over-collection.

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system, making the drugs last longer in the body and have a cumulative effect. Plant medicines can be dangerous during pregnancy. Since plants may contain many different substances, plant extracts may have complex effects on the human body.

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Atanasov AG, Waltenberger B, Pferschy-Wenzig EM, Linder T, Wawrosch C, Uhrin P, Temml V, Wang L, Schwaiger S, Heiss EH, Rollinger JM, Schuster D, Breuss JM, Bochkov V, Mihovilovic MD, Kopp B, Bauer R, Dirsch VM, Stuppner H (December 2015).

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Plant extracts may interact with conventional drugs, both because they may provide an increased dose of similar compounds, and because some phytochemicals interfere with the body's systems that metabolise drugs in the liver including the

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Medicinal plants are often tough and fibrous, requiring some form of preparation to make them convenient to administer. According to the Institute for Traditional Medicine, common methods for the preparation of herbal medicines include

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ingest medicinal plants when they are ill. Plant samples from prehistoric burial sites are among the lines of evidence that Paleolithic peoples had knowledge of herbal medicine. For instance, a 60,000-year-old Neanderthal burial site,

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During the Middle Ages, herbalism continued to flourish across Europe, with distinct traditions emerging in various regions, often influenced by cultural, religious, indigenous, and geographical factors.

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tree, and then many others. As chemistry progressed, additional classes of potentially active substances were discovered in plants. Commercial extraction of purified alkaloids including morphine began at

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THYMOL is a phenol obtained from thyme oil or other volatile oils used as a stabilizer in pharmaceutical preparations, and as an antiseptic (antibacterial or antifungal) agent. It was formerly used as a

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for dietary supplements and nutraceuticals grew by 5% during the COVID-19 pandemic, which led to the United States taking action to stop the deceptive marketing of herbal products to combat the virus.

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shops of Europe in the 1800s, where pharmacists provided local traditional medicines to customers, which included extracts like morphine, quinine, and strychnine. Therapeutically important drugs like

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Hietala, P., Marvola, M., Parviainen, T., Lainonen, H. (August 1987). "Laxative potency and acute toxicity of some anthraquinone derivatives, senna extracts and fractions of senna extracts".

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Gremigni P, et al. (2003). "The interaction of phosphorus and potassium with seed alkaloid concentrations, yield and mineral content in narrow-leafed lupin (Lupinus angustifolius L.)".

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In antiquity, various cultures across Europe, including the Romans, Celts, and Nordic peoples, also practiced herbal medicine as a significant component of their healing traditions.

5695: 1385: 1404: 880:. The alkaloids are bitter-tasting and toxic, and concentrated in the parts of the plant such as the stem most likely to be eaten by herbivores; they may also protect against 6901: 5819:

Kala CP, Sajwan BS (2007). "Revitalizing Indian systems of herbal medicine by the National Medicinal Plants Board through institutional networking and capacity building".

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systems. In many medicinal and aromatic plants, plant characteristics vary widely with soil type and cropping strategy, so care is required to obtain satisfactory yields.

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Tobacco has "probably been responsible for more deaths than any other herb", but it was used as a medicine in the societies encountered by Columbus and was considered a

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Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science: Astronomy-Theoretical and applied, v.2 Mathematics and the physical sciences; v.3 Technology, alchemy and life sciences

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Modern knowledge of medicinal plants is being systematised in the Medicinal Plant Transcriptomics Database, which by 2011 provided a sequence reference for the

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more conservatively estimated in 2016 that 17,810 plant species have a medicinal use, out of some 30,000 plants for which a use of any kind is documented.

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Where medicinal plants are harvested from the wild rather than cultivated, they are subject to both general and specific threats. General threats include

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Díaz-Puente, José Manuel, et al. "Traditional Medicine in Asturias (Northern Spain)." Journal of Ethnopharmacology, vol. 45, no. 2, 1995, pp. 67–74.

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However, development of plants or extracts having potential medicinal uses is blunted by weak scientific evidence, poor practices in the process of

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coordinates a network to encourage safe and rational use. The botanical herbal market has been criticized for being poorly regulated and containing

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of several classes are widespread in plants, having diverse roles in defenses against plant diseases and predators. They include hormone-mimicking

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Turner, J. V., Agatonovic-Kustrin, S., Glass, B. D. (August 2007). "Molecular aspects of phytoestrogen selective binding at estrogen receptors".

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studies of their activity often provide unreliable data. As a result, phytochemicals have frequently proven unsuitable as the lead substances in

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were made by boiling medicinal plants, wrapping them in a cloth, and applying the resulting parcel externally to the affected part of the body.

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to search for pharmacologically active substances, and this approach has yielded hundreds of useful compounds. These include the common drugs

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treatments, of 185 small-molecule drugs approved in the period from 1981 to 2019, 65% were derived from or inspired by natural substances.

5482: 4747: 320:", in northern Iraq has yielded large amounts of pollen from eight plant species, seven of which are used now as herbal remedies. Also, a 6510:

Nekvindová J, Anzenbacher P (July 2007). "Interactions of food and dietary supplements with drug metabolising cytochrome P450 enzymes".

4315: 6887: 6581: 2035: 6862: 5793: 3669:"Impact of Cultivation and Gathering of Medicinal Plants on Biodiversity: Global Trends and Issues 2. Some Figures to start with ..." 802:

Medicinal plants are used with the intention of maintaining health, to be administered for a specific condition, or both, whether in

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or extracted from plant material, yielding a pure chemical. Extraction can be practical when the compound in question is complex.

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Brater, D. Craig, Daly, Walter J. (2000). "Clinical pharmacology in the Middle Ages: Principles that presage the 21st century".

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Medicinal plants demand intensive management. Different species each require their own distinct conditions of cultivation. The

854: 80: 5231: 2748: 1889:, investigating plants used by indigenous peoples for possible medical applications. Some important phytochemicals, including 5732:

Saslis-Lagoudakis CH, Savolainen V, Williamson EM, Forest F, Wagstaff SJ, Baral SR, Watson MF, Pendry CA, Hawkins JA (2012).

4561: 279:, have been used as medicines, not necessarily effectively, from prehistoric times. Spices have been used partly to counter 6778:"United States Files Enforcement Action to Stop Deceptive Marketing of Herbal Tea Product Advertised as Covid-19 Treatment" 5283:

Carrubba, A., Scalenghe, R. (2012). "Scent of Mare Nostrum ― Medicinal and Aromatic Plants (MAPs) in Mediterranean soils".

