Medieval technology - Knowledge (XXG)

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easier and more common. By the mid-15th century most plate was worn alone and without the need of a hauberk. Advances in metal working such as the blast furnace and new techniques for carburizing made plate armour nearly impenetrable and the best armour protection available at the time. Although plate armour was fairly heavy, because each suit was custom tailored to the wearer, it was very easy to move around in. A full suit of plate armour was extremely expensive and mostly unattainable for the majority of soldiers. Only very wealthy land owners and nobility could afford it. The quality of plate armour increases as more armour makers became more proficient in metal working. A suit of plate armour became a symbol of social status and the best made were personalized with embellishments and engravings. Plate armour saw continued use in battle until the 17th century.

1908:, also known earlier than the 11th century as the Carolingian byrnie. Made of interlinked rings of metal, it sometimes consisted of a coif that covered the head and a tunic that covered the torso, arms, and legs down to the knees. Chain mail was very effective at protecting against light slashing blows but ineffective against stabbing or thrusting blows. The great advantage was that it allowed great freedom of movement and was relatively light with significant protection over quilted or hardened leather armour. It was far more expensive than the hardened leather or quilted armour because of the massive amount of labor it required to create. This made it unattainable for most soldiers and only the more wealthy soldiers could afford it. Later, toward the end of the 13th century 1944: 2299: 720:

horses first became popular. The introduction of gravel roadways was also cause for the popularity of horseshoeing. The loads a shoed horse could take on these roads were significantly higher than one that was barefoot. By the 14th century, not only did horses have shoes, but many farmers were shoeing oxen and donkeys in order to help prolong the life of their hooves. The size and weight of the horseshoe changed significantly over the course of the Middle Ages. In the 10th century, horseshoes were secured by six nails and weighed around one-quarter of a pound, but throughout the years, the shoes grew larger and by the 14th century, the shoes were being secured with eight nails and weighed nearly half a pound.

2072: 980: 807:. This system was originally found in middle eastern areas and is still used today in places where surface water is hard to find. Qanats were very helpful in not losing water while being transported as well. The most famous water duct system was the Roman aqueduct system, and medieval inventors used the aqueduct system as a blueprint for getting water to villages more quickly and easily than diverting rivers. After aqueducts and qanats much other water based technology was created and used in medieval periods including water mills, dams, wells and other such technology for easy access to water. 2283: 1403: 659:

need for cross-plowing by turning over the furrow instead of merely pushing it outward. This type of wheeled plough made seed placement more consistent throughout the farm as the blade could be locked in at a certain level relative to the wheels. A disadvantage to this type of plough was its poor maneuverability. Since this equipment was large and led by a small herd of oxen, turning the plough was difficult and time-consuming. This caused many farmers to turn away from traditional square fields and adopt a longer, more rectangular field to ensure maximum efficiency.

1319: 707: 1131: 1225: 31: 2268: 1600: 2164: 791: 1940:, was made up entirely of small, overlapping plates. Either sewn together, usually with leather straps, or attached to a backing such as linen, or a quilted armor. Scale armour does not require the labor to produce that chain mail does and therefore is more affordable. It also affords much better protection against thrusting blows and pointed weapons. Though, it is much heavier, more restrictive and impedes free movement. 643: 20: 5004: 746:

left alone to grow and is used to help feed livestock. By rotating the three crops to a new part of the land after each year, the off-field regains some of the nutrients lost during the growing of the two crops. This system increases agricultural productivity over the two-field system by only having one-third of the land unused instead of one half. Many scholars believe it helped increase yields by up to 50%.

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meant to pad or soften the impact of blunt weapons and light blows. Although this technology predated the 5th century, it was still extremely prevalent because of the low cost and the weapon technology at the time made the bronze armor of the Greeks and Romans obsolete. Quilted armour was also used in conjunction with other types of armour. Usually worn over or under leather, mail, and later plate armour.

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or river source to villages or cities. A qanat is a tunnel that is just big enough that a single digger could travel through the tunnel and find the source of water as well as allow for water to travel through the duct system to farm land or villages for irrigation or drinking purposes. These tunnels had a gradual slope which used gravity to pull the water from either an

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as the horse was working and often caused asphyxiation. Around the eighth century, the introduction of the rigid collar eliminated the problem of choking. The rigid collar was "placed over the horses head and rested on its shoulders. This permitted unobstructed breathing and placed the weight of the plow or wagon where the horse could best support it."

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become nutrient deficient. In the 11th century, this system was introduced into Sweden and spread to become the most popular form of farming. The system of crop rotation is still used today by many farmers, who will grow corn one year in a field and will then grow beans or other legumes in the field the next year.

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1333 was the first battle where intentional and disciplined combined arms infantry tactics were employed. The English men-at-arms dismounted aside the archers, combining thus the staying power of super-heavy infantry and striking power of their two-handed weapons with the missiles and mobility of the

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Stationary harbour cranes are considered a new development of the Middle Ages; its earliest use being documented for Utrecht in 1244. The typical harbour crane was a pivoting structure equipped with double treadwheels. There were two types: wooden gantry cranes pivoting on a central vertical axle and

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Ancient and medieval civilizations needed and used water to grow the human population as well as to partake in daily activities. One of the ways that ancient and medieval people gained access to water was through qanats, which were a water duct system that would bring water from an underground source

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became obsolete due to its shape not working well with a horses' posture. The first design for a horse collar was a throat-and-girth-harness. These types of harnesses were unreliable though due to them not being sufficiently set in place. The loose straps were prone to slipping and shifting positions

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blunt weapons such as maces and axes. This gave birth to reinforced chain mail and became more prevalent in the 12th and 13th century. Reinforced armour was made up of chain mail with metal plates or hardened leather plates sewn in. This greatly improved protection from stabbing and thrusting blows.

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became popular. Constructed of washer shaped rings of iron overlapped and woven together by straps of leather as opposed to the interlinked metal rings of chain mail, banded mail was much more affordable to manufacture. The washers were so tightly woven together that it was very difficult penetrate

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Hardened leather armour also called Cuir Bouilli was a step up from quilted armour. Made by boiling leather in either water, wax or oil to soften it so it can be shaped, it would then be allowed to dry and become very hard. Large pieces of armour could be made such as breastplates, helmets, and leg

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A thin rod with a hard iron cutting edge is placed in the bore hole and repeatedly struck with a hammer, underground water pressure forces the water up the hole without pumping. Artesian wells are named after the town of Artois in France, where the first one was drilled by Carthusian monks in 1126.

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While the two-field system was used by medieval farmers, a different system was also being developed at the same time. In a three-field system, one field holds a spring crop, such as barley or oats, another field holds a winter crop, such as wheat or rye, and the third field is an off-field that is

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In this simpler form of crop rotation, one field would grow a crop while the other was allowed to lie fallow. The second field would be used to feed livestock and regain lost nutrients through being fertilized by their waste. Every year, the two fields would switch in order to ensure fields did not

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While ploughs have been used since ancient times, during the medieval period plough technology improved rapidly. The medieval plough, constructed from wooden beams, could be yoked to either humans or a team of oxen and pulled through any type of terrain. This allowed for faster clearing of forest

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that made up a full suit consisted of a cuirass, a gorget, vambraces, gauntlets, cuisses, greaves, and sabatons held together by internal leather straps. Improved weaponry such as crossbows and the long bow had greatly increased range and power. This made penetration of the chain mail hauberk much

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to work. The plowshare was the second pair of knives which cut the sod horizontally, detaching it from the ground below. The third part was the moldboard, which curled the sod outward. The fourth part of the device was the team of eight oxen guided by the farmer. This type of plough eliminated the

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The Jazerant or Jazeraint was an adaptation of chain mail in which the chain mail would be sewn in between layers of linen or quilted armour. Exceptional protection against light slashing weapons and slightly improved protection against small thrusting weapons, but little protection against large

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There was a vast amount of armour technology available through the 5th to 16th centuries. Most soldiers during this time wore padded or quilted armor. This was the cheapest and most available armor for the majority of soldiers. Quilted armour was usually just a jacket made of thick linen and wool

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Spurs were invented by the Normans and appeared at the same time as the cantled saddle. They enabled the horseman to control his horse with his feet, replacing the whip and leaving his arms free. Rowel spurs familiar from cowboy films were already known in the 13th century. Gilded spurs were the

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was still often used as a less expensive alternative. While white wines required the use of a wine press in order to preserve the color of the wine by removing the juices quickly from the skin, red wine did not need to be pressed until the end of the juice removal process since the color did not

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but lost popularity throughout the Middle Ages until around the 11th century. Although horses in the southern lands could easily work while on the softer soil, the rocky soil of the north proved to be damaging to the horses' hooves. Since the north was the problematic area, this is where shoeing

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The following is a list of some important medieval technologies. The approximate date or first mention of a technology in medieval Europe is given. Technologies were often a matter of cultural exchange and date and place of first inventions are not listed here (see main links for a more complete

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Cast iron had been made in China since before the 4th century BC. European cast iron first appears in Middle Europe (for instance Lapphyttan in Sweden, Dürstel in Switzerland and the Märkische Sauerland in Germany) around 1150, in some places according to recent research even before 1100. The

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Stirrups were invented by steppe nomads in what is today Mongolia and northern China in the 4th century. They were introduced in Byzantium in the 6th century and in the Carolingian Empire in the 8th. They allowed a mounted knight to wield a sword and strike from a distance leading to a great

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made possible a dissemination of knowledge to a wider population, that would not only lead to a gradually more egalitarian society, but one more able to dominate other cultures, drawing from a vast reserve of knowledge and experience. The technical drawings of late-medieval artist-engineers

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Plate armour covered the entire body. Although parts of the body were already covered in plate armour as early as 1250, such as the Poleyns for covering the knees and Couters – plates that protected the elbows, the first complete full suit without any textiles was seen around 1410–1430.

