7191:
42:
7215:
1902:. Through these transitions, astronomers have developed several observational methods to estimate metal abundances in H regions, where the stronger the forbidden lines in spectroscopic observations, the higher the metallicity. These methods are dependent on one or more of the following: the variety of asymmetrical densities inside H regions, the varied temperatures of the embedded stars, and/or the electron density within the ionized region.
7203:
7263:
7153:
129:
7251:
7227:
7239:
235:
2359:= 4861 Å wavelength. This ratio is well defined through models and observational studies, but caution should be taken, as the ratio is often degenerate, providing both a low and high metallicity solution, which can be broken with additional line measurements. Similarly, other strong forbidden line ratios can be used, e.g. for sulfur, where
7164:
1027:
2595:
1905:
Theoretically, to determine the total abundance of a single element in an H region, all transition lines should be observed and summed. However, this can be observationally difficult due to variation in line strength. Some of the most common forbidden lines used to determine metal abundances in H
2189:
175:
in the solar atmosphere. Their observations were in the visible range where the strongest lines come from metals such as Na, K, Fe. In the early work on the chemical composition of the sun the only elements that were detected in spectra were hydrogen and various metals, with the term
3298:
Sobral, David; Matthee, Jorryt; Darvish, Behnam; Schaerer, Daniel; Mobasher, Bahram; Röttgering, Huub J.A.; et al. (4 June 2015). "Evidence for pop III-like stellar populations in the most luminous Lyman-α emitters at the epoch of re-ionisation: Spectroscopic confirmation".
847:
1368:
stars are estimated to have metallicity less than −6, a millionth of the abundance of iron in the Sun. The same notation is used to express variations in abundances between other individual elements as compared to solar proportions. For example, the notation
2364:
2334:
1974:
293:
Astronomers use several different methods to describe and approximate metal abundances, depending on the available tools and the object of interest. Some methods include determining the fraction of mass that is attributed to
633:
1722:
542:
447:
1776:, the more likely the system may have gas giant planets. Current models show that the metallicity along with the correct planetary system temperature and distance from the star are key to planet and
1958:
has some of the stronger, more abundant lines in H regions, making it a main target for metallicity estimates within these objects. To calculate metal abundances in H regions using oxygen
4693:
4640:
1022:{\displaystyle \left~=~\log _{10}{\left({\frac {N_{\mathsf {Fe}}}{N_{\mathsf {H}}}}\right)_{\star }}-~\log _{10}{\left({\frac {N_{\mathsf {Fe}}}{N_{\mathsf {H}}}}\right)_{\odot }}\ ,}
1490:
1359:
1280:
1217:
826:
content of the star, which has an abundance that is generally linearly increasing in time in the
Universe. Hence, iron can be used as a chronological indicator of nucleosynthesis.
803:
758:
713:
4754:
Kobulnicky, Henry A.; Kennicutt, Robert C. Jr.; Pizagno, James L. (April 1999). "On measuring nebular chemical abundances in distant galaxies using global emission-line spectra".
1067:
1102:
486:
822:
The overall stellar metallicity is conventionally defined using the total hydrogen content, since its abundance is considered to be relatively constant in the
Universe, or the
3691:
Cameron, L. M. (June 1985). "Metallicities and distances of galactic clusters as determined from UBV data – Part Three – Ages and abundance gradients of open clusters".
1520:(UV) excess in stars, where a smaller UV excess indicates a larger presence of metals that absorb the UV radiation, thereby making the star appear "redder". The UV excess,
1846:
1423:
1756:, as there is a direct correlation between metallicity and the presence of a giant planet. Measurements have demonstrated the connection between a star's metallicity and
5272:
5203:
4922:
3492:
1563:
that can be used to determine metallicities of certain astrophysical objects include the Strӧmgren system, the Geneva system, the
Washington system, and the DDO system.
4354:
255:
Observed changes in the chemical abundances of different types of stars, based on the spectral peculiarities that were later attributed to metallicity, led astronomer
2910:"Spectrum analysis in its application to terrestrial substances and the physical constitution of the heavenly bodies : familiarly explained / by H. Schellen ..."
2590:{\displaystyle S_{23}={\frac {\ \left_{6716~\mathrm {\AA} +6731~\mathrm {\AA} }+\left_{9069~\mathrm {\AA} +9532~\mathrm {\AA} }\ }{{\Bigl }_{4861~\mathrm {\AA} }}}~.}
830:
is relatively easy to measure with spectral observations in the star's spectrum given the large number of iron lines in the star's spectra (even though oxygen is the
380:
2196:
1146:
1122:
658:
544:
The remainder of the elements are collectively referred to as "metals", and the metallicity – the mass fraction of elements heavier than helium – is calculated as
7004:
4000:
Kobi, D.; North, P. (November 1990). "A new calibration of the Geneva photometry in terms of Te, log g, (Fe/H) and mass for main sequence A4 to G5 stars".
4820:
Grazyna, Stasinska (2004). "Abundance determinations in H regions and planetary nebulae". In
Esteban, C.; Garcia Lopez, R.J.; Herrero, A.; Sanchez, F. (eds.).
549:
4853:
Peimbert, Antonio; Peimbert, Manuel; Ruiz, Maria Teresa (December 2005). "Chemical composition of two H regions in NGC 6822 based on VLT spectroscopy".
3124:
5604:
198:
The presence of heavier elements results from stellar nucleosynthesis, where the majority of elements heavier than hydrogen and helium in the
Universe (
3358:
116:
with relatively high abundances of heavier elements are called "metal-rich" when discussing metallicity, even though many of those elements are called
2711:"Bestimmung des Brechungs- und des Farben-Zerstreuungs - Vermögens verschiedener Glasarten, in Bezug auf die Vervollkommnung achromatischer Fernröhre"
4298:
Wang, Ji; Fischer, Debra A. (2013). "Revealing a universal planet-metallicity correlation for planets of different sizes around Solar-type stars".
3833:
Laird, John B.; Carney, Bruce W.; Latham, David W. (June 1988). "A survey of proper-motion stars. III - Reddenings, distances, and metallicities".
2713:(Determination of the refractive and color-dispersing power of different types of glass, in relation to the improvement of achromatic telescopes),
2184:{\displaystyle R_{23}={\frac {\ \left_{3727~\mathrm {\AA} }+\left_{4959~\mathrm {\AA} +5007~\mathrm {\AA} }\ }{{\Bigl }_{4861~\mathrm {\AA} }}}\ ,}
1425:
represents the difference in the logarithm of the star's oxygen abundance versus its iron content compared to that of the Sun. In general, a given
168:
7190:
7036:
5385:
3917:
3251:
2954:
2752:
2694:
4459:
Kewley, L.J.; Dopita, M.A. (September 2002). "Using strong lines to estimate abundances in extragalactic H regions and starburst galaxies".
