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and putamen, but not the medial preoptic nucleus. Next, the induction of c-Fos, a downstream (repressed) target of DeltaFosB, was measured in sexually experienced and naive animals. The number of mating-induced c-Fos-IR cells was significantly decreased in sexually experienced animals compared to sexually naive controls. Finally, DeltaFosB levels and its activity in the NAc were manipulated using viral-mediated gene transfer to study its potential role in mediating sexual experience and experience-induced facilitation of sexual performance. Animals with DeltaFosB overexpression displayed enhanced facilitation of sexual performance with sexual experience relative to controls. In contrast, the expression of DeltaJunD, a dominant-negative binding partner of DeltaFosB, attenuated sexual experience-induced facilitation of sexual performance, and stunted long-term maintenance of facilitation compared to DeltaFosB overexpressing group. Together, these findings support a critical role for DeltaFosB expression in the NAc in the reinforcing effects of sexual behavior and sexual experience-induced facilitation of sexual performance. ... both drug addiction and sexual addiction represent pathological forms of neuroplasticity along with the emergence of aberrant behaviors involving a cascade of neurochemical changes mainly in the brain's rewarding circuitry.
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and putamen, but not the medial preoptic nucleus. Next, the induction of c-Fos, a downstream (repressed) target of DeltaFosB, was measured in sexually experienced and naive animals. The number of mating-induced c-Fos-IR cells was significantly decreased in sexually experienced animals compared to sexually naive controls. Finally, DeltaFosB levels and its activity in the NAc were manipulated using viral-mediated gene transfer to study its potential role in mediating sexual experience and experience-induced facilitation of sexual performance. Animals with DeltaFosB overexpression displayed enhanced facilitation of sexual performance with sexual experience relative to controls. In contrast, the expression of DeltaJunD, a dominant-negative binding partner of DeltaFosB, attenuated sexual experience-induced facilitation of sexual performance, and stunted long-term maintenance of facilitation compared to DeltaFosB overexpressing group. Together, these findings support a critical role for DeltaFosB expression in the NAc in the reinforcing effects of sexual behavior and sexual experience-induced facilitation of sexual performance. ... both drug addiction and sexual addiction represent pathological forms of neuroplasticity along with the emergence of aberrant behaviors involving a cascade of neurochemical changes mainly in the brain's rewarding circuitry.
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cingulate cortex. VTA DA neurons play a critical role in motivation, reward-related behavior, attention, and multiple forms of memory. ... Thus, acting in diverse terminal fields, dopamine confers motivational salience ("wanting") on the reward itself or associated cues (nucleus accumbens shell region), updates the value placed on different goals in light of this new experience (orbital prefrontal cortex), helps consolidate multiple forms of memory (amygdala and hippocampus), and encodes new motor programs that will facilitate obtaining this reward in the future (nucleus accumbens core region and dorsal striatum). ... DA has multiple actions in the prefrontal cortex. It promotes the "cognitive control" of behavior: the selection and successful monitoring of behavior to facilitate attainment of chosen goals. Aspects of cognitive control in which DA plays a role include working memory, the ability to hold information "on line" in order to guide actions, suppression of prepotent behaviors that compete with goal-directed actions, and control of attention and thus the ability to overcome distractions. ... Noradrenergic projections from the LC thus interact with dopaminergic projections from the VTA to regulate cognitive control.
1484:ΔFosB has been linked directly to several addiction-related behaviors ... Importantly, genetic or viral overexpression of ΔJunD, a dominant negative mutant of JunD which antagonizes ΔFosB- and other AP-1-mediated transcriptional activity, in the NAc or OFC blocks these key effects of drug exposure14,22–24. This indicates that ΔFosB is both necessary and sufficient for many of the changes wrought in the brain by chronic drug exposure. ΔFosB is also induced in D1-type NAc MSNs by chronic consumption of several natural rewards, including sucrose, high fat food, sex, wheel running, where it promotes that consumption14,26–30. This implicates ΔFosB in the regulation of natural rewards under normal conditions and perhaps during pathological addictive-like states.
846:ΔFosB has been linked directly to several addiction-related behaviors ... Importantly, genetic or viral overexpression of ΔJunD, a dominant negative mutant of JunD which antagonizes ΔFosB- and other AP-1-mediated transcriptional activity, in the NAc or OFC blocks these key effects of drug exposure14,22–24. This indicates that ΔFosB is both necessary and sufficient for many of the changes wrought in the brain by chronic drug exposure. ΔFosB is also induced in D1-type NAc MSNs by chronic consumption of several natural rewards, including sucrose, high fat food, sex, wheel running, where it promotes that consumption14,26–30. This implicates ΔFosB in the regulation of natural rewards under normal conditions and perhaps during pathological addictive-like states.
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terminal fields, dopamine confers motivational salience ("wanting") on the reward itself or associated cues (nucleus accumbens shell region), updates the value placed on different goals in light of this new experience (orbital prefrontal cortex), helps consolidate multiple forms of memory (amygdala and hippocampus), and encodes new motor programs that will facilitate obtaining this reward in the future (nucleus accumbens core region and dorsal striatum). In this example, dopamine modulates the processing of sensorimotor information in diverse neural circuits to maximize the ability of the organism to obtain future rewards. ...
