504:
original steps. For example, the next iteration would add even more people to B+, and then take the average of the total happiness, resulting in C−. If these steps are repeated over and over, the eventual result will be Z, a massive population with the minimum level of average happiness; this would be a population in which every member is leading a life barely worth living. Parfit claims that it is Z that is the repugnant conclusion.
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394:(1984). The paradox identifies the mutual incompatibility of four intuitively compelling assertions about the relative value of populations. Parfit’s original formulation of the repugnant conclusion is that "For any perfectly equal population with very high positive welfare, there is a population with very low positive welfare which is better, other things being equal."
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503:
However, Parfit argues that the above discussion fails to appreciate the true source of repugnance. He claims that initially, it may not be wrong to think that B is better than A. Assuming this is true, as Huemer argues, it follows that this revised intuition must hold in subsequent iterations of the
563:
was presented in a paper by
Hassoun in 2010. It identifies paradoxical reasoning that occurs when certain statistical measures are used to calculate results over a population. For example, if a group of 100 people together control $ 100 worth of resources, the average wealth per capita is $ 1. If a
550:
is a property of theories of population ethics that is a stronger version of the repugnant conclusion. It states that according to some ethical theories, for any population where everyone has very high well-being, there exists a better population consisting of two groups: a significant number of
564:
single rich person then arrives with 1 million dollars, then the total group of 101 people controls $ 1,000,100, making average wealth per capita $ 9,901, implying a drastic shift away from poverty even though nothing has changed for the original 100 people. Hassoun defines a
426:
A+ seems no worse than A. This is because the people in A are no worse-off in A+, while the additional people who exist in A+ are better off in A+ compared to A, since it is stipulated that their lives are good enough that it is better for them to be alive than to not
780:
Zuber, Stéphane; Venkatesh, Nikhil; Tännsjö, Torbjörn; Tarsney, Christian; Stefánsson, H. Orri; Steele, Katie; Spears, Dean; Sebo, Jeff; Pivato, Marcus; Ord, Toby; Ng, Yew-Kwang; Masny, Michal; MacAskill, William; Lawson, Nicholas; Kuruc, Kevin (2021-04-13).
568:
to be used for judging such statistical measures: "merely adding a rich person to a population should not decrease poverty" (although acknowledging that in actual practice adding rich people to a population may provide some benefit to the whole population).
407:. Unlike A and B, A+ and B− are complex populations, each comprising two distinct groups of people. It is also stipulated that the lives of the members of each group are good enough that they would rather be alive than not exist.
473:
Thus, there is a paradox. The following intuitively plausible claims are jointly incompatible: (1) that A+ is no worse than A, (2) that B− is better than A+, (3) that B− is as good as B, and (4) that B can be worse than A.
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When we directly compare A (a population with high average happiness) and B (a population with lower average happiness, but more total happiness because of its larger population), it may seem that B can be worse than
402:
Parfit considers four populations, as depicted in the following diagram: A, A+, B− and B. Each bar represents a distinct group of people. The bars' width represents group size while the bar's height represents group
490:. The inconsistency could then be resolved by rejecting the assumption. According to this view, although A+ is no worse than A, and B− is better than A+, it does not follow that B− is better than A.
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argues that the intuition that B is worse than A is wrong. While the lives of those in B are worse than those in A, there are more of them, and thus the collective value of B is greater than A.
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and Stuart
Rachels, argue that inconsistencies between the four claims (above) rely on the assumption that the "better than" relation is
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B seems equally as good as B−, as the only difference between B− and B is that the two groups in B− are merged to form one group in B.
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Together, these three comparisons entail that B is better than A. However, Parfit also observes the following:
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523:) have agreed that avoiding the repugnant conclusion is not a necessary property of a satisfactory theory of
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people with very negative well-being, and a much larger number of people having barely positive welfare.
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B− seems better than A+. This is because B− has greater total and average happiness than A+.
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Another Mere
Addition Paradox? Some Reflections on Variable Population Poverty Measurement
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Torbjörn, Tännsjö (November 2002). "Why We Ought to Accept the
Repugnant Conclusion".
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Parfit makes the following three suggestions regarding the value of the populations:
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1007:, Contemporary Buddhism, Vol. 11 Issue 1, pp. 103–113, Routledge 2010
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Huemer, M. (2008), "In defence of repugnance" Mind, 117, 899-933.
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1005:
On the
Buddhist Truths and the Paradoxes in Population Ethics
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also argues that the repugnant conclusion is not repugnant.
409:
783:"What Should We Agree on about the Repugnant Conclusion?"
2114:
International
Conference on Population and Development
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The
Repugnant Conclusion. Essays on Population Ethics
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941:. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 2004 .
937:Ryberg, Jesper & Tännsjö, Torbjorn (eds.).