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Powered solely by the force of gravity, these catapults revolutionized medieval siege warfare and construction of fortifications by hurling huge stones unprecedented distances. Originating somewhere in the eastern Mediterranean basin, counterweight trebuchets were introduced in the

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guards, but many times smaller pieces would be sewn into the quilting of quilted armour or strips would be sewn together on the outside of a linen jacket. This was not as affordable as the quilted armour but offered much better protection against edged slashing weapons.

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on a flat surface. The wine press was made of a giant wooden basket that was bound together by wooden or metal rings. At the top of the basket was a large disc that would depress the contents in the basket, crushing the grapes and producing the juice to be fermented.

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wrote "these instruments which discharge balls of metal with most tremendous noise and flashes of fire...were a few years ago very rare and were viewed with greatest astonishment and admiration, but now they are become as common and familiar as kinds of arms."

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First practiced in Western Europe, corning the black powder allowed for more powerful and faster ignition of cannons. It also facilitated the storage and transportation of black powder. Corning constituted a crucial step in the evolution of gunpowder warfare.

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Invented in Europe as the pivotable post mill, the first surviving mention of one comes from Yorkshire in England in 1185. They were efficient at grinding grain or draining water. Stationary tower mills were also developed in the 13th century.

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stone tower cranes which housed the windlass and treadwheels with only the jib arm and roof rotating. These cranes were placed on docksides for the loading and unloading of cargo where they replaced or complemented older lifting methods like

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in archival literature is in France about 1225, followed by an illuminated depiction in a manuscript of probably also French origin dating to 1240. Apart from tread-drums, windlasses and occasionally cranks were employed for powering cranes.

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While horses are already able to travel on all terrain without a protective covering on the hooves, horseshoes allowed horses to travel faster along the more difficult terrains. The practice of shoeing horses was initially practiced in the

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The wheelbarrow proved useful in building construction, mining operations, and agriculture. Literary evidence for the use of wheelbarrows appeared between 1170 and 1250 in north-western Europe. The first depiction is in a drawing by

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in the North and Baltic Seas and quickly spread to Mediterranean. The iron hinge system was the first stern rudder permanently attached to the ship hull and made a vital contribution to the navigation achievements of the

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During the medieval period the wine press had been constantly evolving into a more modern and efficient machine that would give wine makers more wine with less work. This device was the first practical means of

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along with other weapons had been started by Chinese, it was the Europeans who developed and perfected its military potential, precipitating European expansion and eventual imperialism in the Modern Era.

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An incendiary weapon which could even burn on water is also attributed to the Byzantines, where they installed it on their ships. It played a crucial role in the Byzantine Empire's victory over the

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The earliest predecessors of the game originated in 6th-century AD India and spread via Persia and the Muslim world to Europe. Here the game evolved into its current form in the 15th century.

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A rotating disc and string device used to mark the page, column, and precise level in the text where a person left off reading in a text. Materials used were often leather, velum, or paper.

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a network of interconnected underfloor channels heated the 300 m large assembly room of the monks during the winter months. The degree of efficiency of the system has been calculated at 90%.

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since antiquity. The technology of "silk throwing" was mastered in Tuscany in the 13th century. The silk works used waterpower and some regard these as the first mechanized textile mills.

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Paper was invented in China and transmitted through Islamic Spain in the 13th century. In Europe, the paper-making processes was mechanized by water-powered mills and paper presses (see

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were founded between the 11th and 13th centuries leading to a rise in literacy and learning. By 1500, the institution had spread throughout most of Europe and played a key role in the

423: 2298: 1063:, the rate of flow of sand is independent of the depth in the upper reservoir, and the instrument is not liable to freeze. Hourglasses are a medieval innovation (first documented in 4457: 451:, medieval Europe saw a radical change in the rate of new inventions, innovations in the ways of managing traditional means of production, and economic growth. The period saw major 679:

lands for agriculture in parts of Northern Europe where the soil contained rocks and dense tree roots. With more food being produced, more people were able to live in these areas.

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The first basic chimney appeared in a Swiss monastery in 820. The earliest true chimney did not appear until the 12th century, with the fireplace appearing at the same time.

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The ship mill is a Byzantine invention, designed to mill grains using hydraulic power. The technology eventually spread to the rest of Europe and was in use until ca. 1800.

5656: 5535: 3076:. The van Eyck brothers were among the earliest Early Netherlandish painters to employ it for detailed panel painting and achieved new effects through the use of glazes, 5664: 5545: 824:

A specific spherical form in the upper corners to support a dome. Although the first experimentation was made in the 3rd century, it wasn't until the 6th century in the

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The first spectacles, invented in Florence, used convex lenses which were of help only to the far-sighted. Concave lenses were not developed prior to the 15th century.

5609: 5499: 4368: 254: 878:, rib vaults allowed vaults to be built for the first time over rectangles of unequal lengths. It also greatly facilitated scaffolding and largely replaced the older 545:. Often, the revolutionary aspect lay not in the act of invention itself, but in its technological refinement and application to political and economic power. Though 5050: 5301: 5296: 4472: 3991: 1465:, extensively cited Philoponus in his works while making the case as to why Aristotelian physics was flawed. It is the intellectual precursor to the concepts of 5669: 5524: 5472: 5390: 855:

In the early medieval Alpine upland, a simpler central heating system where heat travelled through underfloor channels from the furnace room replaced the Roman

1101:, a collection of war machines intended for the recapture of the Holy Land, two simple cranks to form a compound crank for manually powering war carriages and 4058:

Lucas, Adam Robert (2005), "Industrial Milling in the Ancient and Medieval Worlds. A Survey of the Evidence for an Industrial Revolution in Medieval Europe",

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archers using longbows and shortbows. Combining dismounted knights and men-at-arms with archers was the archetypal Western Medieval battle tactics until the

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Many European technical advancements from the 12th to 14th centuries were either built on long-established techniques in medieval Europe, originating from

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European innovation came with several different cocking aids to enhance draw power, making the weapons also the first hand-held mechanical crossbows.

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Grindstones are a rough stone, usually sandstone, used to sharpen iron. The first rotary grindstone (turned with a leveraged handle) occurs in the

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Manufacture of silk began in Eastern Europe in the 6th century and in Western Europe in the 11th or 12th century. Silk had been imported over the

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German buttons appeared in 13th-century Germany as an indigenous innovation. They soon became widespread with the rise of snug-fitting clothing.

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Liquor consumption rose dramatically in Europe in and after the mid-14th century, when distilled liquors were commonly used as remedies for the

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were exploited by a twin-flume horizontal-wheeled mill (c. 630) and a vertical undershot waterwheel alongside it. Another early example is the

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adopted the distillation process, which later spread to Europe. Texts on the distillation of waters, wine, and other spirits were written in

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matter. Many red wine winemakers used their feet to smash the grapes then used a press to remove any juice that remained in the grape skins.

581:, these allowed economic and military control of the seas adjacent to Europe and enabled the global navigational achievements of the dawning 5255: 4197:, Estuarine/ Alluvial Archaeology in Ireland. Towards Best Practice, University College Dublin and National Roads Authority, archived from 1373:) from which the printing plates for pages were made up. This meant the types were recyclable and a page cast could be made up far faster. 5017: 4230:. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1954. Volumes II and III cover the Middle Ages with great scope and detail. This is the standard work. 976:

Beside the stationary cranes, floating cranes which could be flexibly deployed in the whole port basin came into use by the 14th century.

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A type of heavy wheeled plough commonly found in Northern Europe. The device consisted of four major parts. The first part was a

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who made criticism of Aristotelian principles of physics, and it served as an inspiration to medieval scholars as well as to

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Some harbour cranes were specialised at mounting masts to newly built sailing ships, such as in Gdańsk, Cologne and Bremen.

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Also significant in this respect were advances in maritime technology. Advances in shipbuilding included the multi-masted

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As early as the 13th century, oil was used to add details to tempera paintings and paint wooden statues. Flemish painter

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underarm and prevent the charge from turning into an unintentional pole-vault. This innovation gave birth to true shock

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The Technological Illustrations of the So-Called "Anonymous of the Hussite Wars". Codex Latinus Monacensis 197, Part 1

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This medieval innovation was used to mark paper products and to discourage counterfeiting. It was first introduced in

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ultimate symbol of the knighthood – even today someone is said to "earn his spurs" by proving his or her worthiness.

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The first depiction of a pintle-and-gudgeon rudder on church carvings dates to around 1180. They first appeared with

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which allowed a rotation of the load and were thus particularly suited for dockside work appeared as early as 1340.

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Having a high rate of fire and penetration power, the longbow contributed to the eventual demise of the medieval

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Guido da Vigevano (c. 1280 − 1349) was the first author to add illustrations to his anatomical descriptions. His

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The earliest tidal mills were excavated on the Irish coast where watermillers knew and employed the two main

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is considered medieval Europe's first stone segmental arch bridge since the end of classical civilizations.

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A short history of the art of distillation: from the beginnings up to the death of Cellier Blumenthal

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at the bottom of the plough. This knife was used to vertically cut into the top sod to allow for the

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Radomir Pleiner: Vom Rennfeuer zum Hochofen. "Die Entwicklung der Eisenverhüttung", 9.-14. Jh., in:

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New York: Barnes & Noble, 1973. Medieval construction technique, with a brief chapter on tools.

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Paul E. Chevedden, "The Invention of the Counterweight Trebuchet: A Study in Cultural Diffusion",

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and sand as the main raw materials and is characterised by a variety of greenish-yellow colours.