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able to increase the extent an animal is willing to go to obtain a reward. Moreover, the firing rate of neurons in the mesolimbic pathway increases during anticipation of reward, which may explain craving. Mesolimbic dopamine release was once thought to be the primary mediator of pleasure, but is now believed to have only a minor or secondary role in pleasure perception.
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and creates an increased motivation to repeat that same behavior that caused it. Additionally, drug intake changes synaptic plasticity in the ventral tegmental area and the nucleus accumbens. Repeated exposure to the drug can lead to lasting changes in the brain that gives rise to addictive behavior.
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Recent studies on intracranial self-administration of neurochemicals (drugs) found that rats learn to self-administer various drugs into the mesolimbic dopamine structures–the posterior ventral tegmental area, medial shell nucleus accumbens and medial olfactory tubercle. ... In the 1970s it was
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Recent studies on intracranial self-administration of neurochemicals (drugs) found that rats learn to self-administer various drugs into the mesolimbic dopamine structures–the posterior ventral tegmental area, medial shell nucleus accumbens and medial olfactory tubercle. ... In the 1970s it was
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It has been found that deltaFosB gene in the NAc is critical for reinforcing effects of sexual reward. Pitchers and colleagues (2010) reported that sexual experience was shown to cause DeltaFosB accumulation in several limbic brain regions including the NAc, medial pre-frontal cortex, VTA, caudate,
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It has been found that deltaFosB gene in the NAc is critical for reinforcing effects of sexual reward. Pitchers and colleagues (2010) reported that sexual experience was shown to cause DeltaFosB accumulation in several limbic brain regions including the NAc, medial pre-frontal cortex, VTA, caudate,
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have been shown to increase extracellular levels of dopamine within the mesolimbic pathway, preferentially within the nucleus accumbens. The mechanisms by which these drugs do so vary depending on the drug prototype. For example, cocaine precludes the re-uptake of synaptic dopamine through blocking
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The brain reward circuitry that is targeted by addictive drugs normally mediates the pleasure and strengthening of behaviors associated with natural reinforcers, such as food, water, and sexual contact. Dopamine neurons in the VTA are activated by food and water, and dopamine release in the NAc is
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To summarize: the emerging realization that many diverse pleasures share overlapping brain substrates; better neuroimaging maps for encoding human pleasure in orbitofrontal cortex; identification of hotspots and separable brain mechanisms for generating 'liking' and 'wanting' for the same reward;
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To summarize: the emerging realization that many diverse pleasures share overlapping brain substrates; better neuroimaging maps for encoding human pleasure in orbitofrontal cortex; identification of hotspots and separable brain mechanisms for generating 'liking' and 'wanting' for the same reward;
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cognition. Depletion of dopamine in this pathway, or lesions at its site of origin, decrease the extent to which an animal is willing to go to obtain a reward (e.g. the number of lever presses for intravenous nicotine delivery in rats or time spent searching for food). Dopaminergic drugs are also
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VTA DA neurons play a critical role in motivation, reward-related behavior (Chapter 15), attention, and multiple forms of memory. This organization of the DA system, wide projection from a limited number of cell bodies, permits coordinated responses to potent new rewards. Thus, acting in diverse
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The NAc and VTA are central components of the circuitry underlying reward and memory of reward. As previously mentioned, the activity of dopaminergic neurons in the VTA appears to be linked to reward prediction. The NAc is involved in learning associated with reinforcement and the modulation of
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Neurons from the SNc densely innervate the dorsal striatum where they play a critical role in the learning and execution of motor programs. Neurons from the VTA innervate the ventral striatum (nucleus accumbens), olfactory bulb, amygdala, hippocampus, orbital and medial prefrontal cortex, and
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motoric responses to stimuli that satisfy internal homeostatic needs. The shell of the NAc appears to be particularly important to initial drug actions within reward circuitry; addictive drugs appear to have a greater effect on dopamine release in the shell than in the core of the NAc.
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recognized that the olfactory tubercle contains a striatal component, which is filled with GABAergic medium spiny neurons receiving glutamatergic inputs form cortical regions and dopaminergic inputs from the VTA and projecting to the ventral pallidum just like the nucleus accumbens
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recognized that the olfactory tubercle contains a striatal component, which is filled with GABAergic medium spiny neurons receiving glutamatergic inputs form cortical regions and dopaminergic inputs from the VTA and projecting to the ventral pallidum just like the nucleus accumbens
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identification of larger keyboard patterns of generators for desire and dread within NAc, with multiple modes of function; and the realization that dopamine and most 'pleasure electrode' candidates for brain hedonic generators probably did not cause much pleasure after all.
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identification of larger keyboard patterns of generators for desire and dread within NAc, with multiple modes of function; and the realization that dopamine and most 'pleasure electrode' candidates for brain hedonic generators probably did not cause much pleasure after all.
265:. Drug addiction is an illness caused by habitual substance use that induces chemical changes in the brain's circuitry. An addictive drug is defined as a substance that affects the mesolimbic system directly or indirectly by increasing extracellular levels of dopamine.
