784:. The dopaminergic neurons in this circuit increase the magnitude of phasic firing in response to positive reward error, that is when the reward exceeds the expected reward. These neurons do not decrease phasic firing during a negative reward prediction (less reward than expected), leading to hypothesis that serotonergic, rather than dopaminergic neurons encode reward loss. Dopamine phasic activity also increases during cues that signal negative events, however dopaminergic neuron stimulation still induces place preference, indicating its main role in evaluating a positive stimulus. From these findings, two hypotheses have developed, as to the role of the basal ganglia and nigrostriatal dopamine circuits in action selection. The first model suggests a "critic" which encodes value, and an actor which encodes responses to stimuli based on perceived value. However, the second model proposes that the actions do not originate in the basal ganglia, and instead originate in the cortex and are selected by the basal ganglia. This model proposes that the direct pathway controls appropriate behavior and the indirect suppresses actions not suitable for the situation. This model proposes that tonic dopaminergic firing increases the activity of the direct pathway, causing a bias towards executing actions faster.
1496:
cingulate cortex. VTA DA neurons play a critical role in motivation, reward-related behavior, attention, and multiple forms of memory. ... Thus, acting in diverse terminal fields, dopamine confers motivational salience ("wanting") on the reward itself or associated cues (nucleus accumbens shell region), updates the value placed on different goals in light of this new experience (orbital prefrontal cortex), helps consolidate multiple forms of memory (amygdala and hippocampus), and encodes new motor programs that will facilitate obtaining this reward in the future (nucleus accumbens core region and dorsal striatum). ... DA has multiple actions in the prefrontal cortex. It promotes the "cognitive control" of behavior: the selection and successful monitoring of behavior to facilitate attainment of chosen goals. Aspects of cognitive control in which DA plays a role include working memory, the ability to hold information "on line" in order to guide actions, suppression of prepotent behaviors that compete with goal-directed actions, and control of attention and thus the ability to overcome distractions. ... Noradrenergic projections from the LC thus interact with dopaminergic projections from the VTA to regulate cognitive control.
3312:
CB1-HcrtR1 heteromer compared with the HcrtR1-HcrtR1 homomer was reported (Ward et al., 2011b). These data provide unambiguous identification of CB1-HcrtR1 heteromerization, which has a substantial functional impact. ... The existence of a cross-talk between the hypocretinergic and endocannabinoid systems is strongly supported by their partially overlapping anatomical distribution and common role in several physiological and pathological processes. However, little is known about the mechanisms underlying this interaction. ... Acting as a retrograde messenger, endocannabinoids modulate the glutamatergic excitatory and GABAergic inhibitory synaptic inputs into the dopaminergic neurons of the VTA and the glutamate transmission in the NAc. Thus, the activation of CB1 receptors present on axon terminals of GABAergic neurons in the VTA inhibits GABA transmission, removing this inhibitory input on dopaminergic neurons (Riegel and Lupica, 2004). Glutamate synaptic transmission in the VTA and NAc, mainly from neurons of the PFC, is similarly modulated by the activation of CB1 receptors (Melis et al., 2004).
1875:
conceptualized as a disorder of executive function; specifically, ADHD is characterized by reduced ability to exert and maintain cognitive control of behavior. Compared with healthy individuals, those with ADHD have diminished ability to suppress inappropriate prepotent responses to stimuli (impaired response inhibition) and diminished ability to inhibit responses to irrelevant stimuli (impaired interference suppression). ... Functional neuroimaging in humans demonstrates activation of the prefrontal cortex and caudate nucleus (part of the striatum) in tasks that demand inhibitory control of behavior. ... Early results with structural MRI show thinning of the cerebral cortex in ADHD subjects compared with age-matched controls in prefrontal cortex and posterior parietal cortex, areas involved in working memory and attention.
748:. This neural circuit plays a pivotal role in the regulation of hormonal balance and, specifically, in modulating the secretion of prolactin from the pituitary gland, which is responsible for breast milk production in females. Hyperprolactinemia is an associated condition caused by an excessive amount of prolactin production that is common in pregnant women. After childbirth, the tuberoinfundibular pathway resumes its role in regulating prolactin levels. The decline in estrogen levels postpartum contributes to the restoration of dopaminergic inhibition, preventing sustained hyperprolactinemia in non-pregnant and non-nursing individuals.
668:, planning, etc.) This intricate neural circuit serves as a crucial communication route within the brain, facilitating the transmission of dopamine, a neurotransmitter associated with reward, motivation, and cognitive control. The prefrontal cortex, being a central hub for executive functions, relies on the input from the mesocortical pathway to modulate and fine-tune cognitive processes essential for goal-directed behavior and decision-making. Dysregulation of the neurons in this pathway has been connected to ADHD.
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692:, reinforcement learning, fear and other cognitive processes. In animal studies, depletion of dopamine in this pathway, or lesions at its site of origin, decrease the extent to which an animal is willing to go to obtain a reward (e.g., the number of lever presses for nicotine or time searching for food). Research is ongoing to determine the role of the mesolimbic pathway in the perception of pleasure.
3421:
heterodi-/oligomeric complexes. However, it is unclear whether this affects their signaling. As orexin receptors efficiently signal via endocannabinoid production to CB1 receptors, dimerization could be an effective way of forming signal complexes with optimal cannabinoid concentrations available for cannabinoid receptors.
720:
Syndrome. Huntington's disease, Parkinson's disease, and
Tourette's Syndrome are conditions affected by motor functioning while schizophrenia and ADHD are affected by reward and motivation functioning. This pathway also regulates associated learning such as classical conditioning and operant conditioning.