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The first recorded mention in Europe was in 976, and they were first widely published in 1202 by

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Used to produce metal sheets of an even thickness. First used on soft, malleable metals, such as

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Excavations of a Mill at Killoteran, Co. Waterford as Part of the N-25 Waterford By-Pass Project

2584: 1677:, as well as Indians in the first centuries AD. Early evidence of distillation also comes from 5651: 5092: 4735: 4705: 4695: 4685: 4602: 4592: 4577: 4444: 4312: 4214: 4175: 4119: 4047: 4022: 4004: 3985: 3972: 3957: 3943: 3876: 3861: 3790: 3750: 3725: 3700: 3645: 3601: 3549: 3505: 3486: 3209: 3189: 3098: 2969: 2895: 2843: 2759: 2721: 2653: 2550: 2509: 2466: 2403: 2253: 2215:

class. Used particularly by the English to great effect against the French cavalry during the

2163: 2153: 2092: 1767: 1709: 1682: 1643: 1446: 1392: 1094: 1087: 614: 602: 566: 383: 234: 79: 23: 4308:.4 (October 1975), pp. 519–530. A chronology and basic bibliography of landmark studies. 3479: 5147: 5107: 4954: 4903: 4898: 4838: 4803: 4715: 4672: 4642: 4564: 4482: 4452: 4271: 4243: 4143: 4095: 4067: 3917: 3163:

Archaeological Investigations on the Beginning of Blast Furnace-Technology in Central Europe

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The wine press was an expensive piece of machinery that only the wealthy could afford, and

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Harnessing the Tides: The Early Medieval Tide Mills at Nendrum Monastery, Strangford Lough

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Matthies, Andrea (1992), "Medieval Treadwheels. Artists' Views of Building Construction",

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Di Ieva, Antonio; et al. (2007), "The Neuroanatomical Plates of Guido da Vigevano",

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antecedents, or adapted from cross-cultural exchanges through trading networks with the

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A European innovation, these weight-driven clocks were used primarily in clock towers.

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Burns, Robert I. (1996), "Paper comes to the West, 800−1400", in Lindgren, Uta (ed.),

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White, Lynn Jr., "The Study of Medieval Technology, 1924-1974: Personal Reflections"

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Lynn White: "The Act of Invention: Causes, Contexts, Continuities and Consequences",

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Barbara M. Kreutz, "Mediterranean Contributions to the Medieval Mariner's Compass,"

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Rynne, Colin (2000), "Waterpower in Medieval Ireland", in Squatriti, Paolo (ed.),

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Reasonably dependable, affordable and accurate measure of time. Unlike water in a

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Matheus, Michael (1996), "Mittelalterliche Hafenkräne", in Lindgren, Uta (ed.),

3475: 2866: 2309: 2108: 2104: 2096: 1909: 1827: 1808: 1705: 1686: 1407: 1245: 1130: 1060: 1007: 897: 879: 589: 484: 444: 440: 139: 4213:, Technology and Change in History, vol. 3, Leiden: Brill, pp. 1–50, 3940:

Cathedral, Forge, and Waterwheel: Technology and Invention in the Middle Ages.

5157: 4519: 4247: 3969:

Propyläen Technikgeschichte. Landbau und Handwerk, 750 v. Chr. bis 1000 n. Chr

3921: 3077: 2192: 2145: 2046: 1897: 1834: 1815: 1524: 1385: 1335: 1218: 1202: 1164: 1156: 934: 816: 804: 750: 472: 464: 452: 144: 95: 5233: 3901:

Guns, germs and steel. A short history of everybody for the last 13'000 years

2973: 2554: 2407: 2195:, a Byzantine invention of the previous century, could not only be thrown by 34:

Medieval port crane for mounting masts and lifting heavy cargo in the former

5264: 4828: 4597: 4315:(1985), "Archaeological Evidence for Early Water-Mills. An Interim Report", 3322: 2304: 2120: 2060: 1674: 1577: 1538:. Today, the educational concept and institution has been globally adopted. 1486: 1426: 1206: 1194: 1145: 1052: 1028: 915: 867: 856: 699: 655: 578: 546: 456: 154: 75: 4071: 3644:(2nd ed.). Toronto, Ontario: University of Toronto Press. p. 64. 3600:(2nd ed.). Toronto, Ontario: University of Toronto Press. p. 72. 2037:

Cannons are first recorded in Europe at the siege of Metz in 1324. In 1350

1565:

Horizontal looms operated by foot-treadles were faster and more efficient.

1493:

The first extant treatise describing the properties of magnets was done by

609:

can be viewed as forerunners of later Renaissance artist-engineers such as

39: 4116:

Europäische Technik im Mittelalter. 800 bis 1400. Tradition und Innovation

3873:

Europäische Technik im Mittelalter. 800 bis 1400. Tradition und Innovation

3353:

Frederic C. Lane, "The Economic Meaning of the Invention of the Compass,"

3138:. New York: Simon and Schuster<Based on the works of Joseph Needham> 4863: 4740: 4617: 3890:

The Measure of Reality : Quantification in Western Europe, 1250-1600

3824: 3462: 2289: 2223: 2100: 2076: 2038: 1917: 1865: 1804: 1800: 1795:

structures and techniques such as the dissection of the head by means of

1636: 1470: 1253: 1233: 909: 460: 100: 5028: 1904:

The most common type during the 11th through the 16th centuries was the

4504: 4405: 4155: 4107: 2562: 2415: 2180: 2168: 2013: 1994: 1905: 1788: 1698: 1694: 1678: 1466: 1434: 1415: 1300: 1293: 1289: 951: 886: 800: 690:

Once oxen started to be replaced by horses on farms and in fields, the

635: 610: 570: 519: 511: 503: 149: 2917:"Medieval Water Infrastructure and Tools | Lost Kingdom Worldbuilding" 4086:

Makdisi, George (1970), "Madrasa and University in the Middle Ages",

2921:

Lost Kingdom Fantasy Writing, Roleplaying and Worldbuilding Resources

2530: 2383: 2351:

Alfred Crosby described some of this technological revolution in his

2212: 2030: 1986: 1978: 1759: 1742: 1731: 1726: 1713: 1666: 1547: 1327: 562: 558: 515: 4147: 4099: 3789:(second ed.). Canada: University of Toronto Press. p. 74. 3724:(Second ed.). Canada: University of Toronto Press. p. 70. 2546: 2399: 3954:

The Medieval Machine: The Industrial Revolution of the Middle Ages.

3136:

The Genius of China: 3000 years of science, discovery and invention

2353:

The Measure of Reality: Quantification in Western Europe, 1250-1600

1122:

technique is considered to be an independent European development.

3381:

The Development of the Rudder, A.D. 100-1600: A Technological Tale

2162: 2070: 1990: 1942: 1887: 1771: 1617: 1598: 1401: 1377: 1317: 1223: 1129: 1071: 1064: 978: 955: 914: 789: 783: 756: 705: 669: 641: 538: 35: 29: 18: 2167:

Ceramic grenades that were filled with Greek fire, surrounded by

569:

construction. Along with new navigational techniques such as the

3583: 2894:. Brookfield, Vermont: Ashgate Publishing Company. p. 249. 2001: 1822:

Initially a 40-day-period, the quarantine was introduced by the

1569: 1558: 1209:

was powered by a vertical waterwheel, while the tide changes at

1183: 1179: 691: 554: 5237: 5032: 4409: 4254:

Thompson, Susan (1978), "Paper Manufacturing and Early Books",

2952:

Lienhard, John H (2001-02-16). "The Engines of Our Ingenuity".

2892:

Medieval Folk Astronomy and Agriculture in Arabia and the Yemen

2493:. Lund Press, Minneapolis: University of Minnesota. p. 90. 2441:. Lund Press, Minneapolis: University of Minnesota. p. 89. 1190:. Leonardo da Vinci described a rolling mill for wrought iron. 1721: 1296:. Dry compass were invented in the Mediterranean around 1300. 1187: 4118:(4th ed.), Berlin: Gebr. Mann Verlag, pp. 345–348, 3875:(4th ed.), Berlin: Gebr. Mann Verlag, pp. 413–422, 3409:, Vol. 3, No. 4 (Autumn, 1962), pp. 486-500 (497f. & 500) 1217:

from 787 which is estimated to have developed seven to eight

518:

for raising ore from shafts, crushing ore, and even powering

4374:

History of science and technology in the Indian subcontinent

3858:

English Medieval Industries: Craftsmen, Techniques, Products

2802: 2800: 2355:

and other major historians of technology have also noted it.

1913:

and offered greater protection from arrow and bolt attacks.

1280:

The first European mention of the directional compass is in

3064:

propagated a myth that van Eyck invented oil painting, but

1841:

The first mention of a rat trap is in the medieval romance

510:, most large villages had turnable mills, around 6,500 in 761:

A wine press used in the medieval period to crush grapes.

3458:

Chemistry and Chemical Technology in Ancient Mesopotamia

3206:

Propyläen Technikgeschichte. Metalle und Macht 1000-1600

4234:

Taylor, E. g. r. (1951), "The South-Pointing Needle",

3684:. New York: Brussel & Brussel. pp. 134–138. 3072:?) clearly gives instructions in his 1125 treatise, 3029: 3027: 2136:

and as well by the other armies of Europe and Asia.