4443:
396:, and other astronomical sources, hydrogen and helium are the two dominant elements. The hydrogen mass fraction is generally expressed as
3272:
1618:
180:
frequently used when describing them. In contemporary usage all the extra elements beyond just hydrogen and helium are termed metallic.
5401:
Balser, Dana S.; Rood, Robert T.; Bania, T.M.; Anderson, L.D. (2011-08-10). "H region metallicity distribution in the Milky Way disk".
7011:
6330:
831:
814:, neither the initial composition nor the present day bulk composition of the Sun is the same as its present-day surface composition.
69:
4084:
Geisler, Doug; Claria, Juan J.; Minniti, Dante (November 1991). "An improved metal abundance calibration for the
Washington system".
7283:
5592:
3907:
3385:
Johnson, H.L.; Morgan, W.W. (May 1953). "Fundamental stellar photometry for standards of spectral type on the revised system of the
2629:
4417:
4413:
4409:
4389:
4385:
3268:
6723:
1364:
Young population I stars have significantly higher iron-to-hydrogen ratios than older population II stars. Primordial
491:
399:
5134:
Kobulnicky, Henry A.; Zaritsky, Dennis (1999-01-20). "Chemical
Properties of Star-forming Emission-Line Galaxies atz=0.1–0.5".
4226:
2599:
Metal abundances within H regions are typically less than 1%, with the percentage decreasing on average with distance from the
1552:
can be used as an indicator for temperature. Furthermore, the UV excess and B−V index can be corrected to relate the
298:
versus metals, or measuring the ratios of the number of atoms of two different elements as compared to the ratios found in the
6637:
7288:
7016:
6653:
5672:
3733:"New subdwarfs. II. Radial velocities, photometry, and preliminary space motions for 112 stars with large proper motion"
2618:
152:. He mapped over 570 lines, designating the most prominent with the letters A through K and weaker lines with other letters.
3537:
Wallerstein, George; Carlson, Maurice (September 1960). "Letter to the Editor: On the ultraviolet excess in G dwarfs".
4362:
285:
stars. These "extremely metal-poor" (XMP) stars are theorized to have been the "first-born" stars created in the
Universe.
7063:
6930:
167:
identifies in the spectra of heated chemical elements. They inferred that dark lines in the solar spectrum are caused by
7046:
6997:
6972:
6265:
6350:
3095:
Puget, J.L.; Heyvaerts, J. (1980). "Population III stars and the shape of the cosmological black body radiation".
1152:, contraction of "decimal exponent". By this formulation, stars with a higher metallicity than the Sun have a positive
7293:
6987:
6967:
5073:
4522:
226:, generally have lower metallicities than those of younger generations, which formed in a more metal-rich Universe.
7298:
7181:
7051:
6982:
6952:
4691:
Henry, R.B.C.; Worthey, Guy (August 1999). "The distribution of heavy elements in spiral and elliptical galaxies".
3693:
2686:
1733:
223:
3122:
Asplund, Martin; Grevesse, Nicolas; Sauval, A. Jacques; Scott, Pat (2009). "The chemical composition of the Sun".
41:
7058:
6935:
6912:
6494:
5943:
5938:
5933:
5928:
5923:
5918:
5403:
5323:
5136:
5022:
4855:
4756:
4589:
4261:
3788:
3737:
3646:
3595:
3539:
3391:
3301:
2846:"Ueber das Verhältniss zwischen dem Emissionsvermögen und dem Absorptionsvermögen der Körper für Wärme und Licht"
1863:
2848:[On the relation between the emissive power and the absorptive power of bodies towards heat and light].
6201:
6075:
5710:
4300:
3835:
193:
6728:
6397:
347:
6977:
6527:
6437:
6379:
6305:
5876:
5802:
5469:
1737:
1426:
189:
5752:
4520:
Nagao, T.; Maiolino, R.; Marconi, A. (2006-09-12). "Gas metallicity diagnostics in star-forming galaxies".
4400:
Arimoto, N. (23–27 May 2005). "Linking the halo to its surroundings". In Hill, Vanessa; François, Patrick;
3246:. Astrophysics and Space Science Library. Vol. 253. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 7.
1780:
formation. For two stars that have equal age and mass but different metallicity, the less metallic star is
1736:, lower metallicity stars will collapse directly to a black hole, while higher metallicity stars undergo a
1432:
1301:
1222:
1159:
769:
724:
679:
7138:
7118:
6890:
6885:
6678:
6627:
6432:
6422:
6095:
5893:
5861:
5735:
5496:
2648:
1891:
1781:
1513:
1501:
1156:, whereas those more dominated by hydrogen have a corresponding negative value. For example, stars with a
1149:
1034:
137:
1540:: If two stars are equally metal-rich, but one is cooler than the other, they will likely have different
1072:
456:
6992:
6962:
6957:
6947:
6875:
6663:
5829:
5528:
1951:
1537:
1529:
1525:
1429:
process alters the proportions of only a few elements or isotopes, so a star or gas sample with certain
141:
7214:
6110:
1752:
A star's metallicity measurement is one parameter that helps determine whether a star may have a giant
2661:
7133:
7031:
7021:
6870:
6838:
6632:
6427:
6412:
5725:
5623:
5547:
5488:
5422:
5373:
5332:
5281:
5222:
5155:
5092:
5031:
4980:
4931:
4874:
4835:
4775:
4712:
4649:
4598:
4541:
4478:
4421:
4319:
4270:
4189:
4140:
4093:
4048:
4009:
3974:
3940:
3883:
3844:
3797:
3746:
3702:
3655:
3604:
3548:
3501:
3447:
3400:
3320:
3206:
3187:
3143:
3104:
3067:
3020:
2983:
2857:
2818:
1898:, which eventually decay back into a ground state, emitting photons with energies that correspond to
1125:
638:
117:
35:
5972:
3177:
Hinkel, Natalie; Timmes, Frank; Young, Patrick; Pagano, Michael; Turnbull, Maggie (September 2014).