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activation increases dopamine release. GABAergic inputs from the striatum decrease dopaminergic neuronal activity, and glutaminergic inputs from many cortical and subcortical areas increase the firing rate of dopaminergic neurons. Endocannabinoids also appear to have a modulatory effect on dopamine
1449:
Recent studies on intracranial self-administration of neurochemicals (drugs) found that rats learn to self-administer various drugs into the mesolimbic dopamine structuresβthe posterior ventral tegmental area, medial shell nucleus accumbens and medial olfactory tubercle. ... In the 1970s it was
1237:
Endocannabinoids signal between neurons through retrograde neurotransmission at synapses; consequently, the dopaminergic neurons that project out of the VTA and SNc release endocannabinoids from their dendrites onto the axon terminals of their inhibitory GABAergic and excitatory glutamatergic inputs
623:
pathways. Both pathways originate at the ventral tegmental area (VTA) which is located in the midbrain. Through separate connections to the prefrontal cortex (mesocortical) and ventral striatum (mesolimbic), the mesocorticolimbic projection has a significant role in learning, motivation, reward,
2273:
To summarize: the emerging realization that many diverse pleasures share overlapping brain substrates; better neuroimaging maps for encoding human pleasure in orbitofrontal cortex; identification of hotspots and separable brain mechanisms for generating 'liking' and 'wanting' for the same reward;
1524:
Relationship of the hypothalamus and the pituitary gland. The anterior pituitary, or adenohypophysis, receives rich blood flow from the capillaries of the portal hypophyseal system. This system delivers factors released by hypothalamic neurons into portal capillaries at the median eminence. The
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Neurons from the SNc densely innervate the dorsal striatum where they play a critical role in the learning and execution of motor programs. Neurons from the VTA innervate the ventral striatum (nucleus accumbens), olfactory bulb, amygdala, hippocampus, orbital and medial prefrontal cortex, and
1871:
These diverse inputs and back projections to both cortical and subcortical structures put the prefrontal cortex in a position to exert what is often called "top-down" control or cognitive control of behavior. ... The prefrontal cortex receives inputs not only from other cortical regions,
719:
particularly plays a role in reward and motivation while movement is influenced by the transmission of dopaminergic neurons to the substantia nigra. The nigrostriatal pathway is associated with conditions such as
Huntington's disease, Parkinson's disease, ADHD, Schizophrenia, and Tourette's
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Direct CB1-HcrtR1 interaction was first proposed in 2003 (Hilairet et al., 2003). Indeed, a 100-fold increase in the potency of hypocretin-1 to activate the ERK signaling was observed when CB1 and HcrtR1 were co-expressed ... In this study, a higher potency of hypocretin-1 to regulate
1874:
In conditions in which prepotent responses tend to dominate behavior, such as in drug addiction, where drug cues can elicit drug seeking (Chapter 15), or in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD; described below), significant negative consequences can result. ... ADHD can be
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Orexin receptor subtypes readily formed homo- and hetero(di)mers, as suggested by significant BRET signals. CB1 receptors formed homodimers, and they also heterodimerized with both orexin receptors. ... In conclusion, orexin receptors have a significant propensity to make homo- and
1450:
recognized that the olfactory tubercle contains a striatal component, which is filled with GABAergic medium spiny neurons receiving glutamatergic inputs form cortical regions and dopaminergic inputs from the VTA and projecting to the ventral pallidum just like the nucleus accumbens
2274:
identification of larger keyboard patterns of generators for desire and dread within NAc, with multiple modes of function; and the realization that dopamine and most 'pleasure electrode' candidates for brain hedonic generators probably did not cause much pleasure after all.
815:
is hypothesized to be a result of excessive inhibitory pathway activity, which explains the slow movement and cognitive deficits, while
Tourettes is proposed to be a result of excessive excitatory activity resulting in the tics characteristic of Tourettes.
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The tuberoinfundibular pathway not only regulates hormonal balance but also influences locomotor networks in the brainstem and spinal cord. Modulating motor control and coordination, showcasing the interconnected nature of neural circuits in the brain.
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Thus, it is conceivable that low levels of CB1 receptors are located on glutamatergic and GABAergic terminals impinging on DA neurons , where they can fine-tune the release of inhibitory and excitatory neurotransmitter and regulate DA neuron
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including association cortex, but also, via the thalamus, inputs from subcortical structures subserving emotion and motivation, such as the amygdala (Chapter 14) and ventral striatum (or nucleus accumbens; Chapter 15). ...
2669:
Russell, John A.; Douglas, Alison J.; Ingram, Colin D. (2001). "Chapter 1 Brain preparations for maternity β adaptive changes in behavioral and neuroendocrine systems during pregnancy and lactation. An overview".
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Attaar A, Curran M, Meyenburg L, Bottner R, Johnston C, Roberts Mason K (2021-08-01). "Perioperative pain management and outcomes in patients who -discontinued or continued pre-existing buprenorphine therapy".
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The mesocorticolimbic pathway originates through the VTA and passes through the amygdala, nucleus accumbens, and hippocampus. These functions are relative to memory, emotional regulation, motivation, and
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It has been shown that electrical stimulation of LC results in an excitation followed by a brief inhibition of midbrain dopamine (DA) neurons through an Ξ±1 receptor dependent mechanism (Grenhoff et al.,
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Consistently, in vitro electrophysiological experiments from independent laboratories have provided evidence of CB1 receptor localization on glutamatergic and GABAergic axon terminals in the VTA and SNc.
144:
of dopamine neurons. Dopamine is stored in the cytoplasm and vesicles in axon terminals. Dopamine release from vesicles is triggered by action potential propagation-induced membrane depolarization. The
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memory and movement. Dopamine receptor subtypes, D1 and D2 have been shown to have complementary functions in the mesocorticolimbic projection, facilitating learning in response to both positive and
3394:
JΓ€ntti MH, Mandrika I, Kukkonen JP (March 2014). "Human orexin/hypocretin receptors form constitutive homo- and heteromeric complexes with each other and with human CB1 cannabinoid receptors".
1869: • Working memory is a short-term, capacity-limited cognitive buffer that stores information and permits its manipulation to guide decision-making and behavior. ...
3205:"New perspectives on catecholaminergic regulation of executive circuits: evidence for independent modulation of prefrontal functions by midbrain dopaminergic and noradrenergic neurons"
1867: • Executive function, the cognitive control of behavior, depends on the prefrontal cortex, which is highly developed in higher primates and especially humans.
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Adell A, Bortolozzi A, DΓaz-Mataix L, Santana N, Celada P, Artigas F (January 2010). "Serotonin interaction with other transmitter systems.". In Muller CP, Jacobs B (eds.).
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1235:, the dendrites of the postsynaptic neuron release neurotransmitters that signal through receptors that are located on the axon terminal of the presynaptic neuron.
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772:. The nigrostriatal component of the loop consists of the SNc, giving rise to both inhibitory and excitatory pathways that run from the striatum into the
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Malenka RC, Nestler EJ, Hyman SE (2009). "Chapter 6: Widely
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684:). When a reward is anticipated, the firing rate of dopamine neurons in the mesolimbic pathway increases. The mesolimbic pathway is involved with
92:. The mesolimbic pathway and the mesocortical pathway form the mesocorticolimbic system. Two other dopaminergic pathways to be considered are the
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Malenka RC, Nestler EJ, Hyman SE (2009). "Chapter 10: Neural and
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elicit a decrease in activity. The mesolimbic pathway, which projects from the VTA to the nucleus accumbens, is also regulated by
295:. The "meso" prefix in "mesocortical" refers to the VTA, which is located in the midbrain, and "cortical" refers to the cortex.
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figure shows one such projection, from the tuberal (arcuate) nuclei via the tuberoinfundibular tract to the median eminence.
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768:(i.e., the nigrostriatal and mesolimbic pathways, respectively) form one component of a sequence of pathways known as the
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have excitatory and inhibitory effects on the dopaminergic neurons that project out of the VTA and SNc. The excitatory
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The nigrostriatal pathway transmits dopaminergic neurons from the zona compacta of the substantia nigra to the
1706:"Potential substrates for nicotine and alcohol interactions: a focus on the mesocorticolimbic dopamine system"
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is involved in behaviors relating to movement and motivation. The transmission of dopaminergic neurons to the
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Aston-Jones G, Smith RJ, Sartor GC, Moorman DE, Massi L, Tahsili-Fahadan P, Richardson KA (February 2010).