1766:

The first mention of a "glass" mirror is in 1180 by

5640: 5563: 5275: 4917: 4776: 4671: 4563: 4443: 3749:. Canada: University of Toronto Press. p. 75. 2861: 2859: 2335: 2333: 2331: 2329: 2327: 1774:and there will be no image of the one looking in." 3430: 3086: 2939: 2199:at the enemy, but also in stone and ceramic jars. 1826:as a measure of disease prevention related to the 1673:Primitive forms of distillation were known to the 1252:Used in metallurgy to forge the metal blooms from 1205:types: a 6th-century tide mill at Killoteran near 2842:. Westport, CT: The Greenwood Press. p. 17. 2720:. Westport, CT: The Greenwood Press. p. 10. 1770:who said "Take away the lead which is behind the 502:was impressive, and extended from agriculture to 4369:List of inventions in the medieval Islamic world 3699:(second ed.). Sirius Fiction. p. 192. 3311: 2840:Science and Technology in Medieval European Life 2758:. Westport, CT: The Greenwood Press. p. 6. 2756:Science and Technology in Medieval European Life 2718:Science and Technology in Medieval European Life 2652:. Westport, CT: The Greenwood Press. p. 9. 2650:Science and Technology in Medieval European Life 2508:. Westport, CT: The Greenwood Press. p. 8. 2506:Science and Technology in Medieval European Life 2465:. Westport, CT: The Greenwood Press. p. 7. 2463:Science and Technology in Medieval European Life 2187:Rudimentary incendiary grenades appeared in the 3814:. New York: Brussel & Brussel. p. 196. 3774:. New York: Brussel & Brussel. p. 194. 3669:. New York: Brussel & Brussel. p. 134. 3967:Hägermann, Dieter; Schneider, Helmuth (1997), 3785:DeVries, Kelly; Smith, Robert Douglas (2012). 3745:DeVries, Kelly; Smith, Robert Douglas (2012). 3720:DeVries, Kelly; Smith, Robert Douglas (2012). 3640:DeVries, Kelly; Smith, Robert Douglas (2012). 3596:DeVries, Kelly; Smith, Robert Douglas (2012). 1997:, enabling fighters to charge on full gallop. 1288:, written in Paris around 1190. It was either 1039:developed the use of a stable oil mixture for 506:both for timber and stone. By the time of the 5249: 5044: 4421: 4054:A series of papers on highly specific topics. 3892:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997 3481:Economic History of Medieval India, 1200-1500 2288:Cranked rack-and-pinion device for cocking a 2132:around 1100 CE, and was later adopted by the 1322:Scheme of a sternpost-mounted medieval rudder 417: 8: 3186:Europäische Technik im Mittelalter. 800-1400 1708:. These spirits would have had a much lower 4170:McErlean, Thomas; Crothers, Norman (2007), 4036:Science and Technology in Medieval Society. 3383:, Thesis May 1991, Texas A&M University 3188:, Berlin 2001 (4th ed.), pp. 249-256 (255) 1453:A scientific theory that was introduced by 514:alone. Water-power was also widely used in 5256: 5242: 5234: 5051: 5037: 5029: 4428: 4414: 4406: 4256:Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 4040:Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 3990:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher ( 424: 410: 44: 26:, a 15th-century very large-calibre cannon 4003:, Wiesbaden: Dr. Ludwig Reichert Verlag, 3546:Distillation: Fundamentals and Principles 2491:Life and Thought in the Early Middle Ages 2439:Life and Thought in the Early Middle Ages 2191:, as the Byzantine soldiers learned that 2091:Extant examples include the wrought-iron 1701:in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries. 1163:The first certain use of a water-powered 3856:Blair, John, and Nigel Ramsay, editors. 3535: 3533: 3357:, Vol. 68, No. 3. (April 1963), p.615ff. 3287: 3252: 3134:Temple, Robert; Needham, Joseph (1986). 3045: 3006: 2994: 2609:"How the heavy plough changed the world" 3393: 3204:Karl-Heinz Ludwig, Volker Schmidtchen: 3033: 2915:Havlidis, Dimitris Romeo (2016-12-20). 2339: 2323: 2263: 1591:Brought to Europe probably from India. 47: 3983: 3366: 3276: 3141: 2749: 2747: 2745: 2743: 2741: 2739: 2737: 2256:1513 and final emergence of firearms. 1734:) was mentioned in the records of the 828:that its full potential was achieved. 4295:Medieval Technology and Social Change 4211:Working with Water in Medieval Europe 3851:The Medieval Builder and His Methods. 3442: 3418: 3299: 3264: 3248: 3236: 3117: 2833: 2831: 2829: 2827: 2711: 2709: 2707: 2705: 2703: 2701: 2699: 2643: 2641: 2639: 2637: 2635: 2633: 2631: 2629: 1749:Magnets were first referenced in the 874:An essential element for the rise of 7: 4174:, Belfast: Stationery Office Books, 3344:, Vol. 14, No. 3. (July 1973), p.368 3121: 3018: 2484: 2482: 2456: 2454: 2452: 2450: 2448: 2377: 2375: 2373: 2364: 1461:who ten centuries later, during the 1311:describes in his experimental study 455:advances, including the adoption of 5013: 4458:Decline of the Western Roman Empire 4349:Medieval medicine of Western Europe 1290:transmitted from China or the Arabs 5277:Lists of inventions or discoveries 4550:Growth of the Eastern Roman Empire 4276:10.1111/j.1749-6632.1978.tb47791.x 3829:, No. 54 (2000), pp.71-116 (104f.) 2954:Measurement Science and Technology 1985:The arched saddle enabled mounted 1755:, composed between 1155 and 1160. 1730:(Italy). In 1437, "burned water" ( 16:Technology used in medieval Europe 14: 5642:Lists of inventors or discoverers 5198:History of electrical engineering 4980:Historiography in the Middle Ages 3548:. Academic Press. pp. 5–10. 1140:List of early medieval watermills 396:Outline of prehistoric technology 308:History of electrical engineering 5012: 5003: 5002: 4992: 4319:, vol. 10, pp. 151–179 4297:, Oxford: At the Clarendon Press 4021:, Oxford: Blackwell Publishers, 3956:London: Pimlico, (2nd ed. 1992) 3942:New York: HarperCollins, 1994. 3810:Ashdown, Charles Henery (1967). 2838:Wigelsworth, Jeffery R. (2006). 2780:"Why crop rotation is important" 2754:Wigelsworth, Jeffery R. (2006). 2716:Wigelsworth, Jeffery R. (2006). 2648:Wigelsworth, Jeffery R. (2006). 2585:"Technology in the Medieval Age" 2504:Wigelsworth, Jeffery R. (2006). 2461:Wigelsworth, Jeffery R. (2006). 2384:"The Origins of the Wheelbarrow" 2297: 2281: 2266: 2206:with massed, disciplined archery 4478:Christianity in the Middle Ages 4473:Decline of Hellenistic religion 4359:Renaissance of the 12th century 3860:London: Hambledon Press. 1991. 3770:Ashdown, Charles Henry (1967). 3695:Andre-Driussi, Michael (2008). 3680:Ashdown, Charles Henry (1967). 3665:Ashdown, Charles Henry (1967). 2890:Varisoc, Daniel Martin (1997). 2158:717-718 Siege of Constantinople 2021:advantage for mounted cavalry. 1947:Jousting armor commissioned by 1892:Banded Mail Armour Construction 1294:independent European innovation 449:Renaissance of the 12th century 361:Timeline of historic inventions 5071:History of technology cultures 4756:Crisis of the late Middle Ages 4401:Technology in the Medieval Age 3642:Medieval Military Technologies 3431:Hägermann & Schneider 1997 3355:The American Historical Review 2940:Hägermann & Schneider 1997 1495:Petrus Peregrinus de Maricourt 1: 5778:Technology in the Middle Ages 5218:History of nuclear technology 5193:History of computing hardware 5171:History of technology domains 4930:Disability in the Middle Ages 4603:Rise of the Republic of Genoa 4535:Rise of the Venetian Republic 4396:The Medieval Technology Pages 4019:The Mills of Medieval England 3623:"A History of European Armor" 3621:Flank, Lenny (May 24, 2016). 