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well-functioning regulatory agencies, while 30% had none, and around half had limited regulatory capacity. In India, where

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products with no scientific research to support their medical claims. Medicinal plants face both general threats, such as

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Farnsworth states that this figure was based on prescriptions from American community pharmacies between 1959 and 1980.

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Plant medicines are in wide use around the world. In most of the developing world, especially in rural areas, local

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Additionally, Pliny the Elder's "Naturalis Historia" contains valuable insights into Roman medical plant practices

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growing at the rate of 6% per annum. In many countries, there is little regulation of traditional medicine, but the

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of the Brazilian Amazon, assisted by researchers, have described 101 plant species used for traditional medicines.

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Heinrich M, Bremner P (March 2006). "Ethnobotany and ethnopharmacy--their role for anti-cancer drug development".

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Ramos-e-Silva Marcia (1999). "Saint Hildegard Von Bingen (1098–1179) "The Light Of Her People And Of Her Time"".

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When modern medicine has identified a drug in a medicinal plant, commercial quantities of the drug may either be

1573: 823: 382: 203: 511:. The book remained the authoritative reference on herbalism for over 1500 years, into the seventeenth century. 5555:"Medicinal plants used in the traditional management of diabetes and its sequelae in Central America: A review" 3842:"The growing use of herbal medicines: issues relating to adverse reactions and challenges in monitoring safety" 2997:

Fernández, Marta. "The Herbalist in Galicia." Ethnobotany Research and Applications, vol. 8, 2010, pp. 263–277.

2304: 1894: 1581: 92: 5852: 139:, who worked in the Roman army, documented over 1000 recipes for medicines using over 600 medicinal plants in 5527: 4032: 2822: 2110: 1838: 643: 546: 503:, working for the Roman army, documented over 1000 recipes for medicines using over 600 medicinal plants in 287:) were the original source of most plant medicines. Human settlements are often surrounded by weeds used as 195: 5656: 7232: 6607:

Zhang J, Wider B, Shang H, Li X, Ernst E (2012). "Quality of herbal medicines: Challenges and solutions".

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bacteria, especially in hot climates, and especially in meat dishes that spoil more readily. Angiosperms (

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to minimise problems with pests and plant diseases. Cultivation may be traditional or may make use of

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in 1853. Around the end of the 19th century, the mood of pharmacy turned against medicinal plants, as

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Wills, Tarrin. "Herbal Medicine in the Viking Age." Viking Magazine, vol. 80, no. 3, 2017, pp. 22-27.

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has been practised for centuries, herbal remedies are the responsibility of a government department,

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Below are several examples of active plant ingredients that provide medicinal plant uses for humans.

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as the discovery of medicinal plants at Celtic sites, provides insight into their herbal practices

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Givens, Jean A. "The Tractatus de Herbis: A Thirteenth-Century Herbal." The British Library, 1982.

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A Medieval physician preparing an extract from a medicinal plant, from an Arabic Dioscorides, 1224

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Coghlan ML, Haile J, Houston J, Murray DC, White NE, Moolhuijzen P, Bellgard MI, Bunce M (2012).

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Givens, Jean A. "The Tractatus de Herbis: A Thirteenth-Century Herbal." The British Library, 1982

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The place of plants in medicine was radically altered in the 19th century by the application of

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Vallès, Joan. "Botany and Medicine in Medieval Barcelona." Dynamis, vol. 19, 1999, pp. 349–377.

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Billing J, Sherman PW (March 1998). "Antimicrobial functions of spices: why some like it hot".

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in Central America, of which seven had been identified in at least three separate studies. The

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makes use of a wide variety of plants, among other materials and techniques. Researchers from

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Solecki RS (November 1975). "Shanidar IV, a Neanderthal Flower Burial in Northern Iraq".

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practices to maintain organic matter in the soil and to conserve water, for example with

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disorders, such as fertility, menstrual, and menopausal problems. Among these plants are

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Lee, Y. S., Park J. S., Cho S. D., Son J. K., Cherdshewasart W., Kang K. S. (Dec 2002).

4593:"Evaluation of the content variation of anthraquinone glycosides in rhubarb by UPLC-PDA" 4000: 3973: 3326:

Nunn N, Qian N (2010). "The Columbian Exchange: A History of Disease, Food, and Ideas".

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Drugs derived from plants including opiates, cocaine and cannabis have both medical and

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Jacquart D (2008). "Islamic Pharmacology in the Middle Ages: Theories and Substances".

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Ross, Anne. Pagan Celtic Britain: Studies in Iconography and Tradition. Constable, 1967

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The man credited with the introduction of digitalis into the practice of medicine was

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Lead Compounds from Medicinal Plants for the Treatment of Neurodegenerative Diseases

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century, reflects the blending of Celtic and Christian beliefs in herbal medicine.

303:. Humans were not alone in using herbs as medicines: some animals such as non-human 178:. The compounds found in plants are diverse, with most in four biochemical classes: 7084: 6839: 6238:

Pharmacology and Abuse of Cocaine, Amphetamines, Ecstasy and Related Designer Drugs

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Stepp JR, Moerman DE (April 2001). "The importance of weeds in ethnopharmacology".

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estimated in 2002 that over 50,000 medicinal plants are used across the world. The

677: 490: 477: 435: 5657:"Scoring drugs. A new study suggests alcohol is more harmful than heroin or crack" 4862:"Requirement of metabolic activation for estrogenic activity of Pueraria mirifica" 4435: 3990: 1676:, including herbalism, is the only source of health care for people, while in the 1255:. The plant was used on heart conditions long before the glycoside was identified. 6695: 6245: 5058: 3110: 3024:

Lloyd, Robert, editor. "The Physicians of Myddfai." The Welsh MSS. Society, 1861.