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Figure 1: Schematic of brain CB1 expression and orexinergic neurons expressing OX1 (HcrtR1) or OX2 (HcrtR2)
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receptor agonists eliciting an increase in firing rate, and higher doses suppressing activity. The
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in the word "mesolimbic" refers to the midbrain, or "middle brain", since "meso" means "middle" in
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2906:"Abnormally high degree connectivity of the orbitofrontal cortex in obsessive-compulsive disorder"
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The tuberoinfundibular pathway transmits dopamine the hypothalamus to the pituitary gland.
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is located in the midbrain, while both the caudate nucleus and putamen are located in the
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inputs, cholinergic inputs, and inputs from other monoaminergic nuclei. The VTA contains
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The nigrostriatal pathway is involved in behaviors relating to movement and motivation.
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3271:"Cannabinoid-hypocretin cross-talk in the central nervous system: what we know so far"
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Inputs to the ventral tegmental area (VTA) and substantia nigra pars compacta (SNc)
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2857:"From reinforcement learning models to psychiatric and neurological disorders"
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Inhibitory effect on dopaminergic neurons from inhibiting glutamatergic inputs
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These models of the basal ganglia are thought to be relevant to the study of
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The dopamine neurons of the dopaminergic pathways synthesize and release the
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are required for dopamine synthesis. These enzymes are both produced in the
122:(RLS) can be attributed to dysfunction in specific dopaminergic pathways.
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Excitatory effect on dopaminergic neurons from inhibiting GABAergic inputs
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of dopamine neurons extend the entire length of their designated pathway.
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Figure 2: Synaptic signaling mechanisms in cannabinoid and orexin systems
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Increases both tonic and phasic firing of dopaminergic neurons in the VTA
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projects from the ventral tegmental area to the ventral striatum (VTA β
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2288:"Neuroscience of affect: brain mechanisms of pleasure and displeasure"
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are involved in both physiological and behavioral processes including
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Figure 3: The ventral striatum and self-administration of amphetamine
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432:"Infundibular" in the word "tuberoinfundibular" refers to the cup or
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2012:
628:. Both pathways of the mesocorticolimbic system are associated with
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influences the hypothalamus and locomotor centers in the brainstem.
16:
Projection neurons in the brain that synthesize and release dopamine
1853:
Molecular Neuropharmacology: A Foundation for Clinical Neuroscience
1510:
Molecular Neuropharmacology: A Foundation for Clinical Neuroscience
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Molecular Neuropharmacology: A Foundation for Clinical Neuroscience
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projects from the ventral tegmental area to the prefrontal cortex (
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Excitatory effect on dopaminergic neurons via signaling through
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The mesocortical pathway transmits dopamine from the VTA to the
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1223:, neurotransmitters are normally released from the presynaptic
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receive inputs from other neurotransmitters systems, including
660:). This pathway is involved in cognition and the regulation of
2998:. Vol. 21. London: Academic. pp. 259-276 (262β264).
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Figure 3: Schematic of brain pathways involved in food intake
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release from neurons that project out of the VTA and SNc.
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expressed on dopaminergic neurons increase activity, while
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The tuberoinfundibular pathway transmits dopamine from the
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Handbook of Neurochemistry and Molecular Neurobiology
1342:
Psychopharmacology: the fourth generation of progress
1238:
to inhibit their effects on dopamine neuronal firing.
1227:
and signal through receptors that are located on the
3730:
3712:
3689:
3671:
3662:
3630:
3607:
3527:
3514:
3466:
3396:
Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications
2433:Balleine BW, Delgado MR, Hikosaka O (August 2007).
196:The mesolimbic pathway transmits dopamine from the
162:Six of the dopaminergic pathways are listed below.
73:, consisting of individual dopaminergic neurons.
2945:Maia TV, Cooney RE, Peterson BS (1 January 2008).
1887:
1885:
1883:
776:, before carrying on to the thalamus, or into the
1135:Modulatory effect, depending on receptor subtype
3146:
3144:
3142:
3140:
3138:
3136:
3134:
1601:
1599:
1066:Modulatory effect, depending on receptor subtype
1040:Modulatory effect, depending on receptor subtype
756:The dopaminergic pathways that project from the
3337:
3335:
2850:
2848:
1258:Alcaro A, Huber R, Panksepp J (December 2007).
421:This pathway controls the secretion of certain
2593:Learning and Memory: A Comprehensive Reference
1474:
1472:
1470:
1468:
1466:
1464:
1462:
1368:
1366:
3444:
1377:. Boston, MA: Springer US. pp. 149β170.
1068:The excitatory and inhibitory effects of the
438:, out of which the pituitary gland develops.
76:The four major dopaminergic pathways are the
8:
2046:"The mesoneocortical dopamine neuron system"
1334:
1332:
1019:Inhibitory projections into the VTA and SNc
990:Excitatory projections into the VTA and SNc
3203:Chandler DJ, Waterhouse BD, Gao WJ (2014).
2091:Floresco, Stan B.; Magyar, Orsolya (2006).
770:cortico-basal ganglia-thalamo-cortical loop
752:Cortico-basal ganglia-thalamo-cortical loop
3668:
3524:
3451:
3437:
3429:
2369:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
1042:Produces a biphasic effect on VTA neurons
3367:
3296:
3286:
3230:
3220:
3176:
3151:Morikawa H, Paladini CA (December 2011).
3108:
3054:
3044:
2970:
2921:
2880:
2789:
2740:
2730:
2566:
2556:
2507:
2458:
2409:
2311:
2286:Berridge KC, Kringelbach ML (June 2013).
2258:
2166:
2020:
1971:
1961:
1917:
1827:
1778:
1755:"Mesocorticolimbic glutamatergic pathway"
1729:
1672:
1434:
1283:
2384:Berridge KC, Kringelbach ML (May 2015).
2233:Berridge KC, Kringelbach ML (May 2015).
1892:Engert V, Pruessner JC (December 2008).
1231:of the postsynaptic neuron; however, in
911:
245:("liking") response from certain stimuli
164:
108:attention deficit hyperactivity disorder
2141:Salamone JD, Correa M (November 2012).
1995:Robison AJ, Nestler EJ (October 2011).
1250:
1209:
1172:May interact with endocannabinoids via
1069:
2713:Taylor SB, Lewis CR, Olive MF (2013).
2362:
1415:Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews
1072:on the VTA and SNc are time-dependent
23:The main dopaminergic pathways of the
2136:
2134:
1939:
1937:
1608:Neurobiology of Psychiatric Disorders
501:visceral and sensorimotor activities.
167:
7:
2488:Journal of Experimental Neuroscience
2482:Mishra A, Singh S, Shukla S (2018).