2885:
1784:. Among stars of the same color, less metallic stars emit more ultraviolet radiation. The Sun, with
7255:
6733:
6593:
6576:
6247:
6149:
5501:
5464:
1899:
1773:
215:
2782:
1795:
1372:
7243:
7219:
7128:
7089:
7041:
7026:
6940:
6880:
6803:
6713:
6683:
6673:
6617:
6539:
6230:
5866:
5665:
5639:
5613:
5563:
5537:
5514:
5478:
5446:
5412:
5248:
5212:
5179:
5145:
5116:
5082:
4898:
4864:
4825:
4799:
4765:
4736:
4702:
4673:
4565:
4531:
4502:
4468:
4335:
4309:
3363:
3336:
3310:
3222:
3196:
3159:
3133:
3036:
2972:"The Resolution of Messier 32, NGC 205, and the central region of the Andromeda Nebula"
1578:
1560:
1365:
276:
260:
3178:
2920:
2329:{\displaystyle \ \left_{3727~\mathrm {\AA} }+\left_{4959~\mathrm {\AA} +5007~\mathrm {\AA} }\ }
7079:
6564:
6504:
6477:
6457:
6257:
6041:
6029:
5856:
5836:
5790:
5772:
5740:
5588:
5438:
5381:
5350:
5299:
5240:
5171:
5108:
5049:
4998:
4949:
4890:
4791:
4728:
4665:
4616:
4557:
4494:
4439:
4207:
4158:
4109:
4066:
4017:
3982:
3913:
3903:
3895:
3860:
3815:
3764:
3710:
3673:
3622:
3564:
3519:
3465:
3416:
3247:
2950:
2909:
2771:
2748:
2744:
2710:
2690:
2612:
1545:
1509:
1500:
Astronomers can estimate metallicities through measured and calibrated systems that correlate
811:
246:
203:
164:
5068:
4037:"The empirical abundance calibrations for Washington photometry of population II giants"
3882:(original (re-issued 1968) ed.). Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press. p. 123.
1528:, compared to the difference between U and B band magnitudes of metal-rich stars in the
7231:
7207:
6907:
6860:
6810:
6798:
6776:
6771:
6698:
6658:
6605:
6387:
6310:
6285:
6179:
6100:
5824:
5785:
5631:
5627:
5555:
5506:
5430:
5340:
5289:
5230:
5163:
5100:
5096:
5039:
4988:
4939:
4882:
4783:
4720:
4657:
4606:
4549:
4545:
4486:
4429:
4401:
4377:
4327:
4278:
4197:
4148:
4101:
4056:
4013:
3978:
3852:
3805:
3754:
3706:
3663:
3612:
3556:
3509:
3455:
3408:
3328:
3241:
3214:
3151:
3147:
3108:
3075:
3028:
2991:
2916:
2865:
2826:
2732:
1939:
1769:
1153:
1131:
1107:
842:
of the ratio of a star's iron abundance compared to that of the Sun and is calculated thus:
839:
643:
172:
156:
149:
73:
46:
5635:
3878:
Strömgren, Bengt (1963). "Quantitative classification methods". In Strand, Kaj Aage (ed.).
3155:
3056:"Core condensation in heavy halos - a two-stage theory for galaxy formation and clustering"
488:
is the mass of the hydrogen it contains. Similarly, the helium mass fraction is denoted as
7094:
6897:
6766:
6610:
6581:
6522:
6517:
6392:
6120:
6085:
6019:
5965:
5960:
5905:
5715:
2600:
1887:
5526:
Heger, A.; Woosley, S.E. (2002). "The nucleosynthetic signature of population III".
1219:
value of +1 have 10 times the metallicity of the Sun (10); conversely, those with a
144:
independently rediscovered the lines and began to systematically study and measure their
5551:
5492:
5426:
5377:
5336:
5285:
5226:
5159:
5035:
4984:
4935:
4878:
4839:
4779:
4716:
4653:
4602:
4482:
4425:
4323:
4274:
4193:
4144:
4097:
4052:
3944:
3887:
3848:
3801:
3750:
3659:
3608:
3552:
3505:
3451:
3404:
3324:
3210:
3071:
3024:
2987:
2861:
2822:
7267:
7195:
7156:
6922:
6761:
6588:
6559:
6534:
6467:
6156:
6024:
5910:
5812:
5702:
5692:
3354:
281:
104:. This word-use is distinct from the conventional chemical or physical definition of a
5319:"Galactic abundance gradients from infrared fine-structure lines in compact H regions"
4969:"Theoretical models for H regions. II - The extragalactic H region abundance sequence"
3332:
3276:
2944:
7277:
7108:
6902:
6865:
6833:
6708:
6417:
6240:
6211:
6189:
5807:
5780:
5757:
5658:
5643:
5450:
5434:
5252:
5235:
5198:
4824:. Cambridge Contemporary Astrophysics. Cambridge University Press. pp. 115–170.
4677:
4339:
4331:
3728:
3586:
3483:
3226:
3218:
3040:
2733:
2348:
2337:
1895:
1789:
271:
160:
53:
5567:
5518:
5199:"An empirical calibration of nebular abundances based on the sulphur emission lines"
5183:
5120:
4902:
4803:
4740:
4569:
4506:
4234:
3340:
3163:
7262:
7168:
6843:
6793:
6788:
6688:
6571:
6554:
6512:
6472:
6407:
6290:
6235:
6216:
6196:
6174:
6166:
6009:
6002:
5841:
5762:
5745:
5266:
Shaver, P.A.; McGee, R.X.; Newton, L.M.; Danks, A.C.; Pottasch, S.R. (1983-09-01).
4916:
Pagel, B.E.J.; Edmunds, M.G.; Blackwell, D.E.; Chun, M.S.; Smith, G. (1979-11-01).
1875:
1785:
1777:
1741:
1505:
265:
256:
238:
207:
4635:
2662:"A method of examining refractive and dispersive powers, by prismatic reflection,"
140:
noted the appearance of a number of dark features in the solar spectrum. In 1814,
5510:
5104:
4553:
4036:
7084:
6783:
6756:
6748:
6738:
6718:
6622:
6544:
6300:
6275:
6270:
6184:
6144:
6105:
6070:
6053:
6048:
5720:
2740:
1871:
1867:
1859:
1549:
1517:
393:
85:
2776:
Monatsbericht der Königlichen
Preussische Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin
1728:
overall, as heavy population II stars have long since died. Above 40
128:
6668:
6365:
6338:
6315:
6295:
6280:
6132:
6036:
6014:
5992:
5987:
5851:
4434:
3514:
3487:
3080:
3055:
2778:(Monthly report of the Royal Prussian Academy of Sciences in Berlin), 662–665.
