28:
579:
695:. The encounter was bitter to both the Celtiberians and Scipio, as the former had shown mercy to them in Hispania despite their allegiance to Indibilis and Mandonius, so the mercenaries knew the Roman general would not spare them a second time. Consequently, when the mercenaries found themselves being characteristically the last Carthaginian force still standing in the battle, most of them chose to fight to the end and died in their posts. There were further attempts to bring new Hispanic fighters to Carthage, but the
463:
255:
125:
482:. As mentioned earlier, in this case it is again difficult to differentiate between true mercenaries and conscripted vassals: it can only be inferred that they would work for a payment whenever their origin was not of conquered regions, as apparently Hannibal himself only distinguished among his Hispanics by the form and degree of their allegiance. Thus, in 218, before departing from
53:. Departing from the native tribe and applying to serve in others was a way for economically disadvantaged youth to escape poverty and find an opportunity to use their fighting skills. Starting from 5th century BC, mercenary life would become a true social phenomenon in Hispania, with great numbers of fighters from distant lands coming to join the armies of
543:, possibly playing the role of both skirmishers and heavy cavalry along with Celtiberians. Their combined force, composed of around 2,000 horsemen, was praised by Livy over their more numerous and famous Numidian homologues. Finally, Balearics, ranging between 1,000 and 2,000, excelled as skirmishing infantry, being armed with fibre or sinew
627:, and in many cases, such as during the defeats of Hasdrubal and Hanno, died fighting with suicidal determination for their leaders. Hannibal considered his peninsular fighters to be among his most valuable forces, almost at the level of his African compatriots, and contrasting especially with the more expendable and undisciplined
623:, where 1,000 Hispanics chose to join the Roman side, although this might have been an exchange to get 5,000 Africans out of the city and back with Hannibal. Those seem to have been the only exceptions to the Hispanic mercenaries' loyalty. Hispanics seemingly held their Carthaginian masters in high regard, addressing them as their
443:. When Carthage lost the war the Hispanics were amongst the mercenaries transported to Africa to be paid off and discharged. There the foreign warriors rebelled against the Carthaginians when the latter were unable to pay their emolument, due to the economic sanctions imposed by Rome. This led to the
428:, and then left them to their fate. Withholding his own citizen troops in order to stack the odds against the mercenaries, Hiero saw them being defeated and decimated. However, it is likely he continued hiring Hispanic mercenaries anyway, as Livy mentions them as auxiliars in the army of his grandson
189:
did not always return to their countries, and some of them, like
Balearics, were known for spending all their gained money during their service, but they would be met with prestige and fame among their countrymen if they did, given the warrior character of their societies. However, their destinations
598:
was forced to hire them to retain their allegiance. According to Livy and Appian, he sent 200 to Italy in order to try to convince their countrymen in
Hannibal's army into deserting. This endeavor had little success, but it might have helped to undermine Hannibal's trust on them. In turn, Hasdrubal
675:
ended the third and final attempt to maintain a large scale native army. The remnant mercenaries, now 12,000 after the last levies, were placed by Mago in an improvised fleet, which finally sailed towards Italy after having unsuccessfully attempted to retake
Cartagena, but not without hiring other
507:
who did not wish to leave
Hispania. As a consequence of those moves, Hannibal kept only those with a bond of devotion to him, which would presumably include mercenaries and the most loyal vassals. It is estimated that between 8,000 and 10,000 Hispanics, counting the sum of their many peninsular
136:
Differentiating literal mercenaries from foreign vassals, brought to the battlefield through pacts or hostages instead of payment, is often difficult in ancient chronicles. Similarly, the exact provenience of
Hispanic mercenaries is usually difficult to ascertain, as the terms used to refer to
699:
captured the
Carthaginian recruiters and sold them to Rome. In 202 BC, Hannibal brought the remnant of his veteran mercenaries from Italy and united them to those of Mago, who had died in the sea while returning to Africa. They faced Scipio again in the
149:. The reasons for this were mainly economic, as departing from the native tribe and serving in another, wealthier faction was a way for economically disadvantaged youth to escape poverty in their local lands, which were commonly subjected to sharp
298:. Hispanics were the only Punic to regroup after the battle to defend the camp, inflicting heavy losses on the Greek until Theron's counterattack forced them to flee for the beached ships. Contingents of Iberians reappear again in the captures of
740:. The value of light infantry skilled in the use of stone missile throwing by slings was recognised as late as the 4th century AD, although by this date their recruitment basis had been extended from beyond Iberia and the Balearic Islands.