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"Herbals". 2877:Arsdall AV (2002). 2589:1975Sci...190..880S 2165:2022PNAS..11920277G 1879:Catharanthus roseus 1686:dietary supplements 1448:plants such as the 1357:dietary supplements 1272:atrial fibrillation 1032:Catharanthus roseus 878:Alzheimer's disease 853:advantage, such as 839:Phytochemical basis 720:Badianus Manuscript 606:The Book of Simples 559:Hildegard of Bingen 309:monarch butterflies 262:History of pharmacy 220:habitat destruction 194:. Few of these are 7207:Japanese herbology 7185:Regional practices 6485:Aust Fam Physician 6407:J Soc Integr Oncol 6325:Talalay P (2001). 6013:(Suppl 1): 69–75. 5700:Cancer Research UK 5155:American Scientist 4719:PharmaXChange.info 3142:. Rodale. p. 3058:Collins M (2000). 3040:. Rodale. p. 2767:on 10 October 2008 2315:(4 Suppl): S4–24. 2269:Collins M (2000). 1991:dietary supplement 1963: 1829: 1790: 1749: 1736:tree contains the 1718:psychoactive drugs 1656: 1653:Marrakesh, Morocco 1602: 1555: 1353:maritime pine bark 1245:Digitalis purpurea 1188:lily of the valley 1180:cardiac glycosides 1050:Papaver somniferum 716:Columbian Exchange 714:and the resulting 698:in 1597, based on 674: 582:Islamic Golden Age 535: 496:Historia plantarum 432:Ayurvedic medicine 367: 254: 62: 7282: 7281: 7202:Islamic herbology 7192:Chinese herbology 7060:Purple coneflower 6728:Lordan R (2021). 6588:on 18 August 2018 6461:978-0-470-31944-4 6331:Academic Medicine 6255:978-90-481-2447-3 6166:10.1021/np200906s 6117:10.4155/fmc.14.60 6062:(7519): 481–483. 5972:(11): 1231–1235. 5962:"Vinca Alkaloids" 5867:978-92-4-150609-0 5696:"Herbal medicine" 5297:10.1002/jsfa.5630 5138:978-0-12-398373-2 5098:10.1002/jps.20987 5070:978-81-7387-162-7 4972:978-981-02-2773-9 4846:978-0-521-36377-8 4790:(12): 4777–4788. 4762:William Withering 4661:978-0-444-53294-7 4369:978-0-444-52736-3 4289:978-0-387-85497-7 4260:978-1-58716-083-7 4113:978-0-12-469563-4 4076:978-1-4020-5183-8 3904:978-1-4987-5096-7 3673:Agriculture. Rome 3153:978-1-57954-304-4 3122:978-0-415-02063-3 3075:978-0-8020-8313-5 3051:978-1-57954-304-4 2923:978-1-57958-090-2 2904:Mills FA (2000). 2890:978-0-415-93849-5 2863:978-0-521-64380-1 2832:978-0-19-514017-0 2801:978-0-88192-483-1 2786:Sumner J (2000). 2685:978-0-88192-483-1 2670:Sumner J (2000). 2583:(4217): 880–881. 2561:978-0-88192-483-1 2286:978-0-8020-8313-5 1950:Datura stramonium 1841:has roots in the 1710:recreational uses 1684:including use of 1664:Psychoactive drug 1535:found in plants. 1270:is used to treat 1253:cardiac glycoside 1216:Senna alexandrina 1155:Alexandrian senna 1109:tropane alkaloids 1105:Atropa belladonna 1101:Deadly nightshade 738:chemical analysis 704:Nicholas Culpeper 694:wrote his famous 669:The Grete Herball 636:Abu-Rayhan Biruni 622:Corpus of Simples 543:Early Middle Ages 507:De materia medica 450:, which contains 267:Prehistoric times 245:, seen here in a 241:De materia medica 143:De materia medica 46:active metabolite 16:(Redirected from 7302: 7295:Medicinal plants 7263:Medicinal plants 7221:Related subjects 7212:Korean herbology 7197:Indian herbology 7156:Lingzhi mushroom 6904: 6897: 6890: 6881: 6875: 6874: 6872: 6870: 6850: 6844: 6843: 6807: 6798: 6797: 6795: 6793: 6774: 6768: 6767: 6757: 6725: 6719: 6718: 6708: 6698: 6674: 6668: 6667: 6639: 6633: 6632: 6615:(1–2): 100–106. 6604: 6598: 6597: 6595: 6593: 6577: 6571: 6570: 6534: 6528: 6527: 6507: 6501: 6500: 6480: 6474: 6473: 6439: 6433: 6432: 6422: 6398: 6392: 6391: 6374:(2–3): 141–164. 6363: 6357: 6356: 6346: 6322: 6316: 6315: 6313: 6312: 6306: 6300:. Archived from 6275: 6269:Ernst E (1998). 6266: 6260: 6259: 6233: 6227: 6226: 6224: 6222: 6216: 6205: 6197: 6188: 6187: 6177: 6145: 6139: 6138: 6128: 6096: 6090: 6089: 6079: 6047: 6041: 6040: 6030: 5998: 5992: 5991: 5981: 5957: 5951: 5950: 5922: 5916: 5915: 5913: 5911: 5892: 5886: 5885: 5883: 5882: 5876: 5859: 5848: 5837: 5836: 5816: 5810: 5809: 5807: 5805: 5790: 5784: 5783: 5773: 5763: 5746:(39): 15835–40. 5729: 5720: 5719: 5713: 5711: 5692: 5686: 5685: 5674: 5672: 5653: 5647: 5646: 5634: 5628: 5627: 5625: 5624: 5608: 5602: 5601: 5599: 5598: 5550: 5544: 5543: 5541: 5539: 5523: 5517: 5516: 5514: 5512: 5497: 5491: 5490: 5478: 5469: 5468: 5466: 5464: 5449: 5443: 5442: 5414: 5408: 5407: 5405: 5403: 5387: 5381: 5380: 5378: 5377: 5361: 5355: 5354: 5352: 5350: 5335: 5315: 5309: 5308: 5291:(6): 1150–1170. 