700:"Intransitivity and the mere addition paradox"
1735:
1026:
865:"Why the Repugnant Conclusion is Inescapable"
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949:Intransitivity and the Mere Addition Paradox
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719:"A set of solutions to Parfit's problems"
1775:Estimates of historical world population
530:Another response is the conclusion that
863:Buldolfson, Mark; Spears, Dean (2020).
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30:
677:. New York: Oxford University Press.
7:
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507:A number of philosophers (including
2144:Voluntary Human Extinction Movement
997:Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
835:Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
1351:What the Tortoise Said to Achilles
14:
2036:Population and Development Review
848:Arrhenius, Gustaf (2024-07-12) .
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1790:Projections of population growth
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978:, UNU-WIDER Working Paper 2010,
591:Average and total utilitarianism
2185:Human impact on the environment
2119:Population Action International
955:. 16 (2) (Spring 1987): 138–187
850:"The Very Repugnant Conclusion"
559:An alternative use of the term
2134:United Nations Population Fund
534:must be rejected in favour of
244:Utilitarian social choice rule
1:
2251:Thought experiments in ethics
976:Another Mere Addition Paradox
953:Philosophy and Public Affairs
704:Philosophy and Public Affairs
586:Asymmetry (population ethics)
893:. UNU-WIDER. November 2010.
2159:World Population Foundation
2149:World Population Conference
2062:World population milestones
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2031:Population and Environment
969:Edinburgh University Press
831:"The Repugnant Conclusion"
388:and discussed in his book
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1941:Human population planning
1765:Demographics of the world
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964:Hedonistic Utilitarianism
799:10.1017/S095382082100011X
750:10.1017/S0953820800003642
698:S. Temkin, Larry (1987).
548:Very Repugnant Conclusion
1946:Compulsory sterilization
992:The Repugnant Conclusion
717:Rachels, Stuart (2001).
2256:Philosophical paradoxes
1888:Malthusian growth model
1270:Paradoxes of set theory
932:Oxford University Press
652:, Reasons and Persons (
482:Some scholars, such as
279:Replaceability argument
264:Demandingness objection
137:Types of utilitarianism
62:Claude Adrien Helvétius
2015:Zero population growth
2010:Sustainable population
1934:Malthusian catastrophe
1893:Overshoot (population)
1770:Demographic transition
669:Parfit, Derek (1984).
566:no mere addition axiom
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304:Rational choice theory
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1988:Mere addition paradox
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616:Person-affecting view
561:mere addition paradox
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269:Mere addition paradox
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1998:Non-identity problem
1973:Political demography
1929:Human overpopulation
1636:Kavka's toxin puzzle
1408:Income and fertility
611:Human overpopulation
601:Ecological footprint
532:total utilitarianism
378:repugnant conclusion
2003:Reproductive rights
1834:Population dynamics
1785:Population momentum
1295:Temperature paradox
1218:Free choice paradox
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580:A Theory of Justice
391:Reasons and Persons
376:(also known as the
274:Paradox of hedonism
234:Equal consideration
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2129:Population Matters
1844:Population pyramid
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1345:Unexpected hanging
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380:) is a problem in
324:Effective altruism
239:Felicific calculus
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1978:Population ethics
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1780:Population growth
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974:Hassoun, Nicole.
959:Tännsjö, Torbjörn
930:, ch. 17 and 19.