1661:The European Journal of Neuroscience
1570:Habibi M (2017). "Acetylcholine β".
1314:. University of Utah. Archived from
886:muscarinic acetylcholine receptor M1
882:muscarinic acetylcholine receptor M4
878:muscarinic acetylcholine receptor M2
876:. In particular, the activation of
3083:Melis M, Pistis M (December 2007).
2996:Handbook of Behavioral Neuroscience
2855:Maia TV, Frank MJ (February 2011).
901:inputs to the VTA originate in the
676:Referred to as the reward pathway,
3169:10.1016/j.neuroscience.2011.08.023
2782:10.1016/j.neuroscience.2015.06.033
2719:Substance Abuse and Rehabilitation
2602:10.1016/b978-0-12-809324-5.21101-2
1616:10.1016/b978-0-444-52002-9.00039-5
1580:10.1016/b978-0-12-809324-5.00464-8
1547:10.1016/b978-0-12-803592-4.00001-8
874:muscarinic acetylcholine receptors
664:(e.g., attention, working memory,
14:
1276:10.1016/j.brainresrev.2007.07.014
884:inhibits dopamine release, while
848:that exert a biphasic effects on
444:regulation of prolactin secretion
2813:Roberts, Angela C. (June 2011).
1674:10.1111/j.1460-9568.2004.03629.x
3775:Central nervous system pathways
2951:Development and Psychopathology
2923:10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2013.173
2386:"Pleasure systems in the brain"
2292:Current Opinion in Neurobiology
2235:"Pleasure systems in the brain"
2204:10.1016/j.pneurobio.2004.09.004
1427:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2010.02.001
200:(VTA), which is located in the
3704:Rostromedial tegmental nucleus
3575:Substantia nigra pars compacta
3360:10.1016/j.brainres.2009.09.106
2831:10.1016/j.biopsych.2010.12.037
2596:. Elsevier. pp. 523β538.
2451:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.1554-07.2007
1771:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.1598-11.2011
1098:May interact with orexins via
1005:rostromedial tegmental nucleus
954:laterodorsal tegmental nucleus
905:and may regulate the baseline
830:substantia nigra pars compacta
758:substantia nigra pars compacta
1:
2682:10.1016/S0079-6123(01)33002-9
1129:laterodorsal tegmental nuclei
909:of VTA dopaminergic neurons.
3209:Frontiers in Neural Circuits
2628:Journal of Opioid Management
2558:10.1371/journal.pone.0161567
2402:10.1016/j.neuron.2015.02.018
2251:10.1016/j.neuron.2015.02.018
2159:10.1016/j.neuron.2012.10.021
2001:Nature Reviews. Neuroscience
1539:Hormones, Brain and Behavior
1233:retrograde neurotransmission
1183:to regulate neuronal firing
1109:to regulate neuronal firing
740:transmits dopamine from the
429:, from the pituitary gland.
2439:The Journal of Neuroscience
1944:Dreyer JL (December 2010).
1759:The Journal of Neuroscience
1541:. Elsevier. pp. 1β57.
1409:Ikemoto S (November 2010).
1383:10.1007/978-0-387-30382-6_7
1308:"Beyond the Reward Pathway"
488:Incertohypothalamic pathway
98:incertohypothalamic pathway
69:. Each pathway is a set of
3798:
3645:Anterior raphespinal tract
3590:Tuberoinfundibular pathway
3476:Nucleus basalis of Meynert
3408:10.1016/j.bbrc.2014.02.026
3101:10.2174/157015907782793612
2304:10.1016/j.conb.2013.01.017
1910:10.2174/157015908787386069
1061:other noradrenergic nuclei
738:tuberoinfundibular pathway
732:Tuberoinfundibular pathway
407:Tuberoinfundibular pathway
256:aversion-related cognition
208:, which includes both the
90:tuberoinfundibular pathway
3650:Lateral raphespinal tract
3275:Frontiers in Neuroscience
3089:Current Neuropharmacology
2963:10.1017/S0954579408000606
2127:– via SpringerLink.
2109:10.1007/s00213-006-0404-5
1898:Current Neuropharmacology
1820:10.1038/s41386-019-0454-0
1722:10.1016/j.bcp.2013.07.007
1345:. New York: Raven Press.
1141:
1115:
1078:
1048:
1025:
996:
935:
928:
925:
922:
917:
893:inputs deriving from the
613:mesocorticolimbic circuit
486:
459:
405:
327:
181:
176:
173:
170:
3460:Neurotransmitter systems
3288:10.3389/fnins.2013.00256
3222:10.3389/fncir.2014.00053
2500:10.1177/1179069518779829
2192:Progress in Neurobiology
1710:Biochemical Pharmacology
1198:Dopaminergic cell groups
1124:pedunculopontine nucleus
944:pedunculopontine nucleus
852:, with low doses of 5-HT
780:before heading into the
609:mesocorticolimbic system
594:Mesocorticolimbic system
558:(mesoamygdaloid pathway)
398:Parkinson's disease
39:dopaminergic projections
3622:Lateral tegmental field
3046:10.1073/pnas.1508846112
1808:Neuropsychopharmacology
461:Hypothalamospinal tract
112:substance use disorders
94:hypothalamospinal tract
3556:Ventral tegmental area
3541:Ventral tegmental area
2062:10.1212/WNL.40.11.1660
2044:Keyser, J. De (1990).
1264:Brain Research Reviews
1014:local GABAergic inputs
826:ventral tegmental area
762:ventral tegmental area
728:
700:
604:
492:This pathway from the
479:restless legs syndrome
250:positive reinforcement
198:ventral tegmental area
120:restless legs syndrome
67:neuroendocrine control
27:
3596:) β Pituitary gland (
3571:Nigrostriatal pathway
3529:Dopaminergic pathways
3491:Medial septal nucleus
2819:Biological Psychiatry
2702:– via Elsevier.
2640:10.5055/jom.2021.0640
1181:receptor heterodimers
1107:receptor heterodimers
726:
713:nigrostriatal pathway
707:Nigrostriatal pathway
698:
615:) refers to both the
601:
329:Nigrostriatal pathway
177:Associated disorders
174:Associated processes
86:nigrostriatal pathway
31:Dopaminergic pathways
22:
3594:Infundibular nucleus
3537:Mesocortical pathway
2494:: 1179069518779829.
1150:lateral hypothalamus
1089:SNc dopamine neurons
1086:VTA dopamine neurons
969:lateral hypothalamus
903:lateral hypothalamus
650:mesocortical pathway
644:Mesocortical pathway
538:Incertohypothalamic
385:Huntington's disease
367:associative learning
134:tyrosine hydroxylase
82:mesocortical pathway
3745:Subthalamic nucleus
3545:Prefrontal cortices
3037:2015PNAS..112.8124S
2861:Nature Neuroscience
2549:2016PLoSO..1161567M
2335:Nestler EJ (2020).