3498:Forbes, Robert James (1970). 2111:(all from the 15th century). 1966:Components of medieval armour 1844:Yvain, the Knight of the Lion 1542:Textile industry and garments 1485:The first extant treatise of 1249:(12th century at the latest) 985:Portrait of a Man in a Turban 811:Architecture and construction 794:A medieval aqueduct unearthed 674:Medieval plough and oxen team 338:History of nuclear technology 5203:History of materials science 4044:New York Academy of Sciences 3787:Medieval Military Technology 3747:Medieval Military Technology 3722:Medieval Military Technology 3598:Medieval Military Technology 3312:McErlean & Crothers 2007 1369:, he used separate letters ( 1228:An example of a water hammer 933:The earliest reference to a 787:(water ducts) (5th century) 459:, the invention of vertical 323:History of materials science 303:History of computer hardware 260:Arab Agricultural Revolution 175:Fourth Industrial Revolution 135:Second Industrial Revolution 3569:graf-von-katzenelnbogen.com 2808:"History of the Wine Press" 2675:"The History of Horseshoes" 2103:as well as the cast-bronze 1347:Printing, paper and reading 160:Third Industrial Revolution 125:First Industrial Revolution 5799: 5783:Science in the Middle Ages 4731:Rise of the Ottoman Empire 3812:European Arms & Armour 3772:European Arms & Armour 3682:European Arms & Armour 3667:European Arms & Armour 3504:. BRILL. pp. 57, 89. 3148:: CS1 maint: postscript ( 2966:10.1088/0957-0233/12/3/706 2173:National Historical Museum 1778:Illustrated surgical atlas 1689:, in the 1st century. The 1137: 1134:An example of a ship mill. 496:development of water mills 439:is the technology used in 5166: 5066: 4988: 4658:Mongol invasion of Europe 4248:10.1080/03085695108591973 4226:Singer, Charles, editor. 4034:Long, Pamela O., editor. 1075:(13th to 14th centuries) 1019:in the mid-13th century. 489:three-field crop rotation 371:Complete list by category 5183:History of communication 5178:History of biotechnology 4339:Ancient Roman technology 4334:Ancient Greek technology 3971:(2nd ed.), Berlin, 3936:Gies, Frances and Joseph 2529:Bray, Francesca (1978). 2382:Lewis, M. J. T. (1994). 1799:, and depictions of the 1736:County of Katzenelnbogen 1635:This type of glass uses 1286:On the Natures of Things 943:Stationary harbour crane 563:sternpost-mounted rudder 366:Technological revolution 313:History of manufacturing 298:History of communication 293:History of biotechnology 4613:Investiture Controversy 4583:Second Bulgarian Empire 4188:Murphy, Donald (2005), 3208:, Berlin 1997, p.389f. 2489:Hoyt, Robert S (1967). 2437:Hoyt, Robert S (1967). 2121:Counterweight trebuchet 1869:(pre-5th–14th Century) 687:(6th to 9th centuries) 646:Carruca (Heavy Plough ) 639:(6th to 9th centuries) 565:and the skeleton-first 475:, building techniques ( 471:, and greatly improved 119:Proto-industrialization 5208:History of measurement 5078:Prehistoric technology 4970:Post-classical history 4726:Fall of Constantinople 4633:Capet–Plantagenet feud 4500:First Bulgarian Empire 4303:Technology and Culture 4135:Technology and Culture 4072:10.1353/tech.2005.0026 4060:Technology and Culture 4017:Holt, Richard (1988), 3999:Hall, Bert S. (1979), 3455:Levey, Martin (1959). 3407:Technology and Culture 3342:Technology and Culture 3323:Nendrum Monastery mill 3080:and other techniques. 3070:Roger of Helmarshausen 2535:Technology and Culture 2388:Technology and Culture 2249:battle of Halidon Hill 2176: 2079: 1952: 1893: 1613: 1411: 1410:with eyeglasses (1466) 1323: 1229: 1215:Nendrum Monastery mill 1135: 1093:The Italian physician 993: 922: 795: 762: 711: 675: 647: 328:History of measurement 288:History of agriculture 255:Medieval Islamic world 165:Digital transformation 42: 27: 5153:Industrial Revolution 5060:History of technology 4384:History of technology 4317:History of Technology 4228:History of Technology 3922:10.3171/FOC-07/07/E15 3827:Dumbarton Oaks Papers 2171:, 10th–12th century, 2166: 2074: 1946: 1891: 1855:Military technologies 1720:of Europe, including 1602: 1536:Scientific Revolution 1532:medieval universities 1463:Scientific Revolution 1405: 1328:Stern-mounted rudders 1321: 1264:in the 19th century. 1227: 1138:Further information: 1133: 1097:combines in his 1335 982: 918: 898:Segmental arch bridge 793: 760: 709: 673: 645: 607:Villard de Honnecourt 391:Outline of technology 282:By type of technology 209:By historical regions 197:Emerging technologies 57:By technological eras 49:History of technology 33: 22: 5773:Technology by period 5583:multiple discoveries 5223:History of transport 5188:History of computing 4950:Medieval reenactment 4746:Renaissance Humanism 4653:Medieval Warm Period 4623:Republic of Florence 4437:European Middle Ages 4042:, vol 441 New York: 3849:Andrews, Francis B. 3239:, p. 28, fn. 70 3093:. Phaidon. pp. 2871:www.waterhistory.org 2319:Notes and references 2227:(late 14th century) 2115:Mechanical artillery 2088:(late 14th century) 2085:large-calibre cannon 2064:(late 14th century) 1901:(11th–16th Century) 1441:Science and learning 1301:Astronomical compass 355:Technology timelines 343:History of transport 86:Neolithic Revolution 5632:Spurious inventions 5595:Historic inventions 5213:History of medicine 4663:Kingdom of Portugal 4530:Old Church Slavonic 4515:Anglo-Saxon England 4268:1978NYASA.314..167T 3910:Neurosurgical Focus 3584:Di Ieva et al. 2007 3518:on 20 December 2011 1881:(5th–10th Century) 1609:Libro de los juegos 1499:Epistola de magnete 1479:classical mechanics 1313:Epistola de magnete 1309:Pierre de Maricourt 1307:The French scholar 876:Gothic architecture 859:at some places. In 849:underfloor channels 598:mechanical printing 588:At the turn to the 477:Gothic architecture 437:Medieval technology 333:History of medicine 225:Indian subcontinent 4844:In popular culture 4809:Crusading movement 4681:Hundred Years' War 4540:Civitas Schinesghe 4525:Carolingian Empire 4510:Kingdom of Croatia 4463:Barbarian kingdoms 4364:Islamic Golden Age 4354:Medieval transport 3834:2007-02-05 at the 3379:Lawrence V. Mott, 3328:2007-09-27 at the 3290:, pp. 155–157 3251:, pp. 414f.; 3225:Tsien, Tsuen-Hsuin 3168:2007-02-08 at the 2942:, pp. 456–459 2867:"WaterHistory.org" 2367:, pp. 7–8, 11 2217:Hundred Years' War 2177: 2080: 1953: 1894: 1849:Chrétien de Troyes 1824:Republic of Ragusa 1662:from around 1340. 1614: 1412: 1367:woodblock printing 1363:Johannes Gutenberg 1324: 1234:Vertical windmills 1230: 1136: 1103:paddle wheel boats 994: 988:, oil painting by 923: 796: 763: 740:Three-field system 712: 710:Medieval horseshoe 676: 648: 626:history of each). 621:Civil technologies 583:Age of Exploration 270:Renaissance Europe 43: 28: 5760: 5759: 5645:by country/region 5280:by country/region 5231: 5230: 5026: 5025: 4935:Basic topics list 4736:Swiss mercenaries 4686:Wars of the Roses 4593:Kingdom of Poland 4578:Holy Roman Empire 4445:Early Middle Ages 4344:Medieval period: 4329:Earlier periods: 4181:978-0-337-08877-3 4028:978-0-631-15692-5 3796:978-1-4426-0497-1 3756:978-1-4426-0497-1 3731:978-1-4426-0497-1 3651:978-1-4426-0497-1 3607:978-1-4426-0497-1 3511:978-90-04-00617-1 3487:Pearson Education 3302:, pp. 17, 49 2812:www.wineguy.co.nz 2615:. 