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Caminiti, Silvia Paola; Presotto, Luca; Baroncini, Damiano; Garibotto, Valentina; Moresco, Rosa Maria; Gianolli, Luigi; Volonté, Maria
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100:. The dysregulation of the mesolimbic pathway and its output neurons in the nucleus accumbens plays a significant role in the development and maintenance of an
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These dopaminergic activations of the mesolimbic pathway are accompanied by the perception of reward. This stimulus-reward association shows a resistance to
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Dopamine acts in the nucleus accumbens to attach motivational significance to stimuli associated with reward.
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stimulated by the presence of natural reinforcers, such as food, water, or a sexual partner. ...
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1187:"Dopaminergic and Noradrenergic Contributions to Functionality in ADHD: The Role of Methylphenidate"
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The release of dopamine from the mesolimbic pathway into the nucleus accumbens regulates
965:"Brain reward circuitry beyond the mesolimbic dopamine system: a neurobiological theory"
629:"Brain reward circuitry beyond the mesolimbic dopamine system: a neurobiological theory"
30:"Reward center" redirects here. For the reward system, which contains this pathway, see
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193:. The nucleus accumbens is subdivided into limbic and motor subregions known as the
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578:"New insights into the roles of microRNAs in drug addiction and neuroplasticity"
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The mesolimbic pathway and a specific set of the pathway's output neurons (e.g.
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Gipson, Cassandra D.; Kupchik, Yonatan M.; Kalivas, Peter W. (January 2014).
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691:(2nd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill Medical. pp. 147–148, 367, 376.
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482:. Each involves distinct structural changes within the mesolimbic pathway.
1160:(2nd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill Medical. pp. 147–148, 154–157.
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Kandel, Eric R.; Koester, J. D.; Mack, S. H.; Siegelbaum, S. A. (2021).
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1397:"Neuroscience of affect: brain mechanisms of pleasure and displeasure"
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Figure 3: The ventral striatum and self-administration of amphetamine
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Figure 3: The ventral striatum and self-administration of amphetamine
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169:. The dopaminergic neurons in this region receive stimuli from both
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The mesolimbic pathway and its positioning in relation to the other
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Malenka RC, Nestler EJ, Hyman SE (2009). Sydor A, Brown RY (eds.).
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185:. The nucleus accumbens and olfactory tubercle are located in the
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1295:"The Mysterious Motivational Functions of Mesolimbic Dopamine"
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as well as glutamatergic neurons in other regions such as the
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The mesolimbic pathway is a collection of dopaminergic (i.e.,
726:(2nd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill Medical. p. 266.
1733:
Lüscher, Christian; Malenka, Robert C. (24 February 2011).
1551:"Natural rewards, neuroplasticity, and non-drug addictions"
913:"Natural rewards, neuroplasticity, and non-drug addictions"
458:
Relation to other neurological and psychological disorders
2072:"Dopamine, Smartphones & You: A battle for your time"
257:
within the nucleus accumbens) play a central role in the
1601:
THE NEUROBIOLOGY OF SUBSTANCE USE, MISUSE, AND ADDICTION
1446:"Transcriptional and epigenetic mechanisms of addiction"
808:"Transcriptional and epigenetic mechanisms of addiction"
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Berridge, Kent C; Kringelbach, Morten L (1 June 2013).
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Purves D et al. 2008. Neuroscience. Sinauer 4ed. 754-56
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Engert, Veronika; Pruessner, Jens C (9 January 2017).
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Community reinforcement approach and family training
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1792:"Rapid, transient synaptic plasticity in addiction"
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478:, although it could simply be a consequence of a
305:Addictive Drugs and their Molecular Interactions
147:, which is a set of neural pathways that mediate
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1604:. US Department of Health and Human Services.
143:. It is one of the component pathways of the
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1884:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
297:. Such drugs include alcohol, nicotine, and
474:. It is also theorized to be implicated in
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127:-releasing) neurons that project from the
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1444:Robison AJ, Nestler EJ (November 2011).
1342:Berridge KC, Kringelbach ML (May 2015).
806:Robison AJ, Nestler EJ (November 2011).
753:Berridge KC, Kringelbach ML (May 2015).
462:The mesolimbic pathway is implicated in
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1069:Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews
232:The mesolimbic pathway is involved in
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1963:Parkinsonism & Related Disorders
268:Common addictive substances such as
73:. The ventral striatum includes the
2791:Discrimination against drug addicts
2653:Tobacco cessation clinics in India
25:
225:The mesolimbic pathway regulates
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2716:Low-threshold treatment programs
2583:Motivational enhancement therapy
1975:10.1016/j.parkreldis.2015.03.008
1808:10.1016/j.neuropharm.2013.04.032
1567:10.1016/j.neuropharm.2011.03.010
929:10.1016/j.neuropharm.2011.03.010
374:Nicotinic Acetylcholine Receptor
88:(e.g. motivation and desire for
3202:Central nervous system pathways
2796:Dopamine dysregulation syndrome
2786:Category:Vaccines against drugs
1856:10.1016/j.pneurobio.2008.01.003
1692:Current Opinion in Pharmacology
1401:Current Opinion in Neurobiology
1344:"Pleasure systems in the brain"
1256:10.1016/j.pneurobio.2004.09.004
1081:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2005.04.016
981:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2010.02.001
755:"Pleasure systems in the brain"
645:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2010.02.001
41:, sometimes referred to as the
3129:Rostromedial tegmental nucleus
3000:Substantia nigra pars compacta
189:and are primarily composed of
179:laterodorsal tegmental nucleus
158:and consists of dopaminergic,
1:
2419:Adverse childhood experiences
1502:Journal of Psychoactive Drugs
1033:10.1016/s0306-4522(01)00379-7
864:Journal of Psychoactive Drugs
2648:Nicotine replacement therapy
2633:Intensive outpatient program
2621:Residential treatment center
2561:Cognitive behavioral therapy
1751:10.1016/j.neuron.2011.01.017
1639:Harvard Review of Psychiatry
1620:Principles of Neural Science
1514:10.1080/02791072.2012.662112
1360:10.1016/j.neuron.2015.02.018
1311:10.1016/j.neuron.2012.10.021
876:10.1080/02791072.2012.662112
771:10.1016/j.neuron.2015.02.018
2246:Internet addiction disorder
1622:(6e ed.). McGraw Hill.