1359:on 5 February 2018.
979:periaqueductal gray
964:superior colliculus
949:subthalamic nucleus
926:Type of Connection
914:
813:Parkinson's disease
801:Parkinson's disease
778:subthalamic nucleus
662:executive functions
583:Subthalamic nucleus
452:hyperprolactinaemia
394:Tourette's Syndrome
301:executive functions
232:-related cognition
104:Parkinson's disease
55:executive functions
3632:Serotonin pathways
3564:olfactory tubercle
3552:Mesolimbic pathway
3326: •
3321: •
3316: •
2732:10.2147/SAR.S39684
2673:The Maternal Brain
2097:Psychopharmacology
912:
729:
701:
686:incentive salience
678:mesolimbic pathway
672:Mesolimbic pathway
666:inhibitory control
605:
524:Hypothalamospinal
363:-related cognition
236:incentive salience
214:olfactory tubercle
138:dopa decarboxylase
78:mesolimbic pathway
71:projection neurons
28:
3762:
3761:
3758:
3757:
3658:
3657:
3560:Nucleus accumbens
3005:978-0-12-374634-4
2825:(12): 1185β1191.
2691:978-0-444-50548-4
2445:(31): 8161β8165.
2348:978-1-260-45691-2
2056:(11): 1660β1662.
1814:(13): 2195β2204.
1392:978-0-387-30351-2
1352:978-0-7817-0166-2
1189:
1188:
931:
797:Tourette syndrome
658:Prefrontal cortex
626:negative feedback
516:
515:
293:prefrontal cortex
210:nucleus accumbens
182:Mesocorticolimbic
35:dopamine pathways
3787:
3669:
3592:: Hypothalamus (
3525:
3453:
3446:
3439:
3430:
3424:
3423:
3391:
3382:
3381:
3371:
3339:
3330:
3314:
3300:
3290:
3266:
3249:
3248:
3234:
3224:
3200:
3191:
3190:
3180:
3148:
3129:
3128:
3112:
3080:
3069:
3068:
3058:
3048:
3016:
3010:
3009:
2991:
2985:
2984:
2974:
2942:
2936:
2935:
2925:
2901:
2895:
2894:
2884:
2852:
2843:
2842:
2810:
2804:
2803:
2793:
2761:
2755:
2754:
2744:
2734:
2710:
2704:
2703:
2666:
2660:
2659:
2622:
2616:
2615:
2587:
2581:
2580:
2570:
2560:
2528:
2522:
2521:
2511:
2479:
2473:
2472:
2462:
2430:
2424:
2423:
2413:
2381:
2375:
2374:
2368:
2360:
2332:
2326:
2325:
2315:
2283:
2277:
2276:
2262:
2230:
2224:
2223:
2187:
2181:
2180:
2170:
2138:
2129:
2128:
2088:
2082:
2081:
2041:
2035:
2034:
2024:
1992:
1986:
1985:
1975:
1965:
1941:
1932:
1931:
1921:
1889:
1878:
1877:
1848:
1842:
1841:
1831:
1799:
1793:
1792:
1782:
1750:
1744:
1743:
1733:
1701:
1695:
1694:
1676:
1652:
1646:
1645:
1603:
1594:
1593:
1567:
1561:
1560:
1534:
1528:
1527:
1505:
1499:
1498:
1476:
1457:
1452:
1438:
1406:
1397:
1396:
1370:
1361:
1360:
1355:. Archived from
1336:
1327:
1326:
1324:
1323:
1304:
1298:
1297:
1287:
1255:
1239:
1221:chemical synapse
1217:
1158:orexin receptors
1080:Endocannabinoids
1071:
959:stria terminalis
929:
919:Neurotransmitter
915:
811:. For example,
682:Ventral striatum
571:Cingulate cortex
345:substantia nigra
246:
206:ventral striatum
165:
127:neurotransmitter
3797:
3796:
3790:
3789:
3788:
3786:
3785:
3784:
3765:
3764:
3763:
3754:
3750:Globus pallidus
3726:
3708:
3699:Globus pallidus
3685:
3681:Climbing fibers
3654:
3626:
3617:Locus coeruleus
3603:
3598:Median eminence
3579:Caudate nucleus
3510:
3462:
3457:
3427:
3393:
3392:
3385:
3341:
3340:
3333:
3325:
3320:
3315:
3268:
3267:
3252:
3202:
3201:
3194:
3150:
3149:
3132:
3125:
3082:
3081:
3072:
3018:
3017:
3013:
3006:
2993:
2992:
2988:
2944:
2943:
2939:
2910:JAMA Psychiatry
2903:
2902:
2898:
2873:10.1038/nn.2723
2854:
2853:
2846:
2812:
2811:
2807:
2763:
2762:
2758:
2712:
2711:
2707:
2692:
2668:
2667:
2663:
2624:
2623:
2619:
2612:
2589:
2588:
2584:
2543:(9): e0161567.
2530:
2529:
2525:
2481:
2480:
2476:
2432:
2431:
2427:
2383:
2382:
2378:
2361:
2349:
2334:
2333:
2329:
2285:
2284:
2280:
2232:
2231:
2227:
2189:
2188:
2184:
2140:
2139:
2132:
2090:
2089:
2085:
2043:
2042:
2038:
2013:10.1038/nrn3111
1994:
1993:
1989:
1950:Genome Medicine
1943:
1942:
1935:
1891:
1890:
1881:
1873:
1870:
1868:
1863:
1850:
1849:
1845:
1801:
1800:
1796:
1765:(23): 8476β90.
1752:
1751:
1747:
1703:
1702:
1698:
1667:(7): 1788β802.
1654:
1653:
1649:
1626:
1605:
1604:
1597:
1590:
1569:
1568:
1564:
1557:
1536:
1535:
1531:
1520:
1507:
1506:
1502:
1491:
1478:
1477:
1460:
1453:
1408:
1407:
1400:
1393:
1372:
1371:
1364:
1353:
1338:
1337:
1330:
1321:
1319:
1306:
1305:
1301:
1257:
1256:
1252:
1248:
1243:
1242:
1236:
1218:
1211:
1206:
1194:
1171:
1169:
1097:
1095:
1067:
1057:locus coeruleus
1041:
895:locus coeruleus
869:
861:
855:
845:
822:
774:globus pallidus
764:(VTA) into the
754:
746:pituitary gland
734:
717:dorsal striatum
709:
703:
674:
646:
596:
591:
550:Zona incerta β
521:
471:motor function.