2623:
2341:
1729:
145:
93:
49:
5442:
5354:
5303:
5294:
5267:
5244:
5175:
5112:
5053:
5002:
4953:
4944:
4917:
4894:
4795:
4732:
4669:
4620:
4561:
4498:
4211:
4162:
4113:
4070:
4021:
3986:
3864:
3819:
3768:
3714:
3677:
3626:
3568:
3523:
3469:
3420:
2870:
2830:
1148:
for a star (often omitted below). The unit often used for metallicity is the
222:. It follows that older generations of stars, which formed in the metal-poor
6855:
6703:
6487:
6452:
6447:
6442:
6402:
6355:
6345:
6139:
6115:
6090:
5997:
5948:
5881:
5871:
5846:
5819:
5795:
5730:
4918:"On the composition of H regions in southern galaxies – I. NGC 300 and 1365"
4129:"A revised effective-temperature calibration for the DDO photometric system"
1757:
219:
211:
61:
1104:
are the number of iron and hydrogen atoms per unit of volume respectively,
27:
Relative abundance of heavy elements in a star or other astronomical object
4420:/ Cambridge University Press (published February 2006). pp. 503–512.
2789:(Proceedings of the Natural History / Medical Association in Heidelberg),
2721:: 193–226; see especially pages 202–205 and the plate following page 226.
17:
6848:
6549:
6223:
5982:
5955:
5618:
5542:
5483:
5217:
5150:
5087:
4869:
4830:
4770:
4707:
4536:
4473:
2347:= (3727, 4959 and 5007) Å wavelengths, divided by the flux from the
1919:
1879:
1492:
values may well be indicative of an associated, studied nuclear process.
327:
77:
4178:"Cyanogen strengths, luminosities, and kinematics of K giant stars"
3899:
628:{\displaystyle Z=\sum _{e>{\mathsf {He}}}{\tfrac {m_{e}}{M}}=1-X-Y~.}
7123:
6598:
6360:
6127:
6080:
6063:
6058:
5977:
4230:
3931:
Crawford, L.D. (1966). "Photo-electric H-beta and U V B Y photometry".
1761:
1524:(U−B), is defined as the difference between a star's U and B band
249:
234:
7113:
7101:
6320:
6206:
3032:
2787:
Verhandlungen des naturhistorisch-medizinischen
Vereins zu Heidelberg
2626:, the most distant seen, presumably from a low-metallicity progenitor
1955:
1927:
1907:
1883:
1765:
1753:
389:
335:
113:
89:
81:
4406:
From Lithium to Uranium: Elemental tracers of early cosmic evolution
4382:
From Lithium to Uranium: Elemental tracers of early cosmic evolution
3359:"Astronomers report finding earliest stars that enriched the cosmos"
2845:
2806:
2715:
Denkschriften der Königlichen Akademie der Wissenschaften zu München
1576:
At a given mass and age, a metal-poor star will be slightly warmer.
52:. Stars in globular clusters are mainly older metal-poor members of
7163:
5559:
5345:
5318:
5167:
5044:
5017:
4993:
4968:
4886:
4787:
4724:
4661:
4611:
4584:
4490:
4283:
4256:
4202:
4177:
4153:
4128:
4105:
4061:
3856:
3810:
3783:
3759:
3732:
3668:
3641:
3617:
3590:
3560:
3460:
3435:
3412:
3315:
3271:. New analysis RR Lyrae kinematics in the solar neighborhood.
2996:
2971:
214:
deposit the metals into the surrounding environment, enriching the
163:
noticed that several Fraunhofer lines coincide with characteristic
5417:
4314:
3201:
3138:
1717:{\displaystyle \left(\ {\bigl }\ ={-3.0}\ ...\ {-1.0}\ \right)\ ,}
385:
342:
is the mass fraction of all the remaining chemical elements. Thus
242:
233:
127:
105:
40:
31:
4127:
Claria, Juan J.; Piatti, Andres E.; Lapasset, Emilio (May 1994).
3011:
Rees, M.J. (1978). "Origin of pregalactic microwave background".
6482:
6462:
5681:
1959:
827:
823:
109:
5654:
660:), these parameters are measured to have the following values:
6828:
310:
Stellar composition is often simply defined by the parameters
299:
295:
5602:
Bromm, Volker; Larson, Richard B. (2004). "The first stars".
3488:"On the existence of subdwarfs in the (MBol, log Te)-diagram"
2615:, a galaxy that reportedly contains Population III stars
1894:
other atoms nearby, exciting bound metallic electrons into a
5587:(Fourth ed.). Canada: Jones and Bartlett. p. 593.
5317:
Afflerbach, A.; Churchwell, E.; Werner, M. W. (1997-03-20).
4815:
4813:
3640:
Schwarzschild, M.; Searle, L.; Howard, R. (September 1955).
3580:
3578:
1361:
value of 0 have the same metallicity as the Sun, and so on.
132:
Solar spectrum with Fraunhofer lines as it appears visually.
3591:"On the effect of Fraunhofer lines on u, b, V measurements"
5467:(2004). "Induced formation of primordial low-mass stars".
1858:
Young, massive and hot stars (typically of spectral types
1732:, metallicity influences how a star will die: Outside the
537:{\displaystyle \ Y\equiv {\tfrac {m_{\mathsf {He}}}{M}}~.}
442:{\displaystyle \ X\equiv {\tfrac {m_{\mathsf {H}}}{M}}\ ,}
5650:
4392:
Symposia and Colloquia. Vol. 228. pp. 509–511.
4694:
Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific
4641:
Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific
4133:
Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific
4041:
Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific
3958:
Cramer, N.; Maeder, A. (October 1979). "Luminosity and
1548:). To help mitigate this degeneracy, a star's B−V
4416:
Symposia and Colloquia. Vol. 228. Paris, France:
4227:"Planet-metallicity correlation - the rich get richer"
2949:. Internet Archive. Oxford, New York, Pergamon Press.
2717:(Memoirs of the Royal Academy of Sciences in Munich),
1810:
1638:
1447:
1387:
1316:
1237:
1174:
583:
505:
413:
202:, hereafter) are formed in the cores of stars as they
7179:
2367:
2199:
1977:
1798:
1621:
1435:
1375:
1304:
1225:
1162:
1134:
1110:
1075:
1037:
850:
772:
727:
682:
646:
552:
494:
459:
402:
350:
5069:"On the oxygen abundance determination in H regions"
3784:"Subdwarf ultraviolet excesses and metal abundances"
1748:
Relationship between stellar metallicity and planets
84:. Most of the normal currently detectable (i.e. non-
7072:
6921:
6819:
6747:
6646:
6503:
6378:
6256:
6165:
5892:
5771:
5701:
5370:Nucleosynthesis and Chemical Evolution of Galaxies
4355:"When stellar metallicity sparks planet formation"
3933:Spectral Classification and Multicolour Photometry
3880:Basic Astronomical Data: Stars and stellar systems
2589:
2328:
2183:
1840:
1716:
1484:
1417:
1353:
1274:
1211:
1140:
1116:
1096:
1061:
1021:
797:
752:
707:
652:
627:
536:
480:
441:
374:
259:in 1944 to propose the existence of two different
92:in the universe is either hydrogen or helium, and
5273:Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society
5204:Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society
4923:Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society
3493:Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society
3060:Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society
2557:
2530:
2151:
2124:
5018:"H region abundances - Model oxygen line ratios"
2651:Encyclopædia Britannica, retrieved 31 March 2013
4822:Cosmochemistry: The melting pot of the elements
4396:Missing article's page numbers are imbedded in:
3179:"Stellar abundances in the Solar neighborhood:
2665:Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society
2731:Jenkins, Francis A.; White, Harvey E. (1981).