5280: 5274: 5273: 5271: 5269: 5254: 5248: 5247: 5241: 5239: 5224: 5213: 5212: 5202: 5178: 5172: 5171: 5162:(4): 499A–500A. 5149: 5143: 5142: 5116: 5110: 5109: 5081: 5075: 5074: 5054: 5048: 5047: 5045: 5021: 5012: 5011: 4983: 4977: 4976: 4958: 4952: 4951: 4941: 4917: 4911: 4910: 4908: 4907: 4881: 4857: 4851: 4850: 4832: 4826: 4825: 4815: 4773: 4767: 4766: 4757: 4755: 4740: 4734: 4733: 4731: 4730: 4710: 4704: 4703: 4675: 4666: 4665: 4639: 4633: 4632: 4622: 4612: 4588: 4582: 4581: 4579: 4577: 4558: 4552: 4551: 4513: 4507: 4506: 4496: 4464: 4458: 4457: 4447: 4415: 4409: 4408: 4406: 4404: 4398: 4391: 4383: 4374: 4373: 4351: 4345: 4344: 4342: 4341: 4335: 4320: 4311: 4294: 4293: 4271: 4265: 4264: 4244: 4238: 4237: 4235: 4233: 4217: 4211: 4210: 4200: 4168: 4162: 4161: 4159: 4157: 4142: 4136: 4135: 4125: 4087: 4081: 4080: 4068: 4058: 4052: 4051: 4046: 4044: 4029: 4014: 4013: 4003: 3993: 3969: 3963: 3962: 3944: 3920: 3909: 3908: 3891:Singh A (2016). 3888: 3882: 3881: 3871: 3861: 3837: 3828: 3827: 3825: 3823: 3814:. Archived from 3805: 3773: 3767: 3766: 3756: 3732: 3721: 3720: 3718: 3716: 3710: 3703: 3695: 3689: 3688: 3686: 3684: 3664: 3658: 3657: 3647: 3637: 3613: 3600: 3599: 3598: 3597: 3565: 3559: 3558: 3548: 3538: 3514: 3508: 3507: 3497: 3480:(8): 1582–1614. 3464: 3447: 3446: 3410: 3404: 3403: 3401: 3400: 3394: 3379: 3370: 3364: 3363: 3345: 3323: 3317: 3316: 3299: 3290: 3289: 3253: 3247: 3246: 3218: 3212: 3211: 3191: 3185: 3184: 3164: 3158: 3157: 3133: 3127: 3126: 3106: 3098: 3096: 3094: 3079: 3055: 3031: 3025: 3022: 3016: 3013: 3007: 3004: 2998: 2995: 2989: 2986: 2980: 2977: 2971: 2970: 2934: 2928: 2927: 2901: 2895: 2894: 2874: 2868: 2867: 2846:Grene M (2004). 2843: 2837: 2836: 2812: 2806: 2805: 2783: 2777: 2776: 2774: 2772: 2766: 2760:. Archived from 2755: 2744: 2738: 2735: 2729: 2726: 2720: 2717: 2711: 2708: 2702: 2696: 2690: 2689: 2667: 2658: 2657: 2639: 2615: 2609: 2608: 2572: 2566: 2565: 2543: 2537: 2536: 2506: 2500: 2499: 2482:(2–3): 163–166. 2469: 2463: 2462: 2451: 2442: 2441: 2413: 2407: 2406: 2368: 2362: 2361: 2359: 2358: 2332: 2300: 2291: 2290: 2266: 2257: 2256: 2246: 2214: 2197: 2196: 2186: 2176: 2144: 2138: 2137: 2135: 2101: 2085: 2078: 2072: 2065:Coptis chinensis 2061: 2055: 2052: 1862:Taxus brevifolia 1824:Taxus brevifolia 1776:The practice of 1732:The bark of the 1553:, Tasmania, 2010 1528: 1504:), contains the 1489: 1407: 1388: 1264: 1236: 1211: 1097: 1073: 1047:The opium poppy 1044: 833:drug development 648:John of St Amand 510: 444:Sushruta Samhita 383:ancient Egyptian 360: 357: 289:herbal medicines 285:flowering plants 251: 248: 244: 153: 150: 146: 134: 131: 119: 116: 65:Medicinal plants 21: 7310: 7309: 7305: 7304: 7303: 7301: 7300: 7299: 7285: 7284: 7283: 7278: 7267: 7216: 7180: 7141:Almond mushroom 7129: 6911: 6908: 6878: 6868: 6866: 6852: 6851: 6847: 6809: 6808: 6801: 6791: 6789: 6776: 6775: 6771: 6734:Pharmanutrition 6727: 6726: 6722: 6689:(4): e1002657. 6676: 6675: 6671: 6641: 6640: 6636: 6606: 6605: 6601: 6591: 6589: 6579: 6578: 6574: 6536: 6535: 6531: 6512:Ceska Slov Farm 6509: 6508: 6504: 6482: 6481: 6477: 6462: 6441: 6440: 6436: 6400: 6399: 6395: 6365: 6364: 6360: 6324: 6323: 6319: 6310: 6308: 6304: 6273: 6268: 6267: 6263: 6256: 6235: 6234: 6230: 6220: 6218: 6214: 6203: 6199: 6198: 6191: 6147: 6146: 6142: 6111:(11): 1265–90. 6098: 6097: 6093: 6077:10.1038/513481a 6049: 6048: 6044: 6000: 5999: 5995: 5959: 5958: 5954: 5924: 5923: 5919: 5909: 5907: 5894: 5893: 5889: 5880: 5878: 5874: 5868: 5857: 5850: 5849: 5840: 5821:Current Science 5818: 5817: 5813: 5803: 5801: 5792: 5791: 5787: 5731: 5730: 5723: 5709: 5707: 5694: 5693: 5689: 5670: 5668: 5655: 5654: 5650: 5636: 5635: 5631: 5622: 5620: 5615:. Kew Gardens. 5610: 5609: 5605: 5596: 5594: 5552: 5551: 5547: 5537: 5535: 5530:. Kew Gardens. 5525: 5524: 5520: 5510: 5508: 5499: 5498: 5494: 5480: 5479: 5472: 5462: 5460: 5459:on 27 July 2008 5451: 5450: 5446: 5416: 5415: 5411: 5401: 5399: 5389: 5388: 5384: 5375: 5373: 5363: 5362: 5358: 5348: 5346: 5344: 5318:Yang Y (2010). 