417:pituitary gland
349:dorsal striatum
335:caudate nucleus
288:
285:
241:
193:
190:
183:
160:
155:
17:
12:
11:
5:
3795:
3794:
3791:
3783:
3782:
3777:
3767:
3766:
3760:
3759:
3756:
3755:
3753:
3752:
3747:
3742:
3736:
3734:
3728:
3727:
3725:
3724:
3718:
3716:
3710:
3709:
3707:
3706:
3701:
3695:
3693:
3687:
3686:
3684:
3683:
3677:
3675:
3666:
3660:
3659:
3656:
3655:
3653:
3652:
3647:
3642:
3636:
3634:
3628:
3627:
3625:
3624:
3619:
3613:
3611:
3609:Norepinephrine
3605:
3604:
3602:
3601:
3586:
3585:
3567:
3566:
3548:
3547:
3533:
3531:
3522:
3512:
3511:
3509:
3508:
3502:
3501:
3483:
3482:
3472:
3470:
3464:
3463:
3458:
3456:
3455:
3448:
3441:
3433:
3426:
3425:
3383:
3348:Brain Research
3331:
3250:
3192:
3130:
3070:
3031:(26): 8124β9.
3011:
3004:
2986:
2957:(4): 1251β83.
2937:
2896:
2844:
2805:
2756:
2705:
2690:
2661:
2617:
2610:
2582:
2523:
2474:
2425:
2376:
2347:
2327:
2298:(3): 294β303.
2278:
2225:
2182:
2130:
2103:(4): 567β585.
2083:
2036:
2007:(11): 623β37.
1987:
1933:
1879:
1861:
1843:
1794:
1745:
1716:(8): 1181β93.
1696:
1647:
1624:
1595:
1588:
1562:
1555:
1529:
1518:
1500:
1489:
1458:
1398:
1391:
1362:
1351:
1328:
1312:Learn Genetics
1299:
1270:(2): 283β321.
1249:
1247:
1244:
1241:
1240:
1208:
1207:
1205:
1202:
1201:
1200:
1193:
1190:
1187:
1186:
1184:
1154:
1153:
1152:
1145:
1139:
1138:
1136:
1133:
1132:
1131:
1126:
1119:
1113:
1112:
1110:
1092:
1091:
1090:
1087:
1082:
1076:
1075:
1073:
1064:
1063:
1062:
1059:
1052:
1050:Norepinephrine
1046:
1045:
1043:
1038:
1037:
1036:
1029:
1023:
1022:
1020:
1017:
1016:
1015:
1012:
1007:
1000:
994:
993:
991:
988:
987:
986:
981:
976:
971:
966:
961:
956:
951:
946:
939:
933:
932:
927:
924:
921:
867:
859:
853:
843:
821:
818:
753:
750:
733:
730:
708:
705:
673:
670:
645:
642:
595:
592:
590:
587:
586:
585:
579:
577:Olfactory bulb
573:
567:
561:
560:
559:
548:
536:
535:
534:
520:
517:
514:
513:
512:
511:
504:
503:
502:
497:
490:
484:
483:
482:
481:
474:
473:
472:
467:
463:
457:
456:
455:
454:
447:
446:
445:
440:
409:
403:
402:
401:
400:
395:
392:
389:
386:
383:
378:
371:
370:
369:
364:
358:
357:motor function
353:
331:
325:
324:
323:
322:
317:
312:
305:
304:
303:
296:
289:
282:
279:
278:
277:
276:
271:
266:
259:
258:
257:
254:
253:
252:
247:
239:
225:
194:
187:
185:
179:
178:
175:
172:
169:
159:
156:
154:
151:
15:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3793:
3792:
3781:
3778:
3776:
3773:
3772:
3770:
3751:
3748:
3746:
3743:
3741:
3738:
3737:
3735:
3733:
3729:
3723:
3722:Renshaw cells
3720:
3719:
3717:
3715:
3711:
3705:
3702:
3700:
3697:
3696:
3694:
3692:
3688:
3682:
3679:
3678:
3676:
3674:
3670:
3667:
3665:
3661:
3651:
3648:
3646:
3643:
3641:
3638:
3637:
3635:
3633:
3629:
3623:
3620:
3618:
3615:
3614:
3612:
3610:
3606:
3599:
3595:
3591:
3588:
3587:
3584:
3580:
3576:
3572:
3569:
3568:
3565:
3561:
3557:
3553:
3550:
3549:
3546:
3542:
3538:
3535:
3534:
3532:
3530:
3526:
3523:
3521:
3517:
3513:
3507:
3504:
3503:
3500:
3496:
3492:
3488:
3487:Septal nuclei
3485:
3484:
3481:
3477:
3474:
3473:
3471:
3469:
3468:Acetylcholine
3465:
3461:
3454:
3449:
3447:
3442:
3440:
3435:
3434:
3431:
3422:
3417:
3413:
3409:
3405:
3402:(2): 486β90.
3401:
3397:
3390:
3388:
3384:
3379:
3375:
3370:
3365:
3361:
3357:
3353:
3349:
3345:
3338:
3336:
3332:
3329:
3324:
3319:
3313:
3308:
3304:
3299:
3294:
3289:
3284:
3280:
3276:
3272:
3265:
3263:
3261:
3259:
3257:
3255:
3251:
3247:
3242:
3238:
3233:
3228:
3223:
3218:
3214:
3210:
3206:
3199:
3197:
3193:
3188:
3184:
3179:
3174:
3170:
3166:
3162:
3158:
3154:
3147:
3145:
3143:
3141:
3139:
3137:
3135:
3131:
3127:
3120:
3116:
3111:
3106:
3102:
3098:
3095:(4): 268β77.
3094:
3090:
3086:
3079:
3077:
3075:
3071:
3066:
3062:
3057:
3052:
3047:
3042:
3038:
3034:
3030:
3026:
3022:
3015:
3012:
3007:
3001:
2997:
2990:
2987:
2982:
2978:
2973:
2968:
2964:
2960:
2956:
2952:
2948:
2941:
2938:
2933:
2929:
2924:
2919:
2916:(6): 619β29.
2915:
2911:
2907:
2900:
2897:
2892:
2888:
2883:
2878:
2874:
2870:
2867:(2): 154β62.
2866:
2862:
2858:
2851:
2849:
2845:
2840:
2836:
2832:
2828:
2824:
2820:
2816:
2809:
2806:
2801:
2797:
2792:
2787:
2783:
2779:
2775:
2771:
2767:
2760:
2757:
2752:
2748:
2743:
2738:
2733:
2728:
2724:
2720:
2716:
2709:
2706:
2701:
2697:
2693:
2687:
2683:
2679:
2675:
2674:
2665:
2662:
2657:
2653:
2649:
2645:
2641:
2637:
2633:
2629:
2621:
2618:
2613:
2611:9780128052914
2607:
2603:
2599:
2595:
2594:
2586:
2583:
2578:
2574:
2569:
2564:
2559:
2554:
2550:
2546:
2542:
2538:
2534:
2527:
2524:
2519:
2515:
2510:
2505:
2501:
2497:
2493:
2489:
2485:
2478:
2475:
2470:
2466:
2461:
2456:
2452:
2448:
2444:
2440:
2436:
2429:
2426:
2421:
2417:
2412:
2407:
2403:
2399:
2396:(3): 646β64.