900:978-92-9230-358-7
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525:population ethics
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16:Problem in ethics
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2032:
2029:
2028:
2026:
2022:
2016:
2013:
2011:
2008:
2004:
2001:
1999:
1996:
1994:
1991:
1989:
1986:
1984:
1981:
1980:
1979:
1976:
1974:
1971:
1969:
1966:
1962:
1959:
1957:
1954:
1952:
1949:
1947:
1944:
1943:
1942:
1939:
1935:
1932:
1931:
1930:
1927:
1925:
1923:
1919:
1917:
1914:
1913:
1911:
1905:
1899:
1896:
1894:
1891:
1889:
1886:
1884:
1883:Kaya identity
1881:
1878:
1874:
1872:
1869:
1867:
1864:
1863:
1861:
1858:
1851:
1845:
1842:
1840:
1837:
1835:
1832:
1828:
1825:
1824:
1823:
1820:
1818:
1815:
1814:
1812:
1809:
1802:
1796:
1793:
1791:
1788:
1786:
1783:
1781:
1778:
1776:
1773:
1771:
1768:
1766:
1763:
1762:
1760:
1756:
1752:
1745:
1740:
1738:
1733:
1731:
1726:
1725:
1722:
1710:
1702:
1700:
1692:
1691:
1688:
1682:
1679:
1677:
1674:
1672:
1669:
1667:
1664:
1662:
1659:
1657:
1654:
1652:
1649:
1647:
1644:
1642:
1641:Morton's fork
1639:
1637:
1634:
1632:
1629:
1627:
1624:
1622:
1619:
1617:
1614:
1612:
1609:
1607:
1604:
1602:
1599:
1597:
1594:
1592:
1589:
1587:
1584:
1582:
1581:Buridan's ass
1579:
1577:
1574:
1570:
1567:
1565:
1562:
1560:
1557:
1556:
1555:
1554:Apportionment
1552:
1550:
1547:
1546:
1544:
1540:
1534:
1531:
1529:
1526:
1524:
1521:
1519:
1516:
1514:
1511:
1509:
1506:
1504:
1501:
1499:
1496:
1494:
1491:
1489:
1486:
1484:
1481:
1479:
1476:
1474:
1471:
1469:
1466:
1464:
1461:
1459:
1456:
1454:
1451:
1449:
1446:
1444:
1441:
1439:
1436:
1434:
1431:
1429:
1426:
1424:
1421:
1419:
1416:
1414:
1413:Downs–Thomson
1411:
1409:
1406:
1404:
1401:
1399:
1396:
1394:
1391:
1389:
1386:
1384:
1381:
1379:
1376:
1375:
1373:
1369:
1363:
1360:
1358:
1355:
1352:
1348:
1346:
1343:
1341:
1338:
1336:
1333:
1331:
1330:Plato's beard
1328:
1326:
1323:
1321:
1318:
1316:
1313:
1311:
1308:
1306:
1303:
1301:
1298:
1296:
1293:
1291:
1288:
1286:
1283:
1281:
1278:
1276:
1273:
1271:
1268:
1266:
1263:
1259:
1256:
1254:
1251:
1249:
1246:
1244:
1241:
1239:
1236:
1235:
1234:
1231:
1229:
1228:Kleene–Rosser
1226:
1224:
1221:
1219:
1216:
1214:
1211:
1209:
1206:
1204:
1201:
1199:
1196:
1194:
1191:
1189:
1186:
1184:
1181:
1179:
1176:
1175:
1173:
1169:
1163:
1160:
1158:
1155:
1153:
1152:Theseus' ship
1150:
1148:
1145:
1143:
1140:
1138:
1135:
1133:
1130:
1128:
1125:
1123:
1120:
1118:
1115:
1113:
1112:Mere addition
1110:
1108:
1105:
1103:
1100:
1098:
1095:
1093:
1090:
1088:
1085:
1083:
1080:
1078:
1075:
1073:
1070:
1068:
1065:
1063:
1060:
1058:
1055:
1054:
1052:
1050:Philosophical
1048:
1044:
1036:
1031:
1029:
1024:
1022:
1017:
1016:
1013:
1006:
1002:
999:
998:
993:
990:
989:
985:
980:
977:
973:
970:
966:
965:
960:
957:
954:
950:
946:
945:Temkin, Larry
943:
940:
936:
933:
929:
928:
923:
922:
918:
902:
896:
892:
891:
884:
881:
870:
866:
859:
856:
851:
844:
841:
836:
832:
826:
823:
818:
814:
809:
804:
800:
796:
792:
788:
784:
776:
773:
767:
764:
759:
755:
751:
747:
743:
739:
732:
729:
724:
720:
713:
710:
705:
701:
694:
691:
686:
680:
675:
674:
665:
663:
659:
655:
651:
646:
643:
636:
632:
629:
627:
624:
622:
619:
617:
614:
612:
609:
607:
604:
602:
599:
597:
594:
592:
589:
587:
584:
582:
581:
577:
576:
572:
570:
567:
562:
554:
552:
549:
541:
539:
537:
533:
528:
526:
522:
518:
514:
510:
505:
501:
499:
495:
491:
489:
485:
477:
475:
465:
462:
461:
460:
459:
458:
450:
447:
446:
445:
444:
438:
435:
434:
433:
432:
425:
422:
421:
420:
419:
418:
412:
408:
406:
397:
395:
393:
392:
387:
383:
379:
375:
363:
358:
356:
351:
349:
344:
343:
341:
340:
337:
334:
333:
325:
322:
320:
317:
315:
312:
310:
307:
305:
302:
301:
294:
293:
285:
282:
280:
277:
275:
272:
270:
267:
265:
262:
261:
254:
253:
245:
242:
240:
237:
235:
232:
230:
227:
225:
222:
220:
217:
215:
212:
210:
207:
205:
202:
200:
197:
196:
189:
188:
180:
177:
175:
172:
170:
167:
165:
162:
160:
157:
155:
152:
150:
147:
145:
142:
141:
134:
133:
125:
122:
120:
117:
115:
112:
110:
107:
105:
102:
101:
97:
92:
91:
83:
82:William Paley
80:
78:
75:
73:
70:
68:
65:
63:
60:
58:
55:
53:
50:
48:
45:
44:
37:
36:
33:
29:
25:
21:
20:
2212:
2024:Publications
1987:
1983:Antinatalism
1921:
1898:World3 model
1758:Major topics
1661:Preparedness
1493:Productivity
1473:Mandeville's
1265:Opposite Day
1193:Burali-Forti
1188:Bhartrhari's
1111:
1004:
995:
975:
962:
952:
938:
925:
904:. Retrieved
889:
883:
872:. Retrieved
868:
858:
843:
834:
825:
790:
786:
775:
766:
741:
737:
731:
722:
712:
703:
693:
672:
650:Derek Parfit
645:
578:
565:
560:
558:
547:
545:
529:
513:Yew-Kwang Ng
506:
502:
492:
484:Larry Temkin
481:
472:
463:
456:
448:
436:
423:
416:
401:
389:
386:Derek Parfit
377:
373:
371:
268:
192:Key concepts
124:Peter Singer
40:Predecessors
1907:Society and
1866:Biocapacity
1591:Condorcet's
1443:Giffen good
1403:Competition
1157:White horse
1132:Omnipotence
808:10852/90849
398:The paradox
309:Game theory
2240:Categories
2094:Events and
1909:population
1855:Population
1806:Population
1751:Population
1666:Prevention
1656:Parrondo's
1646:Navigation
1631:Inventor's
1626:Hedgehog's
1586:Chainstore
1569:Population
1564:New states
1498:Prosperity
1478:Mayfield's
1320:Entailment
1300:Barbershop
1213:Epimenides
919:References
874:2024-07-12
488:transitive
224:Eudaimonia
174:Preference
119:R. M. Hare
57:David Hume
52:Shantideva
2190:Migration
2067:6 billion
1681:Willpower
1676:Tolerance
1651:Newcomb's
1616:Fredkin's
1503:Scitovsky
1423:Edgeworth
1418:Easterlin
1383:Antitrust
1280:Russell's
1275:Richard's
1248:Pinocchio
1203:Crocodile
1122:Newcomb's
1092:Goodman's
1087:Free will
1072:Epicurean
1043:paradoxes
817:0953-8208
758:233360601
478:Responses
405:happiness
219:Happiness
204:Suffering
179:Classical
159:Two-level
2225:Category
1993:Natalism
1916:Eugenics
1709:Category
1606:Ellsberg
1458:Leontief
1438:Gibson's
1433:European
1428:Ellsberg
1398:Braess's
1393:Bertrand
1371:Economic
1305:Catch-22
1285:Socratic
1127:Nihilism
1097:Hedonism
1057:Analysis
1041:Notable
906:31 March
787:Utilitas
738:Utilitas
573:See also
542:Variants
521:Toby Ord
257:Problems
209:Pleasure
144:Negative
24:a series
22:Part of
2214:Commons
1857:ecology
1808:biology
1611:Fenno's
1576:Arrow's
1559:Alabama
1549:Abilene
1528:Tullock
1483:Metzler
1325:Lottery
1315:Drinker
1258:Yablo's
1253:Quine's
1208:Curry's
1171:Logical
1147:Sorites
1137:Preface
1117:Moore's
1102:Liberal
1077:Fiction
214:Utility
169:Average
1924:genics
1518:Thrift
1488:Plenty
1463:Lerner
1453:Jevons
1448:Icarus
1378:Allais
1340:Ross's
1178:Barber
1162:Zeno's
1107:Meno's
897:
815:
756:
681:
427:exist.
382:ethics
2045:Lists
1621:Green
1601:Downs
1533:Value
1468:Lucas
1335:Raven
1243:No-no
1198:Court
1183:Berry
971:1998.
934:1986.
754:S2CID
637:Notes
164:Total
1699:List
1523:Toil
1238:Card
1233:Liar
908:2015
895:ISBN
813:ISSN
723:Noûs
679:ISBN
546:The
527:.
519:and
372:The
199:Pain
149:Rule
47:Mozi
1922:Dys
951:",
947:. "
803:hdl
795:doi
746:doi
154:Act
2242::
967:.
961:.
867:.
833:.
811:.
801:.
791:33
789:.
785:.
752:.
742:14
740:.
721:.
702:.
661:^
515:,
511:,
467:A.
464:4.
449:3.
437:2.
424:1.
26:on
2077:8
2072:7
1743:e
1736:t
1729:v
1353:"
1349:"
1034:e
1027:t
1020:v
1000:)
994:(
981:.
910:.
877:.
852:.
837:.
819:.
805::
797::
760:.
748::
725:.
706:.
687:.
361:e
354:t
347:v
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