184:
Hispanic mercenaries would not work individually, but in small-sized units formed by friends and relatives, managed by their own chiefs and retaining their own cultural traits, including armament and tactics. Mercenaries having left
638:
In 209 BC, after gathering large contingents of
Celtiberian and Cantabrian mercenaries, Hasdrubal departed Hispania for Italy in order to meet with Hannibal. His army arrived in 207 only to be discovered and defeated in the
242:. Hispanic mercenaries were sought after for their toughness, discipline and skills, aside from their weapons, and not least of all for their ferocity; it being believed abroad that these peninsular warriors even practiced
27:
498:
serfs to garrison
Carthage in exchange for 15,200 African javelin throwers, seeking to prevent any possible rebellion of any of them due to the distance from their home lands. He also released, before crossing the
395:
visited his apprentice
Dionysius II in 361 BC, he witnessed a brief rebellion by the king's mercenaries due to his attempts to reduce their payment. They marched towards the acropolis chanting their war
1151:"Las guerras en Hispania y su importancia para la carrera militar de AnĂbal, de EscipiĂłn el Africano, de Mario, de Cneo Pompeyo, de Sertorio, de Afranio, de Terencio VarĂłn, de Julio CĂ©sar y de Augusto"
508:
peoples, reached Italy with
Hannibal. The majority of them might have been still alive and serving when he returned to Carthage in 202, proving the reliability that had moved the Punics to hire them.
704:, being ultimately defeated and witnessing the end of the war. The loss of Carthage saw the end of the Punic mercenary tradition, as it was specifically written among the conditions imposed by Rome.
712:
Despite the withdrawal of Carthage from Hispania, the peninsular custom of mercenary life survived. Between 197 and 195 BC, the Turdetanians employed 30,000 Celtiberians as elite troops during the
474:'s arrival to Hispania in 237 BC, he succeeded at conquering multiple Hispanic tribes and drawing reinforcements from them, employing alliances, payment and hostages depending on the case. His son
659:, ended it before they could depart too. This would be a tough decision for the Roman side, as their intrusion in the Celtiberians's lands would put them against Rome again, making them join
571:, although authors have doubted of such diversity. In any case, Celtiberians and Lusitanians probably were the main bodies of mercenaries, as Hannibal's spiel addressing them before the
603:
Scipio's mercenaries, who agreed to abandon the Roman general even if they would not turn against him out of principles. The result was Scipio and his brother being killed near of
578:
1296:
1286:
1086:
679:
The last great deployments of peninsular mercenaries in the Second Punic War were in the territorial defense of Carthage, firstly in a brief intervention after the
647:
was killed among the peninsulars, the last Punic forces to fall. Some Celtiberians managed to cut their way out and reach Hannibal. The same year, generals
1301:
749:
595:
119:
210:
were Celts hired by the Turdetanians. Nevertheless, the most important roles played by Hispanic mercenaries in ancient story were in the armies of
145:
tribes, but any other people of Hispania. However, there is evidence that Hispania developed as a rich source of mercenary work during the early
652:
1264:
1176:
1120:
1045:
1002:
932:
907:
781:
360:, the mercenary peninsular forces were the only not to be annihilated. According to Diodorus, they banded up in battle formation and offered
854:
1150:
1306:
672:
405:
1070:
1038:
Battles of the Greek and Roman Worlds: A Chronological Compendium of 667 Battles to 31 BC From the Historians of the Ancient World
270:
serving in Sicily. While the Iberians may have been on the Carthaginian payroll as early as 535 BC, during the campaigns in
1291:
950:"Sobre el reclutamiento de mercenarios turdetanos: el campamento cartaginés de El Gandul (Alcalá de Guadaira, Sevilla)"
161:, where cultivable terrains was concentrated among a few landowners, leaving mercenary life as the only alternative to
207:
692:
319:
608:
420:
ended the traditional mercenary presence in Sicily in order to prevent more mutinies. He pitted them against the
315:
307:
303:
275:
815:
680:
365:
660:
612:
361:
338:
311:
17:
373:
337:
after a recruitment campaign in Sicily. The latter conflict also saw the participation of Hispanics in the
640:
440:
429:
287:
190:
were not always abroad, but also merely nearby regions of Hispania with a better economical profile, like
539:, where they stood out for their ability to hold the line. Lusitanians are mentioned as having served as
834:
346:
267:
683:. Shortly after, taking command of 4000 Celtiberians from the Ilergete revolt previously sent by Mago,
1230:"Los celtĂberos y la ubicaciĂłn de Celtiberia en el relato de la Segunda Guerra PĂşnica, de Tito Livio"
671:, he sent a prefect also named Hanno to gather yet another Celtiberian contingent, but the resultant
417:
334:
325:
However, possibly influenced by their success, Greeks started to employ Hispanics themselves in the
737:
150:
364:
their services, impressing Dionysius into hiring them as a personal guard. Later, in 368, his son
1080:
976:
624:
357:
716:, while in 147 BC the Romans themselves sent them unsuccessfully against the Lusitanians led by
173:
between tribes in Hispania cannot be discarded as another factor in their choice. Natives from
1260:
1172:
1116:
1066:
1041:
998:
928:
903:
777:
594:'s forces in 217 BC. Four years later, they became the first mercenaries employed by Rome, as
572:
353:
326:
299:
295:
243:
81:
50:
400:, scaring Dionysius II so much that he relented and gave them even more than they reclaimed.
656:
651:
and Hanno moved to Celtiberia to collect another army, but a new Roman attack, this time by
616:
536:
528:
520:
483:
452:
401:
239:
174:
129:
107:
32:
1242:
1191:
855:"Estudio del Armamento prerromano en la penĂnsula ibĂ©rica a travĂ©s de los textos clásicos"
684:
668:
591:
548:
540:
462:
436:
381:
170:
607:
in 211 BC. The same year, possibly inspired by a desertion of Numidians and Hispanics to
523:, which Hannibal would arrange and use for their particular talents. The first served as
713:
701:
544:
471:
448:
219:
166:
66:
511:
The variety and provenience of the mercenaries is not faithfully recorded, other than
1280:
1229:
1196:
721:
524:
444:
263:
977:"De guerreros a soldados. El ejĂ©rcito de AnĂbal como un ejĂ©rcito cartaginĂ©s atĂpico"
106:
cites them as the reason for the Carthaginian victory in several battles during the
512:
215:
158:
137:
inhabitants of the Iberian peninsula are frequently vague, often using the generic
58:
995:
Athens Transformed, 404-262 BC: From Popular Sovereignty to the Dominion of Wealth
615:
in 215, Celtiberians commanders Moericus and Belligenus betrayed the Punic-allied
254:
590:
Other Celtiberians fought against Carthage after their pact with Rome, defeating
478:
continued his effort after his death with plans to lead an expeditionary army to
725:
516:
227:
154:
1061:
Theodore V. Buttrey, Kenan T. Erim, Thomas D. Groves, R. Ross Holloway (2019).