2395:
2391:
2387:
2380:
2377:
2372:
2366:
2358:
2354:
2350:
2344:
2340:
2339:
2331:
2328:
2323:
2319:
2314:
2309:
2305:
2301:
2297:
2293:
2289:
2282:
2279:
2275:
2270:
2266:
2261:
2256:
2252:
2248:
2245:(3): 646β64.
2244:
2240:
2236:
2229:
2226:
2221:
2217:
2213:
2209:
2205:
2201:
2198:(5): 301β20.
2197:
2193:
2186:
2183:
2178:
2174:
2169:
2164:
2160:
2156:
2153:(3): 470β85.
2152:
2148:
2144:
2137:
2135:
2131:
2126:
2122:
2118:
2114:
2110:
2106:
2102:
2098:
2094:
2087:
2084:
2079:
2075:
2071:
2067:
2063:
2059:
2055:
2051:
2047:
2040:
2037:
2032:
2028:
2023:
2018:
2014:
2010:
2006:
2002:
1998:
1991:
1988:
1983:
1979:
1974:
1969:
1964:
1963:10.1186/gm213
1959:
1955:
1951:
1947:
1940:
1938:
1934:
1929:
1925:
1920:
1915:
1911:
1907:
1903:
1899:
1895:
1888:
1886:
1884:
1880:
1876:
1864:
1862:9780071481274
1858:
1854:
1847:
1844:
1839:
1835:
1830:
1825:
1821:
1817:
1813:
1809:
1805:
1798:
1795:
1790:
1786:
1781:
1776:
1772:
1768:
1764:
1760:
1756:
1749:
1746:
1741:
1737:
1732:
1727:
1723:
1719:
1715:
1711:
1707:
1700:
1697:
1692:
1688:
1684:
1680:
1675:
1670:
1666:
1662:
1658:
1651:
1648:
1643:
1639:
1635:
1631:
1627:
1625:9780444520029
1621:
1617:
1613:
1609:
1602:
1600:
1596:
1591:
1589:9780128093245
1585:
1581:
1577:
1573:
1566:
1563:
1558:
1556:9780128036082
1552:
1548:
1544:
1540:
1533:
1530:
1526:
1521:
1519:9780071481274
1515:
1511:
1504:
1501:
1497:
1492:
1490:9780071481274
1486:
1482:
1475:
1473:
1471:
1469:
1467:
1465:
1463:
1459:
1456:
1451:
1446:
1442:
1437:
1432:
1428:
1424:
1421:(2): 129β50.
1420:
1416:
1412:
1405:
1403:
1399:
1394:
1388:
1384:
1380:
1376:
1369:
1367:
1363:
1358:
1354:
1348:
1344:
1343:
1335:
1333:
1329:
1318:on 2010-02-09
1317:
1313:
1309:
1303:
1300:
1295:
1291:
1286:
1281:
1277:
1273:
1269:
1265:
1261:
1254:
1251:
1245:
1234:
1230:
1226:
1225:axon terminal
1222:
1216:
1214:
1210:
1203:
1199:
1196:
1195:
1191:
1185:
1182:
1179:
1175:
1167:
1163:
1159:
1155:
1151:
1148:
1147:
1146:
1144:
1140:
1137:
1134:
1130:
1127:
1125:
1122:
1121:
1120:
1118:
1117:Acetylcholine
1114:
1111:
1108:
1105:
1101:
1093:
1088:
1085:
1084:
1083:
1081:
1077:
1074:
1065:
1060:
1058:
1055:
1054:
1053:
1051:
1047:
1044:
1039:
1035:
1032:
1031:
1030:
1028:
1024:
1021:
1018:
1013:
1011:
1008:
1006:
1003:
1002:
1001:
999:
995:
992:
989:
985:
982:
980:
977:
975:
974:preoptic area
972:
970:
967:
965:
962:
960:
957:
955:
952:
950:
947:
945:
942:
941:
940:
938:
934:
920:
916:
910:
908:
904:
900:
896:
892:
891:Noradrenergic
887:
883:
879:
875:
871:
863:
851:
847:
839:
835:
834:glutaminergic
831:
827:
819:
817:
814:
810:
806:
805:schizophrenia
802:
798:
794:
790:
785:
783:
779:
775:
771:
767:
763:
759:
751:
749:
747:
743:
739:
731:
725:
721:
718:
714:
706:
704:
697:
693:
691:
687:
683:
679:
671:
669:
667:
663:
659:
655:
651:
643:
641:
639:
635:
634:schizophrenia
631:
627:
622:
618:
614:
610:
600:
593:
588:
584:
580:
578:
574:
572:
568:
566:
562:
557:
553:
549:
547:
543:
540:
539:
537:
533:
529:
526:
525:
523:
522:
518:
510:
507:
506:
505:
500:
499:
498:
495:
491:
489:
485:
480:
477:
476:
475:
470:
469:
468:
464:
462:
458:
453:
450:
449:
448:
443:
442:
441:
439:
437:
436:
430:
428:
424:
418:
414:
410:
408:
404:
399:
396:
393:
390:
388:Schizophrenia
387:
384:
382:
379:
377:
374:
373:
372:
368:
365:
362:
359:
356:
355:
354:
352:
350:
346:
340:
336:
332:
330:
326:
321:
320:schizophrenia
318:
316:
313:
311:
308:
307:
306:
302:
299:
298:
297:
294:
290:
287:
281:
280:
275:
274:schizophrenia
272:
270:
267:
265:
262:
261:
260:
255:
251:
248:
244:
240:
237:
234:
233:
231:
228:
227:
226:
223:
219:
216:. The "meso"
215:
211:
207:
203:
199:
195:
192:
186:
180:
168:Pathway name
166:
163:
157:
152:
150:
148:
143:
139:
135:
131:
128:
123:
121:
117:
113:
109:
105:
101:
99:
95:
91:
87:
83:
79:
74:
72:
68:
64:
60:
56:
52:
48:
44:
40:
36:
32:
26:
21:
3640:Raphe nuclei
3528:
3419:
3399:
3395:
3351:
3347:
3310:
3278:
3274:
3244:
3212:
3208:
3160:
3157:Neuroscience
3156:
3122:
3092:
3088:
3028:
3024:
3014:
2995:
2989:
2954:
2950:
2940:
2913:
2909:
2899:
2864:
2860:
2822:
2818:
2808:
2773:
2770:Neuroscience
2769:
2759:
2722:
2718:
2708:
2672:
2664:
2634:(7): 33β41.
2631:
2627:
2620:
2592:
2585:
2540:
2536:
2526:
2491:
2487:
2477:
2442:
2438:
2428:
2393:
2389:
2379:
2337:
2330:
2295:
2291:
2281:
2272:
2242:
2238:
2228:
2195:
2191:
2185:
2150:
2146:
2100:
2096:
2086:
2053:
2049:
2039:
2004:
2000:
1990:
1953:
1949:
1904:(4): 322β8.