295:G protein-coupled receptors
53:. The pathway connects the
3228:
3070:Anterior raphespinal tract
3015:Tuberoinfundibular pathway
2901:Nucleus basalis of Meynert
2681:List of twelve-step groups
2032:10.1016/j.nicl.2017.03.011
1704:10.1016/j.coph.2006.11.003
1549:Olsen CM (December 2011).
1413:10.1016/j.conb.2013.01.017
1203:10.2174/157015908787386069
911:Olsen CM (December 2011).
508:Tuberoinfundibular pathway
489:
154:The VTA is located in the
29:
3075:Lateral raphespinal tract
2833:
2746:Supervised injection site
2676:Addiction recovery groups
2628:Heroin-assisted treatment
2588:Motivational interviewing
1651:10.1080/10673220490910844
1191:Current Neuropharmacology
1126:10.1016/j.bcp.2006.04.022
2885:Neurotransmitter systems
2429:Psychological dependence
2263:Digital media addictions
1844:Progress in Neurobiology
1244:Progress in Neurobiology
1113:Biochemical Pharmacology
476:overuse of digital media
211:medial prefrontal cortex
175:pedunculopontine nucleus
149:brain stimulation reward
3047:Lateral tegmental field
2731:Needle exchange program
2721:Managed alcohol program
2699:Category:Harm reduction
1633:Adinoff, Bryon (2004).
486:Other dopamine pathways
246:Mechanisms of addiction
145:medial forebrain bundle
2981:Ventral tegmental area
2966:Ventral tegmental area
2751:Tobacco harm reduction
2571:Contingency management
2538:Alcohol detoxification
2251:Internet sex addiction
1905:Schizophrenia Bulletin
1899:Laviolette SR (2007).
346:, and other beverages
129:ventral tegmental area
120:
55:ventral tegmental area
3021:) → Pituitary gland (
2996:Nigrostriatal pathway
2954:Dopaminergic pathways
2916:Medial septal nucleus
2813:Motivational salience
2741:Stimulant maintenance
2726:Moderation Management
2638:Methadone maintenance
1917:10.1093/schbul/sbm048
969:Neurosci Biobehav Rev
633:Neurosci Biobehav Rev
540:Motivational salience
503:Nigrostriatal pathway
492:Dopaminergic pathways
291:ligand-gated channels
285:. Another stimulant,
241:Clinical significance
135:, which includes the
118:dopaminergic pathways
115:
3019:Infundibular nucleus
2962:Mesocortical pathway
2736:Responsible drug use
2593:Motivational therapy
2258:Video game addiction
2020:NeuroImage: Clinical
498:Mesocortical pathway
429:Dopamine Transporter
357:Cannabinoid Receptor
299:tetrahydrocannabinol
283:dopamine transporter
255:medium spiny neurons
191:medium spiny neurons
47:dopaminergic pathway
3170:Subthalamic nucleus
2970:Prefrontal cortices
2660:Twelve-step program
2543:Drug detoxification
2424:Physical dependence
2076:Science in the News
480:sedentary lifestyle
472:Parkinson's disease
306:
171:cholinergic neurons
3057:Serotonin pathways
2989:olfactory tubercle
2977:Mesolimbic pathway
2818:Incentive salience
2806:Inhibitory control
2781:Category:Addiction
2771:Addiction medicine
2566:Relapse prevention
2503:Tanning dependence
1450:Nat. Rev. Neurosci
963:Ikemoto S (2010).
812:Nat. Rev. Neurosci
627:Ikemoto S (2010).
576:Dreyer JL (2010).
525:Tardive dyskinesia
304:
227:incentive salience
141:olfactory tubercle
121:
92:) and facilitates
86:incentive salience
79:olfactory tubercle
39:mesolimbic pathway
3187:
3186:
3183:
3182:
3083:
3082:
2985:Nucleus accumbens
2851:
2850:
2801:Cognitive control
2759:
2758:
2643:Smoking cessation
2598:Physical exercise
2513:
2512:
2499:Non-drug stimuli
2398:
2397:
2242:Internet-related
1796:Neuropharmacology
1694:. Neurosciences.