949:
124:
696:
667:
revolt. Anyhow, Mago managed to flee with 2,000 survivors to Gadir. After the
648:
504:
421:
330:
235:
203:
195:
191:
77:
384:, which they did with great effectivity. They also captured the territory of
1022:
717:
664:
644:
632:
487:
425:
342:
283:
39:
1017:
568:
560:
556:
552:
547:
capable of throwing heavy shot into enemy ranks with devastating effect.
532:
500:
475:
456:
377:
306:, where they headed the final assaults to the cities, and the battles of
279:
271:
223:
211:
199:
186:
178:
162:
146:
142:
103:
93:
54:
43:
424:, a body of Italian marauders, in the river Cyamosorus near the city of
600:
564:
495:
491:
435:
Carthaginian peninsular mercenaries did not return to Sicily until the
356:
abandoned all his mercenaries to their fate upon leaving Sicily in the
231:
447:
and the destruction of the rebels by loyal Carthaginian forces led by
688:
604:
455:, though, that Iberian peninsulars become a factor again, given that
385:
73:
62:
736:
The employment of Balearic slingers as mercenaries continued in the
628:
577:
479:
397:
392:
369:
253:
89:
46:
816:"Mercenarios hispanos en las fuentes literarias y la arqueologĂa"
620:
619:
and joined Marcellus's entourage. Another defection happened in
599:
capitalized on his superior familiarity with Hispanic tribes to
291:
85:
814:
MarĂa Paz GarcĂa-Gelabert PĂ©rez, JosĂ© MarĂa Blázquez MartĂnez.
900:
Guerreros de Iberia: La guerra antigua en la penĂnsula IbĂ©rica
586:, used by Hannibal's mercenaries and adopted by the Romans.
181:
were also recognized to have a strong mercenary tradition.
1113:
Cannae: The Experience of Battle in the Second Punic War
262:
The first mentions of Spanish mercenaries come from the
559:(combined with the Lusitanians in a single battalion),
772:
JoaquĂn GĂłmez-Pantoja, Eduardo Sánchez Moreno (2007).
691:
clashed with the invading Romans led by Scipio in the
404:
were also present in the Carthaginian side in the 311
774:
Protohistoria y AntigĂĽedad de la PenĂnsula IbĂ©rica II
531:, though they were also entrusted the front lines as
274:, their first substantial employment occurred in the
551:speaks of even more tribes in the army, including
466:Imagining of a Spanish soldier in Hannibal's army.
1228:SerafĂn Olcoz Yanguas, Manuel Medrano MarquĂ©s.
80:as being among the best fighting forces in the
72:They are repeatedly described by authors like
982:(in Spanish). Universidad AutĂłnoma de Madrid.
31:Statue of an ancient Lusitanian warrior from
8:
1085:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
18:Mercenaries of the ancient Iberian peninsula
1297:Mercenary units and formations of antiquity
1156:(in Spanish). Real Academia de la Historia.
1065:. Princeton University Press. p. 209.
439:in 264, this time in the army commanded by
97:
655:behind local guides and under orders from
527:, in contrast to the lighter, skirmishing
352:In 396 BC, after the Carthaginian general
266:(460–307 BC), where they were part of the
49:, particularly in the central area of the
1223:
1221:
1219:
1217:
1215:
1213:
1211:
1209:
1207:
1205:
1144:
1142:
1140:
1138:
1136:
1134:
1132:
286:tell they were part of the expedition of
1287:Ancient history of the Iberian Peninsula
1063:Morgantina Studies, Volume II: The Coins
750:Warfare in the ancient Iberian Peninsula
724:would also use Balearic slingers in the
461:
222:. Important centers of recruitment were
123:
120:Warfare in the ancient Iberian Peninsula
26:
1106:
1104:
1102:
1100:
1098:
1096:
902:(in Spanish). La Esfera de los Libros.
893:
891:
889:
887:
809:
807:
805:
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797:
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1232:(in Spanish). Espacio, Tiempo y Forma.
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885:
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875:
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871:
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860:(in Spanish). Espacio, Tiempo y Forma.
848:
846:
955:(in Spanish). Universidad de Sevilla.