5317: 5316: 5312: 5282: 5281: 5277: 5267: 5265: 5256: 5255: 5251: 5237: 5235: 5226: 5225: 5216: 5187:New Phytologist 5180: 5179: 5175: 5151: 5150: 5146: 5139: 5118: 5117: 5113: 5083: 5082: 5078: 5071: 5056: 5055: 5051: 5023: 5022: 5015: 4985: 4984: 4980: 4973: 4960: 4959: 4955: 4919: 4918: 4914: 4905: 4903: 4879:10.1.1.617.1507 4859: 4858: 4854: 4847: 4834: 4833: 4829: 4775: 4774: 4770: 4753: 4751: 4742: 4741: 4737: 4728: 4726: 4712: 4711: 4707: 4677: 4676: 4669: 4662: 4641: 4640: 4636: 4590: 4589: 4585: 4575: 4573: 4566:IUPHAR Database 4560: 4559: 4555: 4515: 4514: 4510: 4466: 4465: 4461: 4417: 4416: 4412: 4402: 4400: 4396: 4389: 4385: 4384: 4377: 4370: 4362:. p. 182. 4353: 4352: 4348: 4339: 4337: 4333: 4318: 4313: 4312: 4297: 4290: 4273: 4272: 4268: 4261: 4246: 4245: 4241: 4231: 4229: 4219: 4218: 4214: 4183:(1): CD005593. 4170: 4169: 4165: 4155: 4153: 4144: 4143: 4139: 4114: 4089: 4088: 4084: 4077: 4060: 4059: 4055: 4042: 4040: 4031: 4030: 4017: 3971: 3970: 3966: 3922: 3921: 3912: 3905: 3890: 3889: 3885: 3840:Ekor M (2013). 3839: 3838: 3831: 3821: 3819: 3775: 3774: 3770: 3734: 3733: 3724: 3714: 3712: 3708: 3701: 3697: 3696: 3692: 3682: 3680: 3666: 3665: 3661: 3615: 3614: 3603: 3595: 3593: 3567: 3566: 3562: 3516: 3515: 3511: 3466: 3465: 3450: 3412: 3411: 3407: 3398: 3396: 3392: 3377: 3372: 3371: 3367: 3343:10.1.1.232.9242 3325: 3324: 3320: 3301: 3300: 3293: 3264:(5): 447–450 . 3255: 3254: 3250: 3220: 3219: 3215: 3198:(in Croatian). 3193: 3192: 3188: 3175:(2): 219–227 . 3169:European Review 3166: 3165: 3161: 3154: 3135: 3134: 3130: 3123: 3108: 3100: 3092: 3090: 3081: 3076: 3068:. p. 115. 3057: 3052: 3033: 3032: 3028: 3023: 3019: 3014: 3010: 3005: 3001: 2996: 2992: 2987: 2983: 2978: 2974: 2936: 2935: 2931: 2924: 2916:. p. 179. 2903: 2902: 2898: 2891: 2876: 2875: 2871: 2864: 2845: 2844: 2840: 2833: 2814: 2813: 2809: 2802: 2785: 2784: 2780: 2770: 2768: 2764: 2753: 2746: 2745: 2741: 2736: 2732: 2727: 2723: 2718: 2714: 2709: 2705: 2701:, pp. 1–5. 2697: 2693: 2686: 2669: 2668: 2661: 2617: 2616: 2612: 2574: 2573: 2569: 2562: 2545: 2544: 2540: 2508: 2507: 2503: 2471: 2470: 2466: 2453: 2452: 2445: 2415: 2414: 2410: 2370: 2369: 2365: 2356: 2354: 2302: 2301: 2294: 2287: 2268: 2267: 2260: 2216: 2215: 2200: 2146: 2145: 2141: 2103: 2102: 2098: 2094: 2089: 2088: 2079: 2075: 2062: 2058: 2053: 2049: 2044: 2017: 2000: 1987: 1978:cytochrome P450 1969: 1947:The Thornapple 1941: 1921:new drug status 1909:, meaning that 1867:Vinca alkaloids 1835: 1811: 1770: 1726: 1678:developed world 1670: 1647:'s shop in the 1637: 1594: 1586:no-till farming 1570: 1565: 1557:Main articles: 1543: 1536: 1529: 1520: 1502:Thymus vulgaris 1490: 1435: 1429: 1422: 1408: 1399: 1389: 1309:and astringent 1300: 1290: 1283: 1265: 1256: 1237: 1228: 1212: 1190:. They include 1137: 1131: 1124: 1098: 1089: 1074: 1065: 1045: 907: 901: 847: 841: 804:modern medicine 800: 734: 728: 700:Rembert Dodoens 660: 563:Causae et Curae 517: 358: 344: 327:Ötzi the Iceman 269: 264: 249: 237:'s 1st century 228: 151: 132: 117: 69:medicinal herbs 40:trees contains 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 7308: 7306: 7298: 7297: 7287: 7286: 7280: 7279: 7272: 7269: 7268: 7266: 7265: 7260: 7255: 7250: 7245: 7240: 7235: 7230: 7224: 7222: 7218: 7217: 7215: 7214: 7209: 7204: 7199: 7194: 7188: 7186: 7182: 7181: 7179: 7178: 7173: 7171:Morel mushroom 7168: 7163: 7158: 7153: 7148: 7146:Chaga mushroom 7143: 7137: 7135: 7131: 7130: 7128: 7127: 7122: 7117: 7112: 7107: 7102: 7097: 7092: 7087: 7082: 7077: 7072: 7067: 7062: 7057: 7052: 7047: 7042: 7037: 7032: 7027: 7022: 7017: 7012: 7007: 7002: 6997: 6992: 6987: 6982: 6977: 6972: 6967: 6962: 6961: 6960: 6950: 6945: 6940: 6935: 6930: 6925: 6919: 6917: 6913: 6912: 6909: 6907: 6906: 6899: 6892: 6884: 6877: 6876: 6845: 6799: 6769: 6720: 6669: 6650:(11): 1505–9. 6634: 6599: 6572: 6529: 6502: 6491:(11): 1070–5. 6475: 6460: 6434: 6393: 6358: 6317: 6284:(2): 170–178. 6261: 6254: 6228: 6189: 6140: 6091: 6042: 5993: 5952: 5933:(3): 239–245. 5917: 5887: 5866: 5838: 5827:(6): 797–806. 5811: 5785: 5721: 5687: 5648: 5629: 5603: 5545: 5526:Giovannini P. 5518: 5492: 5470: 5444: 5425:(2): 121–133. 5409: 5382: 5356: 5342: 5310: 5275: 5249: 5214: 5173: 5144: 5137: 5111: 5092:(8): 1879–85. 5076: 5069: 5049: 5013: 4978: 4971: 4953: 4932:(4): 1138–46. 4912: 4872:(4): 273–277. 4852: 4845: 4827: 4783:The Plant Cell 4768: 4735: 4705: 4667: 4660: 4634: 4583: 4553: 4526:(2): 413–427. 4519:Plant and Soil 4508: 4479:(6): 292–296. 