1555:Neuropharmacology
917:Neuropharmacology
733:978-0-07-148127-4
698:978-0-07-148127-4
447:
446:
391:μ Opioid Receptor
183:prefrontal cortex
137:nucleus accumbens
90:rewarding stimuli
75:nucleus accumbens
18:Mesolimbic system
16:(Redirected from
3219:
3094:
3017:: Hypothalamus (
2950:
2878:
2871:
2864:
2855:
2841:
2840:
2528:
2409:
2334:G9a-like protein
2150:
2122:
2115:
2108:
2099:
2088:
2087:
2085:
2083:
2068:
2062:
2061:
2051:
2011:
2005:
2004:
1994:
1954:
1948:
1945:
1939:
1938:
1928:
1896:
1890:
1889:
1883:
1875:
1839:
1830:
1829:
1819:
1787:
1781:
1780:
1770:
1730:
1724:
1723:
1687:
1681:
1680:
1670:
1630:
1624:
1623:
1615:
1606:
1605:
1595:
1589:
1588:
1578:
1546:
1540:
1539:
1525:
1493:
1487:
1486:
1473:
1441:
1435:
1434:
1424:
1392:
1386:
1385:
1371:
1339:
1333:
1332:
1322:
1290:
1284:
1283:
1239:
1233:
1232:
1222:
1182:
1176:
1175:
1153:
1147:
1144:
1138:
1137:
1107:
1101:
1100:
1064:
1053:
1052:
1016:
1010:
1006:
992:
960:
951:
950:
940:
908:
902:
901:
887:
855:
849:
848:
835:
803:
797:
796:
782:
750:
741:
740:
719:
713:
712:
684:
675:
670:
656:
624:
618:
617:
607:
597:
573:
307:
281:the presynaptic
215:ventral pallidum
187:ventral striatum
133:ventral striatum
63:ventral striatum
21:
3227:
3226:
3222:
3221:
3220:
3218:
3217:
3216:
3192:
3191:
3188:
3179:
3175:Globus pallidus
3151:
3133:
3124:Globus pallidus
3110:
3106:Climbing fibers
3079:
3051:
3042:Locus coeruleus
3028:
3023:Median eminence
3004:Caudate nucleus
2935:
2887:
2882:
2852:
2847:
2829:
2825:Sober companion
2755:
2709:Reagent testing
2685:
2664:
2608:
2602:
2553:
2547:
2522:
2520:
2509:
2438:
2394:
2281:Transcriptional
2273:
2267:
2194:
2180:Methylphenidate
2175:Methamphetamine
2139:
2126:
2096:
2091:
2081:
2079:
2070:
2069:
2065:
2013:
2012:
2008:
1956:
1955:
1951:
1946:
1942:
1898:
1897:
1893:
1876:
1841:
1840:
1833:
1789:
1788:
1784:
1732:
1731:
1727:
1689:
1688:
1684:
1632:
1631:
1627:
1617:
1616:
1609:
1597:
1596:
1592:
1548:
1547:
1543:
1495:
1494:
1490:
1462:10.1038/nrn3111
1456:(11): 623–637.
1443:
1442:
1438:
1394:
1393:
1389:
1341:
1340:
1336:
1292:
1291:
1287:
1241:
1240:
1236:
1184:
1183:
1179:
1168:
1155:
1154:
1150:
1145:
1141:
1109:
1108:
1104:
1066:
1065:
1056:
1018:
1017:
1013:
962:
961:
954:
910:
909:
905:
857:
856:
852:
824:10.1038/nrn3111
818:(11): 623–637.
805:
804:
800:
752:
751:
744:
734:
721:
720:
716:
708:
705:
699:
686:
685:
678:
671:
626:
625:
621:
575:
574:
567:
563:
555:Akinetic mutism
516:
494:
488:
460:
442:methamphetamine
330:
248:
243:
223:
110:
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
3225:
3223:
3215:
3214:
3209:
3204:
3194:
3193:
3185:
3184:
3181:
3180:
3178:
3177:
3172:
3167:
3161:
3159:
3153:
3152:
3150:
3149:
3143:
3141:
3135:
3134:
3132:
3131:
3126:
3120:
3118:
3112:
3111:
3109:
3108:
3102:
3100:
3091:
3085:
3084:
3081:
3080:
3078:
3077:
3072:
3067:
3061:
3059:
3053:
3052:
3050:
3049:
3044:
3038:
3036:
3034:Norepinephrine
3030:
3029:
3027:
3026:
3011:
3010:
2992:
2991:
2973:
2972:
2958:
2956:
2947:
2937:
2936:
2934:
2933:
2927:
2926:
2908:
2907:
2897:
2895:
2889:
2888:
2883:
2881:
2880:
2873:
2866:
2858:
2849:
2848:
2846:
2845:
2834:
2831:
2830:
2828:
2827:
2822:
2821:
2820:
2810:
2809:
2808:
2798:
2793:
2788:
2783:
2778:
2773:
2767:
2765:
2761:
2760:
2757:
2756:
2754:
2753:
2748:
2743:
2738:
2733:
2728:
2723:
2718:
2713:
2712:
2711:
2701:
2695:
2693:
2691:Harm reduction
2687:
2686:
2684:
2683:
2678:
2672:
2670:
2669:Support groups
2666:
2665:
2663:
2662:
2657:
2656:
2655:
2650:
2640:
2635:
2630:
2625:
2624:
2623:
2612:
2610:
2604:
2603:
2601:
2600:
2595:
2590:
2585:
2580:
2575:
2574:
2573:
2568:
2557:
2555:
2549:
2548:
2546:
2545:
2540:
2534:
2532:
2531:Detoxification
2525:
2515:
2514:
2511:
2510:
2508:
2507:
2506:
2505:
2497:
2496:
2495:
2490:
2485:
2480:
2475:
2470:
2468:Benzodiazepine
2465:
2460:
2455:
2446:
2444:
2440:
2439:
2437:
2436:
2431:
2426:
2421:
2415:
2413:
2406:
2400:
2399:
2396:
2395:
2393:
2392:
2391:
2390:
2387:
2382:
2377:
2372:
2367:
2362:
2357:
2350:
2343:
2336:
2331:
2318:
2317:
2316:
2315:
2310:
2305:
2300:
2295:
2290:
2277:
2275:
2269:
2268:
2266:
2265:
2260:
2255:
2254:
2253:
2248:
2240:
2239:
2238:
2233:
2225:
2223:Palatable food
2220:
2219:
2218:
2213:
2204:
2202:
2196:
2195:
2193:
2192:
2187:
2182:
2177:
2172:
2167:
2162:
2156:
2154:
2147:
2141:
2140:
2127:
2125:
2124:
2117:
2110:
2102:
2095:
2094:External links
2092:
2090:
2089:
2063:
2006:
1969:(5): 536–540.