1567:Metallicities in various astrophysical objects
5666:
3125:Annual Review of Astronomy & Astrophysics
1830:
1804:
1658:
1632:
1468:
1441:
1407:
1381:
1337:
1310:
1258:
1231:
1195:
1168:
8:
5197:Diaz, A.I.; Perez-Montero, E. (2000-02-11).
4002:Astronomy and Astrophysics Supplement Series
30:For metallic and nonmetallic compounds, see
5605:Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics
5372:. Cambridge University Press. p. 392.
4461:The Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series
4182:The Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series
3440:The Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series
3269:"What we learn from a star's metal content"
1536:(U−B) is sensitive to both metallicity and
76:present in an object that are heavier than
5898:
5673:
5659:
5651:
2938:
2936:
218:and providing recycling materials for the
5617:
5541:
5500:
5482:
5416:
5344:
5293:
5234:
5216:
5149:
5086:
5043:
4992:
4967:Dopita, M.A.; Evans, I.N. (August 1986).
4943:
4868:
4829:
4769:
4706:
4610:
4585:"Temperature determinations of H regions"
4535:
4472:
4433:
4313:
4282:
4255:Fischer, Debra A.; Valenti, Jeff (2005).
4201:
4152:
4060:
3809:
3758:
3667:
3616:
3513:
3459:
3314:
3200:
3137:
3079:
2995:
2869:
2570:
2569:
2562:
2556:
2555:
2547:
2546:
2540:
2539:
2529:
2528:
2515:
2514:
2499:
2498:
2491:
2473:
2472:
2466:
2465:
2444:
2443:
2428:
2427:
2420:
2405:
2404:
2398:
2397:
2381:
2372:
2366:
2315:
2314:
2299:
2298:
2291:
2273:
2272:
2266:
2265:
2244:
2243:
2236:
2221:
2220:
2214:
2213:
2198:
2164:
2163:
2156:
2150:
2149:
2141:
2140:
2134:
2133:
2123:
2122:
2109:
2108:
2093:
2092:
2085:
2067:
2066:
2060:
2059:
2038:
2037:
2030:
2015:
2014:
2008:
2007:
1991:
1982:
1976:
1829:
1828:
1820:
1812:
1809:
1803:
1802:
1797:
1768:. The more metals in a star and thus its
1692:
1669:
1657:
1656:
1648:
1640:
1637:
1631:
1630:
1620:
1473:
1467:
1466:
1454:
1449:
1446:
1440:
1439:
1434:
1406:
1405:
1394:
1389:
1386:
1380:
1379:
1374:
1342:
1336:
1335:
1326:
1318:
1315:
1309:
1308:
1303:
1263:
1257:
1256:
1247:
1239:
1236:
1230:
1229:
1224:
1200:
1194:
1193:
1184:
1176:
1173:
1167:
1166:
1161:
1133:
1109:
1084:
1083:
1074:
1046:
1045:
1036:
1006:
993:
992:
978:
977:
971:
965:
956:
939:
926:
925:
911:
910:
904:
898:
889:
865:
857:
855:
849:
780:
771:
735:
726:
690:
681:
645:
589:
582:
571:
570:
563:
551:
512:
511:
504:
493:
468:
467:
458:
420:
419:
412:
401:
349:
102:"all elements except hydrogen and helium"
1962:measurements, astronomers often use the
662:
7186:
4412:Symposium 228. Proceedings of the
4388:Symposium 228. Proceedings of the
2640:
835:
5636:10.1146/annurev.astro.42.053102.134034
5583:Kuhn, Karl F.; Koupelis, Theo (2004).
3156:10.1146/annurev.astro.46.060407.145222
2886:"Kirchhoff and Bunsen on Spectroscopy"
2541:
2480:
2477:
2474:
2467:
2409:
2406:
2399:
2280:
2277:
2274:
2267:
2225:
2222:
2215:
2135:
2074:
2071:
2068:
2061:
2019:
2016:
2009:
1821:
1816:
1813:
1649:
1644:
1641:
1458:
1455:
1450:
1398:
1395:
1390:
1327:
1322:
1319:
1248:
1243:
1240:
1185:
1180:
1177:
1085:
1050:
1047:
994:
982:
979:
927:
915:
912:
866:
861:
858:
575:
572:
516:
513:
469:
421:
275:(metal-poor) stars. A third, earliest
2943:Meadows, A. J. (Arthur Jack) (1970).
2336:is the sum of the fluxes from oxygen
1485:{\displaystyle \ {\bigl }_{\star }\ }
1354:{\displaystyle \ {\bigl }_{\star }\ }
1275:{\displaystyle \ {\bigl }_{\star }\ }
1212:{\displaystyle \ {\bigl }_{\star }\ }
798:{\displaystyle \ Z_{\odot }=0.0134\ }
753:{\displaystyle \ Y_{\odot }=0.2485\ }
708:{\displaystyle \ X_{\odot }=0.7381\ }
453:is the total mass of the system, and
108:as an electrically conducting solid.
7:
4636:"Nebulae and abundances in galaxies"
4257:"The planet-metallicity correlation"
3436:"A catalogue of high-velocity stars"
3243:The Chemical Evolution of the Galaxy
1938:= (6312, 9069, 9531) Å) in the
1062:{\displaystyle \ N_{\mathsf {Fe}}\ }
4380:(eds.). "The G star problem".
3273:University of Illinois, Springfield
2807:"Ueber die Fraunhofer'schen Linien"
2772:"Ueber die Fraunhofer'schen Linien"
1792:, is used as the reference, with a
1097:{\displaystyle \ N_{\mathsf {H}}\ }
838:below). The abundance ratio is the
481:{\displaystyle \ m_{\mathsf {H}}\ }
279:was hypothesized in 1978, known as
5016:McGaugh, Stacy S. (October 1991).