4459: 4430:(5): 712–717. 4410: 4375: 4368: 4346: 4295: 4288: 4266: 4259: 4239: 4212: 4163: 4137: 4112: 4082: 4075: 4053: 4015: 3984:(10): e31145. 3964: 3910: 3903: 3883: 3829: 3788:(8): 577–656. 3768: 3747:(6): 965–981. 3722: 3690: 3659: 3601: 3560: 3509: 3448: 3421:(2): 169–192. 3405: 3365: 3336:(2): 163–188. 3318: 3291: 3248: 3235:10.1086/372742 3229:(3): 203–212. 3213: 3202:(2): 117–120. 3186: 3159: 3152: 3128: 3121: 3105:. p. 815. 3074: 3050: 3026: 3017: 3008: 2999: 2990: 2981: 2972: 2945:(4): 315–320. 2929: 2922: 2896: 2889: 2869: 2862: 2856:. p. 11. 2838: 2831: 2815:Wu JN (2005). 2807: 2800: 2794:. p. 18. 2778: 2739: 2730: 2721: 2712: 2703: 2699:Petrovska 2012 2691: 2684: 2678:. p. 17. 2659: 2630:(9143): 1864. 2610: 2567: 2560: 2554:. p. 16. 2538: 2501: 2464: 2443: 2424:(3): 147–163. 2408: 2387:10.1086/420058 2363: 2292: 2285: 2279:. p. 32. 2258: 2229:(3): 111–116. 2217:Ahn K (2017). 2198: 2139: 2118:(7479): 1408. 2095: 2093: 2090: 2087: 2086: 2073: 2056: 2046: 2045: 2043: 2040: 2039: 2038: 2033: 2028: 2023: 2016: 2013: 2004:climate change 1999: 1996: 1986: 1983: 1940: 1937: 1925:botanical drug 1917:drug discovery 1833:Drug discovery 1810: 1809:Drug discovery 1807: 1769: 1766: 1725: 1722: 1668:Drug discovery 1636: 1633: 1593: 1590: 1569: 1566: 1542: 1539: 1538: 1537: 1530: 1523: 1521: 1491: 1484: 1456:, whether for 1454:essential oils 1428: 1425: 1424: 1423: 1415:phytoestrogens 1409: 1402: 1400: 1396:phytoestrogens 1390: 1383: 1355:, are sold as 1307:phytoestrogens 1289: 1286: 1285: 1284: 1278:and sometimes 1276:atrial flutter 1266: 1259: 1257: 1238: 1231: 1229: 1227:for millennia. 1213: 1206: 1157:. Plant-based 1130: 1127: 1126: 1125: 1099: 1092: 1090: 1075: 1068: 1066: 1046: 1039: 900: 897: 893:phytochemicals 859:salicylic acid 845:Phytochemistry 840: 837: 799: 796: 779:salicylic acid 727: 724: 706:published his 659: 656: 652:pharmacopoeias 650:wrote further 644:Peter of Spain 600:(936–1013) of 516: 513: 359: 1550 BC 343: 340: 273:culinary herbs 268: 265: 227: 224: 216:climate change 156:pharmacopoeias 133: 1550 BC 118: 3000 BC 67:, also called 42:salicylic acid 26: 24: 18:Medicinal herb 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 7307: 7296: 7293: 7292: 7290: 7277: 7276: 7270: 7264: 7261: 7259: 7256: 7254: 7251: 7249: 7246: 7244: 7241: 7239: 7236: 7234: 7231: 7229: 7226: 7225: 7223: 7219: 7213: 7210: 7208: 7205: 7203: 7200: 7198: 7195: 7193: 7190: 7189: 7187: 7183: 7177: 7174: 7172: 7169: 7167: 7164: 7162: 7159: 7157: 7154: 7152: 7149: 7147: 7144: 7142: 7139: 7138: 7136: 7132: 7126: 7123: 7121: 7118: 7116: 7113: 7111: 7108: 7106: 7103: 7101: 7098: 7096: 7093: 7091: 7088: 7086: 7083: 7081: 7080:Summer savory 7078: 7076: 7073: 7071: 7068: 7066: 7063: 7061: 7058: 7056: 7053: 7051: 7048: 7046: 7043: 7041: 7038: 7036: 7033: 7031: 7028: 7026: 7023: 7021: 7018: 7016: 7013: 7011: 7008: 7006: 7003: 7001: 6998: 6996: 6993: 6991: 6988: 6986: 6983: 6981: 6978: 6976: 6973: 6971: 6968: 6966: 6963: 6959: 6956: 6955: 6954: 6951: 6949: 6946: 6944: 6941: 6939: 6936: 6934: 6931: 6929: 6926: 6924: 6921: 6920: 6918: 6914: 6905: 6900: 6898: 6893: 6891: 6886: 6885: 6882: 6864: 6860: 6856: 6849: 6846: 6841: 6837: 6833: 6829: 6825: 6821: 6817: 6813: 6812:Nature Plants 6806: 6804: 6800: 6787: 6783: 6779: 6773: 6770: 6765: 6761: 6756: 6751: 6747: 6743: 6739: 6735: 6731: 6724: 6721: 6716: 6712: 6707: 6702: 6697: 6692: 6688: 6684: 6683:PLOS Genetics 6680: 6673: 6670: 6665: 6661: 6657: 6653: 6649: 6645: 6638: 6635: 6630: 6626: 6622: 6618: 6614: 6610: 6603: 6600: 6587: 6583: 6576: 6573: 6568: 6564: 6560: 6556: 6552: 6548: 6544: 6540: 6533: 6530: 6525: 6521: 6518:(4): 165–73. 6517: 6513: 6506: 6503: 6498: 6494: 6490: 6486: 6479: 6476: 6471: 6467: 6463: 6457: 6453: 6449: 6445: 6438: 6435: 6430: 6426: 6421: 6416: 6412: 6408: 6404: 6397: 6394: 6389: 6385: 6381: 6377: 6373: 6369: 6362: 6359: 6354: 6350: 6345: 6340: 6337:(3): 238–47. 6336: 6332: 6328: 6321: 6318: 6307:on 2019-11-05 6303: 6299: 6295: 6291: 6287: 6283: 6279: 6272: 6265: 6262: 6257: 6251: 6247: 6243: 6239: 6232: 6229: 6213: 6209: 6202: 6196: 6194: 6190: 6185: 6181: 6176: 6171: 6167: 6163: 6160:(3): 311–35. 