22 January 2013 2613:sciencenordic.com 2254:battle of Flodden 2154:Umayyad Caliphate 2093:Pumhart von Steyr 2075:Scottish bombard 2025:Gunpowder weapons 1768:Alexander Neckham 1718:"national" drinks 1548:Functional button 1447:Theory of impetus 1393:Rotating bookmark 1095:Guido da Vigevano 1072:Mechanical clocks 615:Leonardo da Vinci 603:Guido da Vigevano 469:mechanical clocks 434: 433: 240:Hellenistic world 235:Maya civilization 24:Pumhart von Steyr 5790: 5665:African-American 5610:Medieval Islamic 5600:Byzantine Empire 5258: 5251: 5244: 5235: 5148:Great Divergence 5053: 5046: 5039: 5030: 5016: 5015: 5006: 5005: 4996: 4955:Medieval studies 4799:Church and State 4673:Late Middle Ages 4565:High Middle Ages 4483:Christianization 4453:Migration Period 4430: 4423: 4416: 4407: 4320: 4298: 4286: 4250: 4223: 4205: 4203: 4196: 4184: 4166: 4128: 4110: 4082: 4031: 4013: 3995: 3989: 3981: 3932: 3888:Crosby, Alfred. 3885: 3838: 3822: 3816: 3815: 3807: 3801: 3800: 3782: 3776: 3775: 3767: 3761: 3760: 3742: 3736: 3735: 3717: 3711: 3710: 3692: 3686: 3685: 3677: 3671: 3670: 3662: 3656: 3655: 3637: 3631: 3630: 3618: 3612: 3611: 3593: 3587: 3581: 3575: 3566: 3560: 3559: 3540:Gorak, Andrzej; 3537: 3528: 3527: 3525: 3523: 3514:. Archived from 3495: 3489: 3473: 3467: 3466: 3452: 3446: 3440: 3434: 3433:, pp. 425f. 3428: 3422: 3416: 3410: 3403: 3397: 3391: 3385: 3376: 3370: 3364: 3358: 3351: 3345: 3338: 3332: 3320: 3314: 3309: 3303: 3297: 3291: 3285: 3279: 3274: 3268: 3262: 3256: 3246: 3240: 3234: 3228: 3222: 3216: 3202: 3196: 3178: 3172: 3160: 3154: 3153: 3147: 3139: 3131: 3125: 3115: 3109: 3108: 3092: 3089:The Story of Art 3062:Karel van Mander 3055: 3049: 3043: 3037: 3031: 3022: 3016: 3010: 3004: 2998: 2992: 2986: 2985: 2949: 2943: 2937: 2931: 2930: 2928: 2927: 2912: 2906: 2905: 2887: 2881: 2880: 2878: 2877: 2863: 2854: 2853: 2835: 2822: 2821: 2819: 2818: 2804: 2795: 2794: 2792: 2791: 2776: 2770: 2769: 2751: 2732: 2731: 2713: 2694: 2693: 2691: 2690: 2681:. Archived from 2670: 2664: 2663: 2645: 2624: 2623: 2621: 2620: 2605: 2599: 2598: 2596: 2595: 2581: 2575: 2574: 2526: 2520: 2519: 2501: 2495: 2494: 2486: 2477: 2476: 2458: 2443: 2442: 2434: 2428: 2427: 2379: 2368: 2362: 2356: 2349: 2343: 2337: 2301: 2285: 2270: 2189:Byzantine Empire 2175:, Athens, Greece 2130:Byzantine Empire 2061:Corned gunpowder 1659:Luttrell Psalter 1343:and thereafter. 1341:Age of Discovery 1282:Alexander Neckam 927:Treadwheel crane 920:Treadwheel crane 826:Byzantine Empire 731:Two-field system 596:'s invention of 481:medieval castles 426: 419: 412: 318:Maritime history 250:Byzantine Empire 45: 5798: 5797: 5793: 5792: 5791: 5789: 5788: 5787: 5763: 5762: 5761: 5756: 5644: 5636: 5625:Lost inventions 5620:Native American 5559: 5279: 5271: 5262: 5232: 5227: 5162: 5133:Medieval Europe 5062: 5057: 5027: 5022: 4984: 4965:Neo-medievalism 4913: 4849:Itinerant court 4772: 4667: 4588:Georgian Empire 4573:Norman Conquest 4559: 4505:Frankish Empire 4439: 4434: 4392: 4327: 4313:Wikander, Örjan 4311: 4291:White, Lynn Jr. 4289: 4253: 4233: 4221: 4208: 4201: 4194: 4187: 4182: 4169: 4148:10.2307/3106635 4131: 4126: 4113: 4100:10.2307/1595223 4094:(32): 255–264, 4088:Studia Islamica 4085: 4057: 4029: 4016: 4011: 3998: 3982: 3979: 3966: 3907: 3883: 3870: 3846: 3841: 3836:Wayback Machine 3823: 3819: 3809: 3808: 3804: 3797: 3784: 3783: 3779: 3769: 3768: 3764: 3757: 3744: 3743: 3739: 3732: 3719: 3718: 3714: 3707: 3694: 3693: 3689: 3679: 3678: 3674: 3664: 3663: 3659: 3652: 3639: 3638: 3634: 3620: 3619: 3615: 3608: 3595: 3594: 3590: 3582: 3578: 3567: 3563: 3556: 3544:, eds. (2014). 3539: 3538: 3531: 3521: 3519: 3512: 3497: 3496: 3492: 3474: 3470: 3454: 3453: 3449: 3441: 3437: 3429: 3425: 3417: 3413: 3404: 3400: 3392: 3388: 3377: 3373: 3369:, pp. 2ff. 3365: 3361: 3352: 3348: 3339: 3335: 3330:Wayback Machine 3321: 3317: 3310: 3306: 3298: 3294: 3286: 3282: 3275: 3271: 3263: 3259: 3247: 3243: 3235: 3231: 3227:1985, pp. 68−73 3223: 3219: 3203: 3199: 3179: 3175: 3170:Wayback Machine 3161: 3157: 3140: 3133: 3132: 3128: 3120:, p. 112; 3116: 3112: 3105: 3083:Gombrich, E. H. 3081: 3056: 3052: 3044: 3040: 3032: 3025: 3017: 3013: 3005: 3001: 2993: 2989: 2951: 2950: 2946: 2938: 2934: 2925: 2923: 2914: 2913: 2909: 2902: 2889: 2888: 2884: 2875: 2873: 2865: 2864: 2857: 2850: 2837: 2836: 2825: 2816: 2814: 2806: 2805: 2798: 2789: 2787: 2784:Farmer's Weekly 2778: 2777: 2773: 2766: 2753: 2752: 2735: 2728: 2715: 2714: 2697: 2688: 2686: 2673:Cohen, Rachel. 2672: 2671: 2667: 2660: 2647: 2646: 2627: 2618: 2616: 2607: 2606: 2602: 2593: 2591: 2583: 2582: 2578: 2547:10.2307/3103306 2528: 2527: 2523: 2516: 2503: 2502: 2498: 2488: 2487: 2480: 2473: 2460: 2459: 2446: 2436: 2435: 2431: 2400:10.2307/3106255 2381: 2380: 2371: 2363: 2359: 2350: 2346: 2338: 2325: 2321: 2314: 2302: 2293: 2286: 2277: 2271: 2262: 2244:(14th century) 2236: 2208:(13th century) 2142: 2140:Missile weapons 2134:Crusader states 2124:(12th century) 2117: 2027: 2005:(11th century) 1982:(11th century) 1975: 1960:(14th century) 1938:Lamellar armour 1933:(12th century) 1921:(11th century) 1862: 1857: 1793:neuroanatomical 1746:(12th century) 1710:alcohol content 1670:(12th century) 1653:Utrecht Psalter 1606:playing chess, 1604:Knights Templar 1597: 1588:(13th century) 1562:(11th century) 1559:Horizontal loom 1551:(13th century) 1544: 1509:(13th century) 1506:Arabic numerals 1490:(13th century) 1459:Galileo Galilei 1455:John Philoponus 1443: 1396:(13th century) 1381:(13th century) 1349: 1277:(12th century) 1270: 1175:(15th century) 1160:(13th century) 1142: 1128: 1111: 1084: 1049: 1025: 890:(12th century) 871:(12th century) 861:Reichenau Abbey 845:Central heating 813: 754:(12th century) 632: 623: 500:ancient origins 441:medieval Europe 430: 401: 400: 386: 384:Article indices 376: 375: 356: 348: 347: 283: 275: 274: 265:Medieval Europe 210: 202: 201: 192:Post-industrial 180:Imagination Age 170:Information Age 130:Standardization 58: 17: 12: 11: 5: 5796: 5794: 5786: 5785: 5780: 5775: 5765: 5764: 5758: 5757: 5755: 5754: 5749: 5744: 5739: 5734: 5729: 5724: 5719: 5714: 5709: 5704: 5699: 5698: 5697: 5692: 5684: 5679: 5674: 5673: 5672: 5667: 5659: 5654: 5648: 5646: 5638: 5637: 5635: 5634: 5629: 5628: 5627: 5622: 5617: 5612: 5607: 5602: 5592: 5591: 5590: 5585: 5580: 5575: 5567: 5565: 5561: 5560: 5558: 5557: 5556: 5555: 5550: 5549: 5548: 5543: 5538: 5529:United States 5527: 5522: 5517: 5512: 5507: 5502: 5497: 5492: 5487: 5486: 5485: 5480: 5470: 5465: 5460: 5455: 5454: 5453: 5448: 5443: 5433: 5428: 5423: 5418: 5413: 5408: 5403: 5398: 5393: 5388: 5383: 5378: 5373: 5368: 5363: 5361:Czech Republic 5358: 5353: 5352: 5351: 5346: 5336: 5331: 5330: 5329: 5324: 5319: 5309: 5304: 5299: 5294: 5289: 5283: 5281: 5273: 5272: 5263: 5261: 5260: 5253: 5246: 5238: 5229: 5228: 5226: 5225: 5220: 5215: 5210: 5205: 5200: 5195: 5190: 5185: 5180: 5174: 5173: 5167: 5164: 5163: 5161: 5160: 5155: 5150: 5145: 5140: 5135: 5130: 5128:Medieval Islam 5125: 5120: 5115: 5110: 5105: 5100: 5095: 5090: 5085: 5080: 5074: 5073: 5067: 5064: 5063: 5058: 5056: 5055: 5048: 5041: 5033: 5024: 5023: 5021: 5020: 5010: 5000: 4989: 4986: 4985: 4983: 4982: 4977: 4972: 4967: 4962: 4960:Misconceptions 4957: 4952: 4947: 4942: 4937: 4932: 4927: 4921: 4919: 4915: 4914: 4912: 4911: 4906: 4901: 4896: 4891: 4886: 4881: 4876: 4871: 4866: 4861: 4856: 4851: 4846: 4841: 4836: 4831: 4826: 4821: 4816: 4811: 4806: 4801: 4796: 4791: 4786: 4780: 4778: 4774: 4773: 4771: 4770: 4768:Little Ice Age 4765: 4764: 4763: 4753: 4748: 4743: 4738: 4733: 