4583:Peimbert, Manuel (December 1967).
4376:Hill, Vanessa; François, Patrick;
3965:determinations for B-type stars".
3054:White, S.D.M.; Rees, M.J. (1978).
1926:= (5755, 6548, 6584) Å), and
1914:= (3727, 7318, 7324) Å, and
1724:but the group appears cooler than
25:
5268:"The galactic abundance gradient"
3589:; Burbidge, G.R. (January 1962).
3434:Roman, Nancy G. (December 1955).
2671:: 365–380; see especially p. 378.
2630:Metallicity distribution function
263:. These became commonly known as
7261:
7249:
7237:
7225:
7213:
7201:
7189:
7162:
7152:
7151:
5236:10.1046/j.1365-8711.2000.03117.x
4414:International Astronomical Union
4390:International Astronomical Union
2709:Joseph Fraunhofer (1814 - 1815)
2355:emission line at the rest frame
1556:(U−B) value to iron abundances.
326:represents the mass fraction of
5368:Pagel, J.; Bernard, E. (1997).
1886:free; this process is known as
3585:Wildey, R.L.; Burbidge, E.M.;
2660:William Hyde Wollaston (1802)
2619:Galaxy formation and evolution
1918:= (4363, 4959, 5007) Å),
1:
7064:Timeline of stellar astronomy
5463:Salvaterra, R.; Ferrara, A.;
5067:Pilyugin, L.S. (April 2001).
4353:Sanders, Ray (9 April 2012).
3782:Carney, B.W. (October 1979).
3240:Matteucci, Francesca (2001).
289:Common methods of calculation
5511:10.1016/j.newast.2004.06.003
5074:Astronomy & Astrophysics
4523:Astronomy & Astrophysics
3642:"On the colors of subdwarfs"
3486:; Eggen, O.J. (1959-06-01).
1841:{\displaystyle \ {\bigl }\ }
1418:{\displaystyle \ {\bigl }\ }
637:For the surface of the Sun (
124:Metals in early spectroscopy
100:as convenient shorthand for
6724:Hertzsprung–Russell diagram
3333:10.1088/0004-637x/808/2/139
1934:= (6717, 6731) Å and
832:most abundant heavy element
184:Origin of metallic elements
7315:
6638:Kelvin–Helmholtz mechanism
5435:10.1088/0004-637X/738/1/27
5105:10.1051/0004-6361:20010079
4554:10.1051/0004-6361:20065216
4332:10.1088/0004-6256/149/1/14
3967:Astronomy and Astrophysics
3694:Astronomy and Astrophysics
3219:10.1088/0004-6256/148/3/54
3097:Astronomy and Astrophysics
2783:"Ueber das Sonnenspektrum"
2687:Cambridge University Press
1950:= 57 μm lines in the
1583:metallicities are roughly
1506:spectroscopic measurements
836:metallicities in H regions
187:
148:, and they are now called
29:
7147:
5901:
5688:
5404:The Astrophysical Journal
5324:The Astrophysical Journal
5137:The Astrophysical Journal
5023:The Astrophysical Journal
4973:The Astrophysical Journal
4856:The Astrophysical Journal
4757:The Astrophysical Journal
4590:The Astrophysical Journal
4435:10.1017/S1743921305006344
4262:The Astrophysical Journal
3789:The Astrophysical Journal
3738:The Astrophysical Journal
3647:The Astrophysical Journal
3596:The Astrophysical Journal
3540:The Astrophysical Journal
3392:The Astrophysical Journal
3302:The Astrophysical Journal
2785:(On the sun's spectrum),
2774:(On Fraunhofer's lines),
2683:The analysis of starlight
1890:. The free electrons can
1878:hydrogen atoms, knocking
1516:can be used to detect an
818:Chemical abundance ratios
7284:Concepts in astrophysics
7017:With multiple exoplanets
4301:The Astronomical Journal
4176:James, K.A. (May 1975).
4086:The Astronomical Journal
3836:The Astronomical Journal
2871:10.1002/andp.18601850205
2831:10.1002/andp.18601850115
2781:Gustav Kirchhoff (1859)
2770:Gustav Kirchhoff (1859)
2681:Hearnshaw, J.B. (1986).
1946:= (52, 88) μm and
1738:type Ib/c supernova
1502:photometric measurements
334:is the mass fraction of
194:Big Bang nucleosynthesis
5803:Asymptotic giant branch
5628:2004ARA&A..42...79B
5097:2001A&A...369..594P
4546:2006A&A...459...85N
4014:1990A&AS...85..999K
3979:1979A&A....78..305C
3707:1985A&A...147...47C
3515:10.1093/mnras/119.3.278
3148:2009ARA&A..47..481A
3109:1980A&A....83L..10P
3081:10.1093/mnras/183.3.341
1734:pair-instability window
1544:(U−B) values (see also
1427:stellar nucleosynthetic
1282:value of −1 have
375:{\displaystyle X+Y+Z=1}
190:Stellar nucleosynthesis
7139:Tidal disruption event
6628:Circumstellar envelope
5862:Luminous blue variable
5295:10.1093/mnras/204.1.53
4945:10.1093/mnras/189.1.95
4634:Pagel, B.E.J. (1986).
3912:1988 reprint edition:
3894:1980 reprint edition:
2970:Baade, Walter (1944).
2735:Fundamentals of Optics
2649:William Hyde Wollaston
2591:
2330:
2185:
1842:
1718:
1486:
1419:
1355:
1276:
1213:
1142:
1141:{\displaystyle \star }
1118:
1117:{\displaystyle \odot }
1098:
1063:
1023:
810:Due to the effects of
799:
754:
709:
674:Hydrogen mass fraction
654:
653:{\displaystyle \odot }
629:
538:
482:
443:
376:
252:
155:About 45 years later,
138:William Hyde Wollaston
133:
57:
7289:Concepts in astronomy
6664:Effective temperature
5585:Quest of the Universe
5529:Astrophysical Journal
4359:Astrobiology Magazine
3387:Yerkes Spectral Atlas
2976:Astrophysical Journal
2844:G. Kirchhoff (1860).
2805:G. Kirchhoff (1860).
2592:
2331:
2186:
1843:
1719:
1487:
1420:
1356:
1298:, while those with a
1277:
1214:
1143:
1119:
1099:
1064:
1024:
800:
755:
710:
655:
630:
539:
483:
444:
377:
237:
142:Joseph von Fraunhofer
131:
44:
7134:Planet-hosting stars
7012:With resolved images
6983:Historical brightest
6913:Photometric-standard
6839:Solar radio emission
6633:Eddington luminosity
6413:Triple-alpha process
6351:Thorne–Żytkow object
5726:Young stellar object
4035:Geisler, D. (1986).