1901:
1897:
1866:
1852:
1846:
1811:
1807:
1797:
1762:
1758:
1748:
1713:
1709:
1699:
1664:
1660:
1650:
1607:
1574:. Elsevier.
1571:
1565:
1538:
1532:
1523:
1509:
1503:
1494:
1480:
1448:
1418:
1414:
1374:
1357:the original
1341:
1320:. Retrieved
1316:the original
1311:
1302:
1267:
1263:
1253:
1034:raphe nuclei
984:raphe nuclei
823:
786:
755:
742:hypothalamus
735:
710:
702:
675:
647:
617:mesocortical
606:
546:Hypothalamus
542:Zona incerta
528:Hypothalamus
494:zona incerta
435:infundibulum
434:
431:
425:, including
420:
413:hypothalamus
342:
284:Mesocortical
171:Description
161:
124:
102:
75:
38:
34:
30:
29:
3499:Hippocampus
899:orexinergic
565:Hippocampus
532:Spinal cord
238:("wanting")
142:cell bodies
43:human brain
25:human brain
3769:Categories
3163:: 95β111.
2776:: 529β41.
2357:1191071328
1956:(12): 92.
1322:2009-10-23
1246:References
820:Regulation
760:(SNc) and
690:motivation
621:mesolimbic
189:Mesolimbic
132:. Enzymes
88:, and the
63:motivation
3732:Glutamate
3673:Aspartate
3480:Neocortex
3354:: 74β90.
2839:0006-3223
2725:: 29β43.
2656:237507806
2365:cite book
2050:Neurology
1229:dendrites
1027:Serotonin
937:Glutamate
870:receptors
862:receptors
846:receptors
838:GABAergic
809:addiction
638:addiction
552:Brainstem
427:prolactin
376:addiction
315:addiction
269:addiction
204:, to the
153:Pathways
116:addiction
51:cognition
41:) in the
3780:Dopamine
3740:Thalamus
3506:Striatum
3416:24530395
3378:19815001
3307:24391536
3241:24904299
3187:21872647
3119:19305743
3065:26080439
2981:18838041
2932:23740050
2891:21270784
2800:26116518
2751:24648786
2700:11589124
2648:34520024
2577:27611585
2537:PLOS ONE
2518:29899667
2469:17670959
2420:25950633
2322:23375169
2269:25950633
2220:36091832
2212:15582224
2177:23141060
2125:24568869
2117:16670842
2078:12241566
2031:21989194
1982:21205279
1928:19587853
1838:31254972
1789:21653852
1740:23876345
1691:14698708
1683:15380000
1642:36698721
1634:22608650
1445:20149820
1294:17905440
1192:See also
1010:striatum
836:inputs,
782:thalamus
766:striatum
589:Function
556:Amygdala
423:hormones
243:pleasure
202:midbrain
130:dopamine
110:(ADHD),
96:and the
47:movement
3714:Glycine
3583:putamen
3369:2819557
3298:3868890
3281:: 256.
3232:4033238
3178:3221882
3124:firing.
3110:2644494
3056:4491757
3033:Bibcode
2972:3079445
2882:4408000
2791:4523218
2742:3931688
2568:5017670
2545:Bibcode
2509:5985548
2460:6673072
2411:4425246
2313:3644539
2260:4425246
2168:4450094
2070:2234421
2022:3272277
1973:3025434
1919:2701285
1829:6897916
1780:6623324
1731:3800178
1436:2894302
1285:2238694
930:Sources
923:Origin
744:to the
603:reward.
415:to the
339:putamen
286:pathway
191:pathway
184:system
118:), and
3495:Fornix
3414:
3376:
3366:
3305:
3295:
3246:1993).
3239:
3229:
3215:: 53.
3185:
3175:
3117:
3107:
3063:
3053:
3002:
2979:
2969:
2930:
2889:
2879:
2837:
2798:
2788:
2749:
2739:
2698:
2688:
2654:
2646:
2608:
2575:
2565:
2516:
2506:
2467:
2457:
2418:
2408:
2390:Neuron
2355:
2345:
2320:
2310:
2267:
2257:
2239:Neuron
2218:
2210:
2175:
2165:
2147:Neuron
2123:
2115:
2076:
2068:
2029:
2019:
1980:
1970:
1926:
1916:
1859:
1836:
1826:
1787:
1777:
1738:
1728:
1689:
1681:
1640:
1632:
1622:
1586:
1553:
1516:
1487:
1443:
1433:
1389:
1349:
1292:
1282:
1143:Orexin
907:firing
850:firing
807:, and
581:SNc β
575:VTA β
569:VTA β
563:VTA β
554:VTA β
509:tremor
381:chorea
361:reward
230:reward
218:prefix
84:, the
80:, the
65:, and
59:reward
2652:S2CID
2216:S2CID
2121:S2CID
2074:S2CID
1687:S2CID
1638:S2CID
1219:At a
1204:Notes
519:Minor
222:Greek
158:Major
147:axons
3691:GABA
3581:and
3562:and
3493:) β
3412:PMID
3374:PMID
3352:1314
3303:PMID
3237:PMID
3183:PMID
3115:PMID
3061:PMID
3000:ISBN
2977:PMID
2928:PMID
2887:PMID
2835:ISSN
2796:PMID
2747:PMID
2696:PMID
2686:ISBN
2644:PMID
2606:ISBN
2573:PMID
2514:PMID
2465:PMID
2416:PMID
2371:link
2353:OCLC
2343:ISBN
2318:PMID
2265:PMID
2208:PMID
2173:PMID
2113:PMID
2066:PMID
2027:PMID
1978:PMID
1924:PMID
1857:ISBN
1834:PMID
1785:PMID
1736:PMID
1679:PMID
1630:PMID
1620:ISBN
1584:ISBN
1551:ISBN
1514:ISBN
1485:ISBN
1441:PMID
1387:ISBN
1347:ISBN
1290:PMID
1164:and
998:GABA
880:and
866:5-HT
858:5-HT
842:5-HT
828:and
824:The
793:ADHD
736:The
711:The
648:The
640:.
636:and
630:ADHD
619:and
607:The
391:ADHD
343:The
337:and
310:ADHD
264:ADHD
212:and
136:and
3404:doi
3400:445
3364:PMC
3356:doi
3293:PMC
3283:doi
3227:PMC
3217:doi
3173:PMC
3165:doi
3161:198
3105:PMC
3097:doi
3051:PMC
3041:doi
3029:112
2967:PMC
2959:doi
2918:doi
2877:PMC
2869:doi
2827:doi
2786:PMC
2778:doi
2774:301
2737:PMC
2727:doi
2678:doi
2636:doi
2598:doi
2563:PMC
2553:doi
2504:PMC
2496:doi
2455:PMC
2447:doi
2406:PMC
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