6159: 6155: 6151: 6144: 6141: 6136: 6132: 6127: 6122: 6118: 6114: 6110: 6106: 6102: 6095: 6092: 6087: 6083: 6078: 6073: 6069: 6065: 6061: 6057: 6053: 6046: 6043: 6038: 6034: 6029: 6024: 6020: 6016: 6012: 6008: 6004: 5997: 5994: 5989: 5985: 5980: 5975: 5971: 5967: 5963: 5956: 5953: 5948: 5944: 5940: 5936: 5932: 5928: 5921: 5918: 5905: 5901: 5897: 5891: 5888: 5873: 5869: 5863: 5856: 5855: 5847: 5845: 5843: 5839: 5834: 5830: 5826: 5822: 5815: 5812: 5799: 5795: 5789: 5786: 5781: 5777: 5772: 5767: 5762: 5757: 5753: 5749: 5745: 5741: 5740: 5735: 5728: 5726: 5722: 5718: 5705: 5701: 5697: 5691: 5688: 5684: 5682: 5681: 5666: 5662: 5661:The Economist 5658: 5652: 5649: 5644: 5640: 5633: 5630: 5618: 5614: 5607: 5604: 5592: 5588: 5584: 5580: 5576: 5572: 5568: 5564: 5560: 5556: 5549: 5546: 5533: 5529: 5522: 5519: 5506: 5502: 5496: 5493: 5488: 5484: 5477: 5475: 5471: 5458: 5454: 5448: 5445: 5440: 5436: 5432: 5428: 5424: 5420: 5413: 5410: 5397: 5393: 5386: 5383: 5371: 5367: 5360: 5357: 5345: 5343:9780702031328 5339: 5334: 5329: 5325: 5321: 5314: 5311: 5306: 5302: 5298: 5294: 5290: 5286: 5279: 5276: 5263: 5259: 5253: 5250: 5246: 5233: 5229: 5223: 5221: 5219: 5215: 5210: 5206: 5201: 5196: 5192: 5188: 5184: 5177: 5174: 5169: 5165: 5161: 5157: 5156: 5148: 5145: 5140: 5134: 5130: 5126: 5122: 5115: 5112: 5107: 5103: 5099: 5095: 5091: 5087: 5080: 5077: 5072: 5066: 5062: 5061: 5053: 5050: 5044: 5039: 5035: 5031: 5027: 5020: 5018: 5014: 5009: 5005: 5001: 4997: 4994:(4): 337–44. 4993: 4989: 4982: 4979: 4974: 4968: 4964: 4957: 4954: 4949: 4945: 4940: 4935: 4931: 4927: 4923: 4916: 4913: 4901: 4897: 4893: 4889: 4885: 4880: 4875: 4871: 4867: 4863: 4856: 4853: 4848: 4842: 4838: 4831: 4828: 4823: 4819: 4814: 4809: 4805: 4801: 4797: 4793: 4789: 4785: 4784: 4779: 4772: 4769: 4765: 4763: 4749: 4745: 4739: 4736: 4724: 4720: 4716: 4709: 4706: 4701: 4697: 4693: 4689: 4685: 4681: 4674: 4672: 4668: 4663: 4657: 4653: 4649: 4645: 4638: 4635: 4630: 4626: 4621: 4616: 4611: 4606: 4602: 4598: 4594: 4587: 4584: 4571: 4567: 4563: 4557: 4554: 4549: 4545: 4541: 4537: 4533: 4529: 4525: 4521: 4520: 4512: 4509: 4504: 4500: 4495: 4490: 4486: 4482: 4478: 4474: 4470: 4463: 4460: 4455: 4451: 4446: 4441: 4437: 4433: 4429: 4425: 4421: 4414: 4411: 4395: 4388: 4382: 4380: 4376: 4371: 4365: 4361: 4358:. Amsterdam: 4357: 4350: 4347: 4336:on 2017-02-17 4332: 4328: 4324: 4317: 4310: 4308: 4306: 4304: 4302: 4300: 4296: 4291: 4285: 4281: 4277: 4270: 4267: 4262: 4256: 4252: 4251: 4243: 4240: 4227: 4223: 4216: 4213: 4208: 4204: 4199: 4194: 4190: 4186: 4182: 4178: 4174: 4167: 4164: 4151: 4147: 4146:"Galantamine" 4141: 4138: 4133: 4129: 4124: 4119: 4115: 4109: 4105: 4101: 4097: 4093: 4086: 4083: 4078: 4072: 4067: 4066: 4057: 4054: 4050: 4038: 4034: 4028: 4026: 4024: 4022: 4020: 4016: 4011: 4007: 4002: 3997: 3992: 3987: 3983: 3979: 3975: 3968: 3965: 3960: 3956: 3952: 3948: 3943: 3938: 3934: 3930: 3926: 3919: 3917: 3915: 3911: 3906: 3900: 3896: 3895: 3887: 3884: 3879: 3875: 3870: 3865: 3860: 3855: 3851: 3847: 3843: 3836: 3834: 3830: 3817: 3813: 3809: 3804: 3799: 3795: 3791: 3787: 3783: 3779: 3772: 3769: 3764: 3760: 3755: 3750: 3746: 3742: 3738: 3731: 3729: 3727: 3723: 3707: 3700: 3694: 3691: 3678: 3674: 3670: 3663: 3660: 3655: 3651: 3646: 3641: 3636: 3631: 3627: 3623: 3619: 3612: 3610: 3608: 3606: 3602: 3591: 3587: 3583: 3579: 3575: 3571: 3564: 3561: 3556: 3552: 3547: 3542: 3537: 3532: 3528: 3524: 3520: 3513: 3510: 3505: 3501: 3496: 3491: 3487: 3483: 3479: 3475: 3471: 3463: 3461: 3459: 3457: 3455: 3453: 3449: 3444: 3440: 3436: 3432: 3428: 3424: 3420: 3416: 3409: 3406: 3395:on 2017-02-27 3391: 3387: 3383: 3376: 3369: 3366: 3361: 3357: 3353: 3349: 3344: 3339: 3335: 3331: 3330: 3322: 3319: 3314: 3310: 3309: 3304: 3298: 3296: 3292: 3287: 3283: 3279: 3275: 3271: 3267: 3263: 3259: 3252: 3249: 3244: 3240: 3236: 3232: 3228: 3224: 3217: 3214: 3209: 3205: 3201: 3197: 3190: 3187: 3182: 3178: 3174: 3170: 3163: 3160: 3155: 3149: 3145: 3141: 3140: 3132: 3129: 3124: 3118: 3115:. Routledge. 3114: 3113: 3104: 3088: 3084: 3077: 3071: 3067: 3063: 3062: 3053: 3047: 3043: 3039: 3038: 3030: 3027: 3021: 3018: 3012: 3009: 3003: 3000: 2994: 2991: 2985: 2982: 2976: 2973: 2968: 2964: 2960: 2956: 2952: 2948: 2944: 2940: 2933: 2930: 2925: 2919: 2915: 2911: 2907: 2900: 2897: 2892: 2886: 2882: 2881: 2873: 2870: 2865: 2859: 2855: 2851: 2850: 2842: 2839: 2834: 2828: 2825:. p. 6. 