4728: 4723: 4721:Western Schism 4718: 4713: 4708: 4703: 4698: 4693: 4688: 4683: 4677: 4675: 4669: 4668: 4666: 4665: 4660: 4655: 4650: 4645: 4640: 4635: 4630: 4625: 4620: 4615: 4610: 4605: 4600: 4595: 4590: 4585: 4580: 4575: 4569: 4567: 4561: 4560: 4558: 4557: 4552: 4547: 4542: 4537: 4532: 4527: 4522: 4517: 4512: 4507: 4502: 4497: 4492: 4487: 4486: 4485: 4475: 4470: 4468:Late antiquity 4465: 4460: 4455: 4449: 4447: 4441: 4440: 4435: 4433: 4432: 4425: 4418: 4410: 4404: 4403: 4398: 4391: 4390:External links 4388: 4387: 4386: 4377: 4376: 4371: 4366: 4361: 4356: 4351: 4342: 4341: 4336: 4326: 4323: 4322: 4321: 4309: 4299: 4287: 4262:(1): 167–176, 4251: 4231: 4224: 4219: 4206: 4185: 4180: 4167: 4142:(3): 510–547, 4129: 4124: 4111: 4083: 4055: 4032: 4027: 4014: 4009: 3996: 3977: 3964: 3952:Gimpel, Jean. 3950: 3933: 3905: 3893: 3886: 3881: 3868: 3854: 3845: 3842: 3840: 3839: 3817: 3802: 3795: 3777: 3762: 3755: 3737: 3730: 3712: 3706:978-0964279513 3705: 3697:Lexicon Urthus 3687: 3672: 3657: 3650: 3632: 3627:Hidden History 3613: 3606: 3588: 3586:, pp. 1–4 3576: 3561: 3554: 3529: 3510: 3490: 3468: 3447: 3435: 3423: 3411: 3398: 3386: 3371: 3359: 3346: 3333: 3315: 3304: 3292: 3280: 3269: 3257: 3241: 3229: 3217: 3197: 3173: 3155: 3126: 3110: 3103: 3074:On Divers Arts 3058:Giorgio Vasari 3050: 3038: 3023: 3011: 2999: 2987: 2944: 2932: 2907: 2900: 2882: 2855: 2848: 2823: 2796: 2771: 2764: 2733: 2726: 2695: 2679:Dressage Today 2665: 2658: 2625: 2600: 2576: 2521: 2514: 2496: 2478: 2471: 2444: 2429: 2394:(3): 453–475. 2369: 2357: 2344: 2322: 2320: 2317: 2316: 2315: 2303: 2296: 2294: 2287: 2280: 2278: 2272: 2265: 2261: 2258: 2235: 2232: 2224:Steel crossbow 2184:(8th century) 2149:(7th century) 2141: 2138: 2116: 2113: 2026: 2023: 2017:(6th century) 1974: 1971: 1866:Quilted armour 1861: 1858: 1856: 1853: 1724:(England) and 1691:medieval Arabs 1596: 1593: 1585:Spinning wheel 1573:(6th century) 1543: 1540: 1497:when he wrote 1450:(6th century) 1442: 1439: 1356:printing press 1348: 1345: 1269: 1266: 1258:Catalan forges 1198:(6th century) 1149:(6th century) 1127: 1124: 1110: 1107: 1088:Compound crank 1083: 1080: 1048: 1045: 1041:panel painting 1024: 1021: 971:Floating crane 964:Slewing cranes 852:(9th century) 821:(6th century) 812: 809: 776:grape stomping 742:(8th century) 703:(9th century) 667:(5th century) 631: 628: 622: 619: 445:Christian rule 432: 431: 429: 428: 421: 414: 406: 403: 402: 399: 398: 393: 387: 382: 381: 378: 377: 374: 373: 368: 363: 357: 354: 353: 350: 349: 346: 345: 340: 335: 330: 325: 320: 315: 310: 305: 300: 295: 290: 284: 281: 280: 277: 276: 273: 272: 267: 262: 257: 252: 247: 242: 237: 232: 227: 222: 217: 215:Ancient Africa 211: 208: 207: 204: 203: 200: 199: 194: 188: 187: 183: 182: 177: 172: 167: 162: 157: 152: 147: 142: 137: 132: 127: 122: 114: 113: 109: 108: 103: 98: 93: 88: 83: 73: 67: 66: 64:Pre-industrial 59: 56: 55: 52: 51: 15: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 5795: 5784: 5781: 5779: 5776: 5774: 5771: 5770: 5768: 5753: 5750: 5748: 5745: 5743: 5740: 5738: 5735: 5733: 5730: 5728: 5725: 5723: 5720: 5718: 5715: 5713: 5710: 5708: 5705: 5703: 5700: 5696: 5693: 5691: 5688: 5687: 5685: 5683: 5680: 5678: 5675: 5671: 5668: 5666: 5663: 5662: 5660: 5658: 5655: 5653: 5650: 5649: 5647: 5643: 5639: 5633: 5630: 5626: 5623: 5621: 5618: 5616: 5613: 5611: 5608: 5606: 5603: 5601: 5598: 5597: 5596: 5593: 5589: 5586: 5584: 5581: 5579: 5576: 5574: 5571: 5570: 5569: 5568: 5566: 5562: 5554: 5551: 5547: 5544: 5542: 5539: 5537: 5534: 5533: 5531: 5530: 5528: 5526: 5523: 5521: 5518: 5516: 5513: 5511: 5508: 5506: 5503: 5501: 5498: 5496: 5493: 5491: 5488: 5484: 5481: 5479: 5476: 5475: 5474: 5471: 5469: 5466: 5464: 5461: 5459: 5456: 5452: 5449: 5447: 5444: 5442: 5439: 5438: 5437: 5434: 5432: 5429: 5427: 5424: 5422: 5419: 5417: 5414: 5412: 5409: 5407: 5404: 5402: 5399: 5397: 5394: 5392: 5389: 5387: 5384: 5382: 5379: 5377: 5374: 5372: 5369: 5367: 5364: 5362: 5359: 5357: 5354: 5350: 5347: 5345: 5342: 5341: 5340: 5337: 5335: 5332: 5328: 5325: 5323: 5320: 5318: 5315: 5314: 5313: 5310: 5308: 5305: 5303: 5300: 5298: 5295: 5293: 5290: 5288: 5285: 5284: 5282: 5278: 5274: 5270: 5266: 5259: 5254: 5252: 5247: 5245: 5240: 5239: 5236: 5224: 5221: 5219: 5216: 5214: 5211: 5209: 5206: 5204: 5201: 5199: 5196: 5194: 5191: 5189: 5186: 5184: 5181: 5179: 5176: 5175: 5172: 5169: 5168: 5165: 5159: 5156: 5154: 5151: 5149: 5146: 5144: 5141: 5139: 5136: 5134: 5131: 5129: 5126: 5124: 5121: 5119: 5116: 5114: 5111: 5109: 5106: 5104: 5103:Ancient Greek 5101: 5099: 5096: 5094: 5091: 5089: 5088:Ancient Egypt 5086: 5084: 5081: 5079: 5076: 5075: 5072: 5069: 5068: 5065: 5061: 5054: 5049: 5047: 5042: 5040: 5035: 5034: 5031: 5019: 5011: 5009: 5001: 4999: 4995: 4991: 4990: 4987: 4981: 4978: 4976: 4973: 4971: 4968: 4966: 4963: 4961: 4958: 4956: 4953: 4951: 4948: 4946: 4943: 4941: 4938: 4936: 4933: 4931: 4928: 4926: 4923: 4922: 4920: 4916: 4910: 4907: 4905: 4902: 4900: 4897: 4895: 4892: 4890: 4887: 4885: 4882: 4880: 4877: 4875: 4872: 4870: 4867: 4865: 4862: 4860: 4857: 4855: 4852: 4850: 4847: 4845: 4842: 4840: 4837: 4835: 4832: 4830: 4827: 4825: 4822: 4820: 4817: 4815: 4812: 4810: 4807: 4805: 4802: 4800: 4797: 4795: 4792: 4790: 4787: 4785: 4782: 4781: 4779: 4775: 4769: 4766: 4762: 4759: 4758: 4757: 4754: 4752: 4749: 4747: 4744: 4742: 4739: 4737: 4734: 4732: 4729: 4727: 4724: 4722: 4719: 4717: 4714: 4712: 4709: 4707: 4704: 4702: 4699: 4697: 4694: 4692: 4689: 4687: 4684: 4682: 4679: 4678: 4676: 4674: 4670: 4664: 4661: 4659: 4656: 4654: 4651: 4649: 4646: 4644: 4641: 4639: 4636: 4634: 4631: 4629: 4628:Scholasticism 4626: 4624: 4621: 4619: 4616: 4614: 4611: 4609: 4606: 4604: 4601: 4599: 4596: 4594: 4591: 4589: 4586: 4584: 4581: 4579: 4576: 4574: 4571: 4570: 4568: 4566: 4562: 4556: 4553: 4551: 4548: 4546: 4543: 4541: 4538: 4536: 4533: 4531: 4528: 4526: 4523: 4521: 4518: 4516: 4513: 4511: 4508: 4506: 4503: 4501: 4498: 4496: 4493: 4491: 4490:Rise of Islam 4488: 4484: 4481: 4480: 4479: 4476: 4474: 4471: 4469: 4466: 4464: 4461: 4459: 4456: 4454: 4451: 4450: 4448: 4446: 4442: 4438: 4431: 4426: 4424: 4419: 4417: 4412: 4411: 4408: 4402: 4399: 4397: 4394: 4393: 4389: 4385: 4382: 4381: 4380: 4375: 4372: 4370: 4367: 4365: 4362: 4360: 4357: 4355: 4352: 4350: 4347: 4346: 4345: 4340: 4337: 4335: 4332: 4331: 4330: 4324: 4318: 4314: 4310: 4307: 4304: 4300: 4296: 4292: 4288: 4285: 4281: 4277: 4273: 4269: 4265: 4261: 4257: 4252: 4249: 4245: 4241: 4237: 4232: 4229: 4225: 4222: 4220:90-04-10680-4 4216: 4212: 4207: 4204:on 2007-11-18 4200: 4193: 4192: 4186: 4183: 4177: 4173: 4168: 4165: 4161: 4157: 4153: 4149: 4145: 4141: 4137: 4136: 4130: 4127: 4125:3-7861-1748-9 4121: 4117: 4112: 4109: 4105: 4101: 4097: 4093: 4089: 4084: 4081: 4077: 4073: 4069: 4065: 4061: 4056: 4053: 4052:0-89766-277-6 4049: 4045: 4041: 4037: 4033: 4030: 4024: 4020: 4015: 4012: 4010:3-920153-93-6 4006: 4002: 3997: 3993: 3987: 3980: 3978:3-549-05632-X 3974: 3970: 3965: 3963: 3962:0-14-004514-7 3959: 3955: 3951: 3949: 3948:0-06-092581-7 3945: 3941: 3937: 3934: 3931: 3927: 3923: 3919: 3915: 3911: 3906: 3903: 3902: 3897: 3896:Jared Diamond 3894: 3891: 3887: 3884: 3882:3-7861-1748-9 3878: 3874: 3869: 3867: 3866:1-85285-326-3 3863: 3859: 3855: 3852: 3848: 3847: 3843: 3837: 3833: 3830: 3828: 3821: 3818: 3813: 3806: 3803: 3798: 3792: 3788: 3781: 3778: 3773: 3766: 3763: 3758: 3752: 3748: 3741: 3738: 3733: 3727: 3723: 3716: 3713: 3708: 3702: 3698: 3691: 3688: 3683: 3676: 3673: 3668: 3661: 3658: 3653: 3647: 3643: 3636: 3633: 3628: 3624: 3617: 3614: 3609: 3603: 3599: 3592: 3589: 3585: 3580: 3577: 3574: 3570: 3565: 3562: 3557: 3555:9780123865489 3551: 3547: 3543: 3542:Sorensen, Eva 3536: 3534: 3530: 3517: 3513: 3507: 3503: 3502: 3494: 3491: 3488: 3484: 3482: 3477: 3472: 3469: 3465:. p. 36. 