198:. Important southern war chiefs like
69:, as well as other Hispanic peoples.
7:
898:BenjamĂn Collado Hinarejos (2018).
1302:Military history of ancient Greece
1167:Salimbeti, Andre (22 April 2014).
153:. The main examples were found in
25:
1255:Esposito, Gabriele (3 May 2016).
923:Eduardo Peralta Labrador (2003).
853:MarĂa Paz GarcĂa-Gelabert PĂ©rez.
927:. Real Academia de la Historia.
258:Imagining of an Iberian soldier.
42:life is recorded as a custom of
776:(in Spanish). SĂlex Ediciones.
459:was the main front of the war.
388:before sailing back to Sicily.
165:. However, the long history of
84:area, as well as, according to
333:bringing some with him to the
1:
141:to mean not only the coastal
1111:Gregory Daly (August 2005).
676:2,000 Balearics on the way.
290:against the Greek forces of
1036:John Drogo Montagu (2015).
925:Los cántabros antes de Roma
368:sent a contingent of those
208:Audax, Ditalcus and Minurus
99:id roboris in omni exercitu
1323:
1307:Military history of Europe
693:Battle of the Great Plains
673:Battle of the Guadalquivir
406:Battle of the Himera River
117:
997:(in Spanish). Routledge.
609:Marcus Claudius Marcellus
993:Phillip Harding (2015).
596:Publius Cornelius Scipio
975:Fernando Quesada Sanz.
661:Indibilis and Mandonius
376:in order to assist the
362:Dionysius I of Syracuse
339:Athenian coup of 411 BC
177:and mountain folk from
641:Battle of the Metaurus
587:
467:
259:
133:
98:
36:
948:Ruth Pliego Vázquez.
835:Ab Urbe Condita Libri
653:Marcus Junius Silanus
581:
465:
451:. It would be in the
347:Aristarchus of Athens
268:Carthaginian military
257:
127:
30:
821:(in Spanish). Habis.
732:1st–4th centuries AD
708:2nd–1st centuries BC
584:gladius hispaniensis
418:Hiero II of Syracuse
372:and Iberians to the
345:under the orders of
335:Peloponnesian League
250:5th–4th centuries BC
234:, Baria (modern day
1292:Ancient mercenaries
1257:The Late Roman Army
1040:. Frontline Books.
738:Imperial Roman army
151:economic inequality
625:supreme commanders
588:
468:
374:Theban–Spartan War
358:Third Sicilian War
260:
220:Hellenic countries
134:
37:
1266:978-0-9963657-9-6
1178:978-1-78200-776-0
1169:The Carthaginians
1122:978-11-345071-2-2
1047:978-14-738968-7-1
1004:978-13-174354-5-7
934:978-84-895125-9-7
909:978-84-916437-9-1
783:978-84-773718-2-3
573:Battle of Ticinus
486:, he sent 16,000
402:Balearic slingers
327:Peloponnesian War
320:siege of Syracuse
318:, as well as the
82:Mediterranean Sea
51:Iberian Peninsula
16:(Redirected from
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1234:
1233:
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1200:
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1155:
1149:J. M. Blázquez.
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829:
823:
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811:
788:
787:
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657:Scipio Africanus
535:in battles like
529:Numidian cavalry
453:Second Punic War
380:in the siege of
276:Battle of Himera
240:Balearic Islands
175:Balearic Islands
130:Balearic slinger
108:Second Punic War
101:
33:Lisbon, Portugal
21:
1322:
1321:
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1315:
1313:
1312:
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1243:Bellum Gallicum
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1192:Silius Italicus
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791:
784:
771:
770:
763:
758:
746:
734:
710:
685:Hasdrubal Gisco
681:Battle of Utica
669:Battle of Ilipa
592:Hasdrubal Barca
549:Silius Italicus
541:mountain troops
437:First Punic War
414:
252:
171:warrior culture
122:
116:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
1320:
1318:
1310:
1309:
1304:
1299:
1294:
1289:
1279:
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1273:
1272:
1265:
1259:. p. 79.