1949:
1940:
1911:(4): 971–981.
1891:
1831:
1782:
1745:(4): 650–663.
1725:
1682:
1645:(6): 305–320.
1625:
1607:
1590:
1561:(7): 1109–22.
1541:
1488:
1436:
1407:(3): 294–303.
1387:
1354:(3): 646–664.
1334:
1305:(3): 470–485.
1285:
1250:(5): 301–320.
1234:
1197:(4): 322–328.
1177:
1166:
1148:
1139:
1102:
1054:
1011:
952:
923:(7): 1109–22.
903:
850:
798:
765:(3): 646–664.
742:
732:
714:
697:
676:
619:
564:
562:
559:
558:
557:
552:
547:
542:
537:
532:
527:
522:
515:
512:
511:
510:
505:
500:
490:Main article:
487:
484:
459:
456:
445:
444:
431:
426:
420:
419:
414:
409:
403:
402:
393:
388:
382:
381:
376:
371:
365:
364:
359:
354:
348:
347:
337:
328:
324:
318:
317:
314:
311:
247:
244:
242:
239:
222:
219:
109:
106:
43:reward pathway
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3224:
3213:
3210:
3208:
3205:
3203:
3200:
3199:
3197:
3190:
3176:
3173:
3171:
3168:
3166:
3163:
3162:
3160:
3158:
3154:
3148:
3147:Renshaw cells
3145:
3144:
3142:
3140:
3136:
3130:
3127:
3125:
3122:
3121:
3119:
3117:
3113:
3107:
3104:
3103:
3101:
3099:
3095:
3092:
3090:
3086:
3076:
3073:
3071:
3068:
3066:
3063:
3062:
3060:
3058:
3054:
3048:
3045:
3043:
3040:
3039:
3037:
3035:
3031:
3024:
3020:
3016:
3013:
3012:
3009:
3005:
3001:
2997:
2994:
2993:
2990:
2986:
2982:
2978:
2975:
2974:
2971:
2967:
2963:
2960:
2959:
2957:
2955:
2951:
2948:
2946:
2942:
2938:
2932:
2929:
2928:
2925:
2921:
2917:
2913:
2912:Septal nuclei
2910:
2909:
2906:
2902:
2899:
2898:
2896:
2894:
2893:Acetylcholine
2890:
2886:
2879:
2874:
2872:
2867:
2865:
2860:
2859:
2856:
2844:
2836:
2835:
2832:
2826:
2823:
2819:
2816:
2815:
2814:
2811:
2807:
2804:
2803:
2802:
2799:
2797:
2794:
2792:
2789:
2787:
2784:
2782:
2779:
2777:
2774:
2772:
2769:
2768:
2766:
2762:
2752:
2749:
2747:
2744:
2742:
2739:
2737:
2734:
2732:
2729:
2727:
2724:
2722:
2719:
2717:
2714:
2710:
2707:
2706:
2705:
2704:Drug checking
2702:
2700:
2697:
2696:
2694:
2692:
2688:
2682:
2679:
2677:
2674:
2673:
2671:
2667:
2661:
2658:
2654:
2651:
2649:
2646:
2645:
2644:
2641:
2639:
2636:
2634:
2631:
2629:
2626:
2622:
2619:
2618:
2617:
2614:
2613:
2611:
2605:
2599:
2596:
2594:
2591:
2589:
2586:
2584:
2581:
2579:
2576:
2572:
2569:
2567:
2564:
2563:
2562:
2559:
2558:
2556:
2550:
2544:
2541:
2539:
2536:
2535:
2533:
2529:
2526:
2524:
2516:
2504:
2501:
2500:
2498:
2494:
2491:
2489:
2486:
2484:
2481:
2479:
2476:
2474:
2471:
2469:
2466:
2464:
2461:
2459:
2456:
2454:
2451:
2450:
2448:
2447:
2445:
2441:
2435:
2432:
2430:
2427:
2425:
2422:
2420:
2417:
2416:
2414:
2410:
2407:
2405:
2401:
2388:
2386:
2383:
2381:
2378:
2376:
2373:
2371:
2368:
2366:
2363:
2361:
2358:
2356:
2355:
2351:
2349:
2348:
2344:
2342:
2341:
2337:
2335:
2332:
2330:
2329:
2325:
2324:
2323:
2320:
2319:
2314:
2311:
2309:
2306:
2304:
2301:
2299:
2296:
2294:
2291:
2289:
2288:
2284:
2283:
2282:
2279:
2278:
2276:
2270:
2264:
2261:
2259:
2256:
2252:
2249:
2247:
2244:
2243:
2241:
2237:
2234:
2232:
2229:
2228:
2226:
2224:
2221:
2217:
2214:
2212:
2209:
2208:
2206:
2205:
2203:
2201:
2197:
2191:
2188:
2186:
2183:
2181:
2178:
2176:
2173:
2171:
2168:
2166:
2163:
2161:
2158:
2157:
2155:
2151:
2148:
2146:
2142:
2138:
2134:
2130:
2129:Reinforcement
2123:
2118:
2116:
2111:
2109:
2104:
2103:
2100:
2093:
2077:
2073:
2067:
2064:
2059:
2055:
2050:
2045:
2041:
2037:
2033:
2029:
2025:
2021:
2017:
2010:
2007:
2002:
1998:
1993:
1988:
1984:
1980:
1976:
1972:
1968:
1964:
1960:
1953:
1950:
1944:
1941:
1936:
1932:
1927:
1922:
1918:
1914:
1910:
1906:
1902:
1895:
1892:
1887:
1881:
1873:
1869:
1865:
1861:
1857:
1853:
1849:
1845:
1838:
1836:
1832:
1827:
1823:
1818:
1813:
1809:
1805:
1801:
1797:
1793:
1786:
1783:
1778:
1774:
1769:
1764:
1760:
1756:
1752:
1748:
1744:
1740:
1736:
1729:
1726:
1721:
1717:
1713:
1709:
1705:
1701:
1697:
1693:
1686:
1683:
1678:
1674:
1669:
1664:
1660:
1656:
1652:
1648:
1644:
1640:
1636:
1629:
1626:
1621:
1614:
1612:
1608:
1603:
1602:
1594:
1591:
1586:
1582:
1577:
1572:
1568:
1564:
1560:
1556:
1552:
1545:
1542:
1538:
1533:
1529:
1524:
1519:
1515:
1511:
1507:
1503:
1499:
1492:
1489:
1485:
1481:
1477:
1472:
1467:
1463:
1459:
1455:
1451:
1447:
1440:
1437:
1432:
1428:
1423:
1418:
1414:
1410:
1406:
1402:
1398:
1391:
1388:
1384:
1379:
1375:
1370:
1365:
1361:
1357:
1353:
1349:
1345:
1338:
1335:
1330:
1326:
1321:
1316:
1312:
1308:
1304:
1300:
1296:
1289:
1286:
1281:
1277:
1273:
1269:
1265:
1261:
1257:
1253:
1249:
1245:
1238:
1235:
1230:
1226:
1221:
1216:
1212:
1208:
1204:
1200:
1196:
1192:
1188:
1181:
1178:
1174:
1169:
1167:9780071481274
1163:
1159:
1152:
1149:
1143:
1140:
1135:
1131:
1127:
1123:
1120:(8): 919–27.
1119:
1115:
1114:
1106:
1103:
1098:
1094:
1090:
1086:
1082:
1078:
1075:(2): 215–38.
1074:
1070:
1063:
1061:
1059:
1055:
1050:
1046:
1042:
1038:
1034:
1030:
1027:(4): 629–39.
1026:
1022:
1015:
1012:
1009:
1005:
1000:
996:
991:
986:
982:
978:
975:(2): 129–50.
974:
970:
966:
959:
957:
953:
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639:(2): 129–50.
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595:10.1186/gm213
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412:NMDA Receptor
410:
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407:Phencyclidine
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335:NMDA Receptor
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164:glutamatergic
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134:
131:(VTA) to the
130:
126:
119:
114:
107:
105:
103:
99:
95:
94:reinforcement
91:
87:
82:
80:
76:
72:
68:
67:basal ganglia
64:
60:
56:
52:
48:
44:
40:
33:
32:reward system
27:Brain pathway
19:
3189:
3065:Raphe nuclei
2976:
2352:
2345:
2338:
2326:
2285:
2227:Sex-related
2080:. Retrieved
2078:. 1 May 2018
2075:
2066:
2023:
2019:
2009:
1966:
1962:
1952:
1943:
1908:
1904:
1894:
1880:cite journal
1850:(1): 75–93.
1847:
1843:
1799:
1795:
1785:
1742:
1738:
1728:
1698:(1): 69–76.
1695:
1691:
1685:
1642:
1638:
1628:
1619:
1600:
1593:
1558:
1554:
1544:
1535:
1508:(1): 38–55.
1505:
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1404:
1400:
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1381:
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1024:
1021:Neuroscience
1020:
1014:
1002:
972:
968:
920:
916:
906:
897:
870:(1): 38–55.