2824: 2820: 2819: 2811: 2808: 2803: 2797: 2793: 2789: 2782: 2779: 2763: 2759: 2752: 2751: 2743: 2740: 2734: 2731: 2725: 2722: 2716: 2713: 2707: 2704: 2700: 2695: 2692: 2687: 2681: 2677: 2673: 2666: 2664: 2660: 2655: 2651: 2647: 2643: 2638: 2633: 2629: 2625: 2621: 2614: 2611: 2606: 2602: 2598: 2594: 2590: 2586: 2582: 2578: 2571: 2568: 2563: 2557: 2553: 2549: 2542: 2539: 2534: 2530: 2526: 2522: 2518: 2514: 2513: 2505: 2502: 2497: 2493: 2489: 2485: 2481: 2477: 2476: 2468: 2465: 2460: 2458: 2450: 2448: 2444: 2439: 2435: 2431: 2427: 2423: 2419: 2412: 2409: 2404: 2400: 2396: 2392: 2388: 2384: 2380: 2376: 2375: 2367: 2364: 2352: 2348: 2344: 2340: 2336: 2331: 2326: 2322: 2318: 2314: 2310: 2306: 2299: 2297: 2293: 2288: 2282: 2278: 2274: 2273: 2265: 2263: 2259: 2254: 2250: 2245: 2240: 2236: 2232: 2228: 2224: 2220: 2213: 2211: 2209: 2207: 2205: 2203: 2199: 2194: 2190: 2185: 2180: 2175: 2170: 2166: 2162: 2158: 2154: 2150: 2143: 2140: 2134: 2129: 2125: 2121: 2117: 2113: 2112: 2107: 2100: 2097: 2091: 2083: 2077: 2074: 2070: 2066: 2060: 2057: 2051: 2048: 2041: 2037: 2034: 2032: 2029: 2027: 2026:Ethnomedicine 2024: 2022: 2019: 2018: 2014: 2012: 2009: 2005: 1997: 1995: 1992: 1984: 1982: 1979: 1973: 1968: 1960: 1956: 1952: 1951: 1945: 1938: 1936: 1932: 1930: 1926: 1922: 1918: 1914: 1913: 1908: 1904: 1900: 1896: 1892: 1888: 1883: 1881: 1880: 1875: 1871: 1868: 1864: 1863: 1858: 1854: 1853: 1848: 1844: 1840: 1834: 1826: 1825: 1820: 1815: 1808: 1806: 1802: 1800: 1796: 1787: 1783: 1779: 1774: 1767: 1765: 1762: 1758: 1753: 1746: 1742: 1739: 1735: 1730: 1724:Effectiveness 1723: 1721: 1719: 1715: 1711: 1706: 1704: 1700: 1696: 1692: 1687: 1683: 1679: 1675: 1669: 1665: 1661: 1654: 1650: 1646: 1641: 1634: 1632: 1630: 1625: 1623: 1618: 1616: 1612: 1608: 1598: 1591: 1589: 1587: 1583: 1579: 1575: 1567: 1564: 1560: 1552: 1551:opium poppies 1547: 1540: 1534: 1527: 1522: 1518: 1514: 1510: 1507: 1503: 1499: 1495: 1494:essential oil 1488: 1483: 1481: 1479: 1475: 1471: 1467: 1463: 1459: 1455: 1451: 1447: 1443: 1439: 1434: 1426: 1420: 1416: 1412: 1406: 1401: 1397: 1394:, containing 1393: 1387: 1382: 1380: 1378: 1374: 1370: 1366: 1365:health claims 1362: 1358: 1354: 1350: 1346: 1341: 1339: 1335: 1331: 1327: 1323: 1321: 1316: 1315:gynecological 1312: 1308: 1304: 1299: 1295: 1287: 1281: 1280:heart failure 1277: 1273: 1269: 1263: 1258: 1254: 1250: 1246: 1242: 1235: 1230: 1226: 1222: 1219:, containing 1218: 1217: 1210: 1205: 1203: 1201: 1197: 1193: 1189: 1185: 1181: 1176: 1174: 1173: 1168: 1164: 1160: 1156: 1152: 1148: 1144: 1141: 1140:Anthraquinone 1136: 1128: 1122: 1118: 1114: 1110: 1106: 1102: 1096: 1091: 1087: 1083: 1079: 1076:The alkaloid 1072: 1067: 1063: 1059: 1056: 1052: 1051: 1043: 1038: 1036: 1034: 1033: 1028: 1024: 1023: 1018: 1014: 1013: 1008: 1004: 1000: 999: 994: 990: 986: 982: 978: 974: 973: 968: 964: 963: 958: 954: 953: 948: 944: 943: 938: 937: 932: 928: 924: 920: 916: 911: 906: 898: 896: 894: 890: 889:transcriptome 885: 883: 879: 875: 871: 870: 864: 860: 856: 852: 846: 838: 836: 834: 828: 825: 819: 817: 813: 809: 805: 797: 795: 793: 789: 784: 780: 776: 772: 767: 763: 759: 755: 751: 747: 743: 739: 733: 732:Pharmacognosy 725: 723: 721: 717: 713: 709: 705: 701: 697: 693: 689: 688: 687:Grete Herball 683: 679: 671: 670: 664: 657: 655: 653: 649: 645: 641: 637: 633: 632: 627: 623: 619: 615: 611: 607: 603: 599: 595: 591: 587: 583: 578: 574: 570: 566: 564: 560: 556: 552: 548: 544: 539: 532: 531: 526: 521: 514: 512: 509: 508: 502: 498: 497: 492: 488: 484: 483: 479: 475: 471: 468:for leprosy, 467: 463: 462: 457: 453: 449: 445: 441: 437: 433: 428: 424: 420: 416: 413: 411: 407: 403: 399: 395: 391: 387: 386:Ebers Papyrus 384: 380: 376: 372: 364: 363:Ancient Egypt 353: 352:Ebers Papyrus 348: 342:Ancient times 341: 339: 337: 333: 329: 328: 323: 319: 314: 310: 306: 302: 298: 294: 290: 286: 282: 281:food spoilage 278: 274: 266: 263: 259: 243: 242: 236: 232: 225: 223: 221: 217: 213: 212:pseudoscience 209: 205: 199: 197: 193: 189: 185: 181: 177: 173: 169: 165: 161: 157: 145: 144: 138: 127: 126:ancient Egypt 123: 122:Ebers Papyrus 112: 108: 103: 101: 98: 94: 90: 86: 82: 78: 74: 70: 66: 59: 55: 51: 47: 43: 39: 34: 30: 19: 7273: 7262: 7115:White willow 7085:Tea tree oil 7035:Marsh-mallow 6943:Asthma-plant 6869:30 September 6867:. 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