3464: 3460: 3459: 3451: 3448: 3445:, p. 111 3444: 3439: 3436: 3432: 3427: 3424: 3421:, p. 110 3420: 3415: 3412: 3408: 3402: 3399: 3396:, p. 264 3395: 3390: 3387: 3384: 3382: 3375: 3372: 3368: 3363: 3360: 3356: 3350: 3347: 3343: 3337: 3334: 3331: 3327: 3324: 3319: 3316: 3313: 3308: 3305: 3301: 3296: 3293: 3289: 3288:Wikander 1985 3284: 3281: 3278: 3273: 3270: 3267:, p. 418 3266: 3261: 3258: 3255:, p. 169 3254: 3253:Thompson 1978 3250: 3245: 3242: 3238: 3233: 3230: 3226: 3221: 3218: 3215: 3214:3-549-05633-8 3211: 3207: 3201: 3198: 3195: 3194:3-7861-1748-9 3191: 3187: 3183: 3177: 3174: 3171: 3167: 3164: 3159: 3156: 3151: 3145: 3137: 3130: 3127: 3123: 3119: 3114: 3111: 3106: 3104:0-7148-3355-X 3100: 3096: 3091: 3090: 3084: 3079: 3075: 3071: 3067: 3063: 3059: 3054: 3051: 3048:, p. 534 3047: 3046:Matthies 1992 3042: 3039: 3036:, p. 345 3035: 3030: 3028: 3024: 3020: 3015: 3012: 3009:, p. 526 3008: 3007:Matthies 1992 3003: 3000: 2997:, p. 515 2996: 2995:Matthies 1992 2991: 2988: 2983: 2979: 2975: 2971: 2967: 2963: 2959: 2955: 2948: 2945: 2941: 2936: 2933: 2922: 2918: 2911: 2908: 2903: 2901:0-86078-651-X 2897: 2893: 2886: 2883: 2872: 2868: 2862: 2860: 2856: 2851: 2849:0-313-33754-3 2845: 2841: 2834: 2832: 2830: 2828: 2824: 2813: 2809: 2803: 2801: 2797: 2785: 2781: 2775: 2772: 2767: 2765:0-313-33754-3 2761: 2757: 2750: 2748: 2746: 2744: 2742: 2740: 2738: 2734: 2729: 2727:0-313-33754-3 2723: 2719: 2712: 2710: 2708: 2706: 2704: 2702: 2700: 2696: 2685:on 2019-04-08 2684: 2680: 2676: 2669: 2666: 2661: 2659:0-313-33754-3 2655: 2651: 2644: 2642: 2640: 2638: 2636: 2634: 2632: 2630: 2626: 2614: 2610: 2604: 2601: 2590: 2586: 2580: 2577: 2572: 2568: 2564: 2560: 2556: 2552: 2548: 2544: 2540: 2536: 2532: 2525: 2522: 2517: 2515:0-313-33754-3 2511: 2507: 2500: 2497: 2492: 2485: 2483: 2479: 2474: 2472:0-313-33754-3 2468: 2464: 2457: 2455: 2453: 2451: 2449: 2445: 2440: 2433: 2430: 2425: 2421: 2417: 2413: 2409: 2405: 2401: 2397: 2393: 2389: 2385: 2378: 2376: 2374: 2370: 2366: 2361: 2358: 2354: 2348: 2345: 2342:, p. 346 2341: 2336: 2334: 2332: 2330: 2328: 2324: 2318: 2312: 2311: 2306: 2300: 2295: 2291: 2284: 2279: 2275: 2269: 2264: 2259: 2257: 2255: 2250: 2245: 2243: 2241: 2240:Combined arms 2234:Miscellaneous 2233: 2231: 2228: 2226: 2225: 2220: 2219:(1337–1453). 2218: 2214: 2209: 2207: 2205: 2200: 2198: 2197:flamethrowers 2194: 2190: 2185: 2183: 2182: 2174: 2170: 2165: 2161: 2159: 2155: 2150: 2148: 2147: 2139: 2137: 2135: 2131: 2125: 2123: 2122: 2114: 2112: 2110: 2106: 2102: 2098: 2094: 2089: 2087: 2086: 2078: 2073: 2069: 2065: 2063: 2062: 2057: 2055: 2050: 2049: 2048: 2043: 2040: 2035: 2033: 2032: 2024: 2022: 2018: 2016: 2015: 2010: 2006: 2004: 2003: 1998: 1996: 1992: 1988: 1983: 1981: 1980: 1979:Arched saddle 1972: 1970: 1967: 1961: 1959: 1958: 1950: 1945: 1941: 1939: 1934: 1932: 1931: 1926: 1922: 1920: 1919: 1914: 1911: 1907: 1902: 1900: 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5441:Inventions 5344:inventions 5302:Bangladesh 5297:Azerbaijan 5265:Inventions 4940:Land terms 4894:Technology 4874:Philosophy 4854:Literature 4819:Demography 4520:Viking Age 3916:(1): 1–4, 3573:Trinkglas. 3443:White 1962 3419:White 1962 3300:Rynne 2000 3265:Burns 1996 3249:Burns 1996 3237:Lucas 2005 3118:White 1962 3078:wet-on-wet 3066:Theophilus 2960:(3): 354. 2926:2019-04-08 2876:2019-04-08 2817:2019-04-08 2790:2019-04-08 2689:2019-04-08 2619:2019-04-08 2594:2019-04-08 2274:Longbowmen 2193:Greek fire 2146:Greek fire 2047:Volley gun 1936:A type of 1898:Chain mail 1816:Quarantine 1683:Alexandria 1679:alchemists 1632:(c. 1000) 1530:The first 1525:University 1416:Spectacles 1386:paper mill 1268:Navigation 1254:bloomeries 1219:horsepower 1203:waterwheel 1165:paper mill 1157:Paper mill 1109:Metallurgy 1067:, Italy). 1032:(by 1125) 998:Mast crane 935:treadwheel 817:Pendentive 805:water well 751:Wine press 700:Horseshoes 465:spectacles 145:Atomic Age 96:Bronze Age 91:Copper Age 5702:Bulgarian 5661:American 5652:Worldwide 5578:cosmology 5573:chemistry 5541:1890–1945 5391:Indonesia 5287:Australia 5123:Byzantine 5083:Neolithic 4925:Dark Ages 4834:Household 4829:Hastilude 4598:Feudalism 4379:General: 4164:113201185 4080:109564224 3483:, page 55 3144:cite book 3122:Hall 1979 3019:Hall 1979 2982:250767136 2974:0957-0233 2571:112141423 2555:0040-165X 2541:(1): 30. 2424:147546781 2408:0040-165X 2365:Holt 1988 2313:(c. 1405) 2305:Organ gun 2292:(c. 1493) 2276:(c. 1493) 1989:to wield 1835:Rat traps 1787:provides 1785:Anathomia 1578:Silk Road 1516:with his 1514:Fibonacci 1487:magnetism 1437:, Italy. 1427:Watermark 1207:Waterford 1146:Ship mill 1082:Mechanics 1061:clepsydra 1053:Hourglass 1029:Oil paint 868:Rib vault 857:hypocaust 656:plowshare 594:Gutenberg 579:astrolabe 547:gunpowder 531:Byzantine 461:windmills 457:gunpowder 155:Space Age 76:Stone Age 5727:Romanian 5686:British 5682:Austrian 5677:Armenian 5615:Military 5564:by topic 5520:Thailand 5473:Portugal 5458:Pakistan 5426:Malaysia 5322:Scotland 5008:Category 4975:Timeline 4864:Minstrel 4859:Medicine 4741:Chivalry 4696:Burgundy 4618:Crusades 4325:See also 4293:(1962), 4284:85153174 3986:citation 3930:32610686 3832:Archived 3478:(2011), 3463:Elsevier 3326:Archived 3166:Archived 3085:(1995). 2290:crossbow 2169:caltrops 2101:Mons Meg 2077:Mons Meg 2039:Petrarch 1918:Jazerant 1838:(1170s) 1805:cerebrum 1801:meninges 1789:pictures 1637:wood ash 1471:momentum 1419:(1280s) 1406:Reading 1359:(1440s) 1331:(1180s) 1237:(1180s) 1099:Texaurus 1011:(1170s) 952:see-saws 930:(1220s) 910:Florence 847:through 577:and the 504:sawmills 101:Iron Age 38:town of 5747:Swedish 5742:Spanish 5737:Serbian 5732:Russian 5712:Italian 5690:English 5657:African 5588:science 5525:Vietnam 5411:Jamaica 5396:Ireland 5376:Germany 5356:Croatia 5317:England 5312:Britain 5292:Austria 5143:Ottoman 5113:Chinese 4918:Related 4904:Warfare 4899:Theatre 4889:Slavery 4884:Science 4839:Hunting 4804:Cuisine 4777:Culture 4716:Castile 4711:England 4264:Bibcode 4242:: 1–7, 4156:3106635 4108:1595223 4046:, 1985 3904:, 1997. 3522:29 June 3184:(ed.): 2563:3103306 2416:3106255 2307:in the 2260:Gallery 2242:tactics 2204:Longbow 2181:Grenade 2034:(1324) 2014:Stirrup 1995:cavalry 1987:knights 1973:Cavalry 1951:in 1494 1906:Hauberk 1819:(1377) 1780:(1345) 1763:(1180) 1760:Mirrors 1743:Magnets 1714:elixirs 1699:Cologne 1695:Salerno 1621:(1450) 1467:inertia 1435:Bologna 1430:(1282) 1304:(1269) 1126:Milling 1056:(1338) 956:winches 946:(1244) 901:(1345) 887:Chimney 836:(1126) 801:aquifer 652:coulter 636:Carruca 611:Taccola 520:bellows 512:England 483:), and 150:Jet Age 106:Ancient 5722:Polish 5707:German 5515:Taiwan 5495:Serbia 5490:Russia 5468:Poland 5431:Mexico 5401:Israel 5381:Greece 5371:France 5334:Canada 5307:Brazil 5158:Modern 5118:Indian 4998:Portal 4879:Poetry 4706:France 4282: 4217: 4178: 4162: 4154: 4122: 4106: 4078: 4050: 4025: 4007: 3975: 3960: 3946: 3928: 3879: 3864: 3793: 3753: 3728: 3703: 3648: 3604: 3552: 3508: 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