3188:Astronomical Journal
2793:(7) : 251–255.
2647:Melvyn C. Usselman:
2365:
2197:
1975:
1796:
1619:
1512:). For example, the
1433:
1373:
1302:
1223:
1160:
1132:
1108:
1073:
1035:
848:
770:
725:
719:Helium mass fraction
680:
644:
550:
492:
457:
400:
348:
261:populations of stars
36:Nonmetallic material
6958:Highest temperature
6729:Color–color diagram
6594:Protoplanetary disk
6398:Proton–proton chain
6076:Chemically peculiar
5552:2002ApJ...567..532H
5493:2004NewA...10..113S
5427:2011ApJ...738...27B
5378:1997nceg.book.....P
5337:1997ApJ...478..190A
5286:1983MNRAS.204...53S
5227:2000MNRAS.312..130D
5160:1999ApJ...511..118K
5036:1991ApJ...380..140M
4985:1986ApJ...307..431D
4936:1979MNRAS.189...95P
4879:2005ApJ...634.1056P
4840:2002astro.ph..7500S
4780:1999ApJ...514..544K
4717:1999PASP..111..919H
4654:1986PASP...98.1009P
4603:1967ApJ...150..825P
4483:2002ApJS..142...35K
4426:2005IAUS..228..503A
4324:2015AJ....149...14W
4275:2005ApJ...622.1102F
4194:1975ApJS...29..161J
4145:1994PASP..106..436C
4098:1991AJ....102.1836G
4053:1986PASP...98..762G
3945:1966IAUS...24..170C
3888:1963bad..book..123S
3849:1988AJ.....95.1843L
3802:1979ApJ...233..211C
3751:1969ApJ...158.1115S
3660:1955ApJ...122..353S
3609:1962ApJ...135...94W
3553:1960ApJ...132..276W
3506:1959MNRAS.119..278S
3452:1955ApJS....2..195R
3405:1953ApJ...117..313J
3325:2015ApJ...808..139S
3211:2014AJ....148...54H
3181:The Hypatia Catalog
3072:1978MNRAS.183..341W
3025:1978Natur.275...35R
2988:1944ApJ...100..137B
2946:Early solar physics
2862:1860AnP...185..275K
2823:1860AnP...185..148K
1942:spectrum, and the
1788:and nine consensus
1774:protoplanetary disk
1579:Population II stars
1561:photometric systems
1514:Johnson UVB filters
1366:population III
230:Stellar populations
216:interstellar medium
7294:Physical cosmology
6963:Lowest temperature
6714:Photometric system
6684:Absolute magnitude
6618:Circumstellar dust
6231:Stellar black hole
5867:Stellar population
5753:Herbig–Haro object
3364:The New York Times
2850:Annalen der Physik
2811:Annalen der Physik
2587:
2326:
2181:
1838:
1826:
1714:
1654:
1496:Photometric colors
1482:
1463:
1415:
1403:
1351:
1332:
1272:
1253:
1209:
1190:
1138:
1114:
1094:
1059:
1019:
795:
750:
705:
650:
625:
599:
581:
534:
526:
478:
439:
431:
372:
277:stellar population
253:
220:birth of new stars
134:
58:
54:population II
7299:Stellar astronomy
7177:
7176:
7080:Substellar object
7059:Planetary nebulae
6478:Luminous red nova
6388:Deuterium burning
6374:
6373:
5857:Instability strip
5837:Wolf-Rayet nebula
5791:Horizontal branch
5736:Pre-main-sequence
5387:978-0-521-55061-1
4402:Primas, Francesca
4378:Primas, Francesca
3918:978-2-2645-9640-6
3731:(December 1969).
3253:978-0-7923-6552-5
2956:978-0-08-006653-0
2890:www.chemteam.info
2754:978-0-07-256191-3
2696:978-0-521-39916-6
2613:Cosmos Redshift 7
2583:
2579:
2568:
2537:
2525:
2513:
2497:
2463:
2442:
2426:
2395:
2386:
2325:
2313:
2297:
2263:
2242:
2211:
2202:
2177:
2173:
2162:
2131:
2119:
2107:
2091:
2057:
2036:
2005:
1996:
1969:method, in which
1906:regions are from
1837:
1825:
1801:
1710:
1702:
1691:
1679:
1665:
1653:
1629:
1546:Blanketing effect
1532:. Unfortunately,
1510:Spectrophotometry
1481:
1462:
1438:
1414:
1402:
1378:
1350:
1331:
1307:
1271:
1252:
1228:
1208:
1189:
1165:
1128:for the Sun, and
1093:
1078:
1058:
1040:
1015:
1000:
951:
933:
884:
878:
870:
812:stellar evolution
808:
807:
794:
775:
749:
730:
704:
685:
621:
598:
559:
530:
525:
497:
477:
462:
435:
430:
405:
269:(metal-rich) and
247:reflection nebula
173:chemical elements
16:(Redirected from
7306:
7266:
7265:
7254:
7253:
7252:
7242:
7241:
7240:
7230:
7229:
7228:
7218:
7217:
7206:
7205:
7204:
7194:
7193:
7185:
7169:Stars portal
7167:
7166:
7155:
7154:
6811:Planetary system
6734:Strömgren sphere
6606:Asteroseismology
6327:Black hole star
5899:
5825:Planetary nebula
5786:Red-giant branch
5675:
5668:
5661:
5652:
5647:
5621:
5619:astro-ph/0311019
5598:
5571:
5545:
5543:astro-ph/0107037
5522:
5504:
5486:
5484:astro-ph/0304074
5455:
5454:
5420:
5398:
5392:
5391:
5365:
5359:
5358:
5348:
5314:
5308:
5307:
5297:
5263:
5257:
5256:
5238:
5220:
5218:astro-ph/9909492
5194:
5188:
5187:
5153:
5151:astro-ph/9808081
5131:
5125:
5124:
5090:
5088:astro-ph/0101446
5064:
5058:
5057:
5047:
5013:
5007:
5006:
4996:
4964:
4958:
4957:
4947:
4913:
4907:
4906:
4872:
4870:astro-ph/0507084
4863:(2): 1056–1066.
4850:
4844:
4843:
4833:
4831:astro-ph/0207500
4817:
4808:
4807:
4773:
4771:astro-ph/9811006
4751:
4745:
4744:
4710:
4708:astro-ph/9904017
4701:(762): 919–945.