867:
863:
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737:
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717:
702:
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585:
581:
461:
448:
352:Cannabinoids
267:
259:neurobiology
249:
234:motivational
231:
224:
153:
122:
83:
42:
38:
36:
2924:Hippocampus
2552:Behavioral
2463:Barbiturate
2458:Amphetamine
2236:Pornography
2231:Intercourse
2165:Amphetamine
2131:disorders:
2026:: 734–740.
1802:: 276–286.
438:amphetamine
287:amphetamine
203:hippocampus
139:(NAcc) and
3196:Categories
2776:Allen Carr
2616:Drug rehab
2607:Treatment
2523:management
2519:Treatment
2453:Alcoholism
2434:Withdrawal
2404:Dependence
2322:Epigenetic
2274:mechanisms
2207:Financial
2200:Behavioral
2137:dependence
588:(12): 92.
582:Genome Med
561:References
535:Withdrawal
468:depression
451:extinction
424:Stimulants
195:NAcc shell
3207:Addiction
3157:Glutamate
3098:Aspartate
2905:Neocortex
2554:therapies
2443:Disorders
2145:Addiction
2133:addiction
2040:2213-1582
1983:1353-8020
1759:0896-6273
1712:1471-4892
1659:1067-3229
1264:0301-0082
1211:1570-159X
530:Tolerance
362:Marijuana
316:Examples
263:addiction
199:NAcc core
160:GABAergic
102:addiction
71:forebrain
3212:Dopamine
3165:Thalamus
2931:Striatum
2843:Category
2764:See also
2609:programs
2488:Nicotine
2478:Cannabis
2473:Caffeine
2412:Concepts
2272:Cellular
2216:Shopping
2211:Gambling
2185:Nicotine
2058:28409113
2001:25817514
1935:17519393
1872:45462508
1864:18304718
1826:23639436
1777:21338877
1720:17174602
1677:15764467
1585:21459101
1532:22641964
1480:21989194
1431:23375169
1378:25950633
1329:23141060
1280:36091832
1272:15582224
1229:19587853
1134:16764827
1097:39886286
1089:16099045
1049:33615497
1041:11720786
999:20149820
947:21459101
894:22641964
842:21989194
789:25950633
663:20149820
614:21205279
514:See also
396:Morphine
369:Nicotine
331:Receptor
278:nicotine
221:Function
207:amygdala
177:and the
156:midbrain
125:dopamine
98:pleasure
77:and the
59:midbrain
3139:Glycine
3008:putamen
2483:Cocaine
2170:Cocaine
2160:Alcohol
2049:5379906
1992:4424152
1926:2632330
1817:3762905
1768:4046255
1668:1920543
1576:3139704
1523:4040958
1471:3272277
1422:3644539
1369:4425246
1320:4450094
1220:2701285
990:2894302
938:3139704
885:4040958
833:3272277
780:4425246
654:2894302
605:3025434
434:Cocaine
386:Opiates
379:Tobacco
322:Alcohol
313:Target
301:(THC).
274:alcohol
270:cocaine
252:D1-type
173:in the
167:neurons
108:Anatomy
69:in the
65:of the
61:to the
57:in the
49:in the
45:, is a
2920:Fornix
2493:Opioid
2449:Drugs
2375:HDAC10
2190:Opioid
2082:10 May
2056:
2046:
2038:
1999:
1989:
1981:
1933:
1923:
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1862:
1824:
1814:
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1739:Neuron
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1710:
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1657:
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787:
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759:Neuron
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661:
651:
612:
602:
550:Abulia
545:Apathy
470:, and
400:heroin
276:, and
209:, and
162:, and
2385:SIRT2
2380:SIRT1
2370:HDAC9
2365:HDAC5
2360:HDAC4
2354:HDAC3
2347:HDAC2
2340:HDAC1
2313:NF-κB
2308:GluR2
2293:c-Fos
2287:ΔFosB
1868:S2CID
1276:S2CID
1093:S2CID
1045:S2CID
310:Type
51:brain
3116:GABA
3006:and
2987:and
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2521:and
2303:CREB
2298:Cdk5
2153:Drug
2135:and
2084:2019
2054:PMID
2036:ISSN
1997:PMID
1979:ISSN
1931:PMID
1886:link
1860:PMID
1822:PMID
1773:PMID
1755:ISSN
1716:PMID
1708:ISSN
1673:PMID
1655:ISSN
1581:PMID
1528:PMID
1476:PMID
1427:PMID
1374:PMID
1325:PMID
1268:PMID
1260:ISSN
1225:PMID
1207:ISSN
1162:ISBN
1130:PMID
1085:PMID
1037:PMID
995:PMID
943:PMID
890:PMID
838:PMID
785:PMID
728:ISBN
693:ISBN
659:PMID
610:PMID
344:wine
340:Beer
327:GABA
197:and
37:The
2389:...
2328:G9a
2044:PMC
2028:doi
1987:PMC
1971:doi
1921:PMC
1913:doi
1852:doi
1812:PMC
1804:doi
1763:PMC
1747:doi
1700:doi
1663:PMC
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1571:PMC
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1466:PMC
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1199:doi
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880:PMC
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649:PMC
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600:PMC
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