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1171:. p. 41.
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733:
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714:Iberian revolt
709:
706:
702:Battle of Zama
613:Battle of Nola
582:A Celtiberian
472:Hamilcar Barca
449:Hamilcar Barca
413:
412:3rd century BC
410:
341:, helping the
251:
248:
167:tribal warfare
118:Main article:
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24:
14:
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1115:. Routledge.
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1072:9780691200637
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723:
722:Julius Caesar
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525:heavy cavalry
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445:Mercenary War
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278:in 480, when
277:
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264:Sicilian Wars
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833:
827:
773:
735:
711:
678:
637:
589:
583:
513:Celtiberians
510:
505:Carpetanians
469:
434:
415:
390:
366:Dionysius II
351:
324:
261:
183:
138:
135:
71:
38:
1026:. 7.1.21-22
726:Gallic Wars
663:'s Iberian
617:Syracusians
561:Cantabrians
557:Gallaecians
517:Lusitanians
416:In 274 BC,
244:cannibalism
88:, the most
1281:Categories
756:References
697:Saguntines
649:Mago Barca
611:after the
430:Hieronymus
422:Mamertines
331:Alcibiades
288:Hamilcar I
238:) and the
236:Villaricos
204:Istolatius
196:Bastetania
192:Turdetania
159:Celtiberia
114:Background
78:Thucydides
1081:cite book
1023:Hellenica
718:Viriathus
645:Hasdrubal
633:Ligurians
575:attests.
521:Balearics
488:Bastetani
484:Cartagena
426:Centuripa
343:oligarchs
284:Herodotus
179:Cantabria
155:Lusitania
96:'s army (
65:and even
40:Mercenary
1018:Xenophon
837:, 27, 14
744:See also
665:Ilergete
643:, where
569:Vascones
553:Vettones
533:infantry
501:Pyrenees
476:Hannibal
457:Hispania
378:Spartans
316:Camarina
280:Diodorus
272:Sardinia
228:EmpĂşries
212:Carthage
200:Indortes
187:Hispania
163:banditry
147:Iron Age
104:Polybius
94:Hannibal
92:unit in
55:Carthage
44:Iron Age
565:Astures
503:, many
492:Oretani
382:Corinth
354:Himilco
329:, with
308:Akragas
300:Selinus
232:Castulo
143:Iberian
139:Iberian
1263:
1197:Punica
1175:
1119:
1069:
1044:
1001:
931:
906:
832:Livy.
780:
689:Syphax
605:Ilorci
567:, and
545:slings
537:Cannae
496:Olcade
386:Sicyon
304:Himera
296:Theron
74:Strabo
67:Greece
63:Sicily
1245:, 2.7
1154:(PDF)
980:(PDF)
953:(PDF)
858:(PDF)
819:(PDF)
629:Gauls
601:bribe
480:Italy
470:Upon
441:Hanno
398:paean
393:Plato
391:When
370:Celts
224:Gadir
90:elite
47:Spain
1261:ISBN
1173:ISBN
1117:ISBN
1087:link
1067:ISBN
1042:ISBN
999:ISBN
929:ISBN
904:ISBN
778:ISBN
687:and
631:and
621:Arpi
519:and
494:and
314:and
312:Gela
302:and
294:and
292:Gelo
282:and
218:and
216:Rome
169:and
157:and
86:Livy
76:and
59:Rome
194:or
102:).
1283::
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1194:,
1131:^
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1083:}}
1079:{{
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866:^
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792:^
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728:.
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563:,
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515:,
490:,
432:.
408:.
349:.
322:.
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246:.
230:,
226:,
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202:,
128:A
110:.
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1269:.
1181:.
1125:.
1089:)
1075:.
1050:.
1007:.
937:.
912:.
839:.
786:.
132:.
35:.
20:)
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