4688:
4682:
4681:
4631:
4625:
4624:
4614:
4580:
4574:
4573:
4539:
4537:astro-ph/0603580
4517:
4511:
4510:
4476:
4474:astro-ph/0206495
4456:
4450:
4449:
4445:978-0-52185199-2
4437:
4393:
4373:
4367:
4366:
4361:. Archived from
4350:
4344:
4343:
4317:
4295:
4289:
4288:
4286:
4252:
4246:
4245:
4243:
4242:
4233:. Archived from
4222:
4216:
4215:
4205:
4173:
4167:
4166:
4156:
4124:
4118:
4117:
4081:
4075:
4074:
4064:
4032:
4026:
4025:
3997:
3991:
3990:
3961:
3955:
3949:
3948:
3928:
3922:
3891:
3875:
3869:
3868:
3830:
3824:
3823:
3813:
3779:
3773:
3772:
3762:
3725:
3719:
3718:
3688:
3682:
3681:
3671:
3637:
3631:
3630:
3620:
3582:
3573:
3572:
3534:
3528:
3527:
3517:
3480:
3474:
3473:
3463:
3431:
3425:
3424:
3382:
3376:
3375:
3373:
3371:
3357:(17 June 2015).
3351:
3345:
3344:
3318:
3295:
3289:
3288:
3286:
3284:
3275:. Archived from
3267:Martin, John C.
3264:
3258:
3257:
3237:
3231:
3230:
3204:
3174:
3168:
3167:
3141:
3119:
3113:
3112:
3092:
3086:
3085:
3083:
3051:
3045:
3044:
3033:10.1038/275035a0
3008:
3002:
3001:
2999:
2967:
2961:
2960:
2940:
2931:
2930:
2928:
2927:
2906:
2900:
2899:
2897:
2896:
2882:
2876:
2875:
2873:
2841:
2835:
2834:
2802:
2796:
2765:
2759:
2758:
2739:(4th ed.).
2738:
2728:
2722:
2707:
2701:
2700:
2678:
2672:
2658:
2652:
2645:
2596:
2594:
2593:
2588:
2581:
2580:
2578:
2577:
2576:
2575:
2574:
2566:
2561:
2560:
2553:
2552:
2551:
2545:
2544:
2535:
2534:
2533:
2526:
2523:
2522:
2521:
2520:
2519:
2511:
2504:
2503:
2495:
2490:
2486:
2485:
2484:
2483:
2471:
2470:
2461:
2451:
2450:
2449:
2448:
2440:
2433:
2432:
2424:
2419:
2415:
2414:
2413:
2412:
2403:
2402:
2393:
2384:
2382:
2377:
2376:
2358:
2346:
2340:measured at the
2335:
2333:
2332:
2327:
2323:
2322:
2321:
2320:
2319:
2311:
2304:
2303:
2295:
2290:
2286:
2285:
2284:
2283:
2271:
2270:
2261:
2251:
2250:
2249:
2248:
2240:
2235:
2231:
2230:
2229:
2228:
2219:
2218:
2209:
2200:
2190:
2188:
2187:
2182:
2175:
2174:
2172:
2171:
2170:
2169:
2168:
2160:
2155:
2154:
2147:
2146:
2145:
2139:
2138:
2129:
2128:
2127:
2120:
2117:
2116:
2115:
2114:
2113:
2105:
2098:
2097:
2089:
2084:
2080:
2079:
2078:
2077:
2065:
2064:
2055:
2045:
2044:
2043:
2042:
2034:
2029:
2025:
2024:
2023:
2022:
2013:
2012:
2003:
1994:
1992:
1987:
1986:
1965:
1949:
1945:
1937:
1933:
1925:
1917:
1913:
1896:metastable state
1854:
1847:
1845:
1844:
1839:
1835:
1834:
1833:
1827:
1824:
1819:
1811:
1808:
1807:
1799:
1770:planetary system
1740:and may leave a
1727:
1723:
1721:
1720:
1715:
1708:
1707:
1703:
1700:
1699:
1689:
1677:
1676:
1663:
1662:
1661:
1655:
1652:
1647:
1639:
1636:
1635:
1627:
1614:
1612:
1611:
1608:
1605:
1598:
1596:
1595:
1592:
1589:
1582:
1555:
1543:
1535:
1523:
1491:
1489:
1488:
1483:
1479:
1478:
1477:
1472:
1471:
1464:
1461:
1453:
1448:
1445:
1444:
1436:
1424:
1422:
1421:
1416:
1412:
1411:
1410:
1404:
1401:
1393:
1388:
1385:
1384:
1376:
1360:
1358:
1357:
1352:
1348:
1347:
1346:
1341:
1340:
1333:
1330:
1325:
1317:
1314:
1313:
1305:
1297:
1295:
1294:
1291:
1288:
1281:
1279:
1278:
1273:
1269:
1268:
1267:
1262:
1261:
1254:
1251:
1246:
1238:
1235:
1234:
1226:
1218:
1216:
1215:
1210:
1206:
1205:
1204:
1199:
1198:
1191:
1188:
1183:
1175:
1172:
1171:
1163:
1154:common logarithm
1147:
1145:
1144:
1139:
1123:
1121:
1120:
1115:
1103:
1101:
1100:
1095:
1091:
1090:
1089:
1088:
1076:
1068:
1066:
1065:
1060:
1056:
1055:
1054:
1053:
1038:
1028:
1026:
1025:
1020:
1013:
1012:
1011:
1010:
1005:
1001:
999:
998:
997:
987:
986:
985:
972:
961:
960:
949:
945:
944:
943:
938:
934:
932:
931:
930:
920:
919:
918:
905:
894:
893:
882:
876:
875:
871:
869:
864:
856:
840:common logarithm
804:
802:
801:
796:
792:
785:
784:
773:
759:
757:
756:
751:
747:
740:
739:
728:
714:
712:
711:
706:
702:
695:
694:
683:
663:
659:
657:
656:
651:
634:
632:
631:
626:
619:
600:
594:
593:
584:
580:
579:
578:
543:
541:
540:
535:
528:
527:
521:
520:
519:
506:
495:
487:
485:
484:
479:
475:
474:
473:
472:
460:
452:
448:
446:
445:
440:
433:
432:
426:
425:
424:
414:
403:
381:
379:
378:
373:
341:
333:
325:
321:
317:
313:
284:
274:
268:
157:Gustav Kirchhoff
150:Fraunhofer lines
47:globular cluster
21:
7314:
7313:
7309:
7308:
7307:
7305:
7304:
7303:
7274:
7273:
7272:
7260:
7250:
7248:
7238:
7236:
7226:
7224:
7212:
7202:
7200:
7188:
7180:
7178:
7173:
7161:
7143:
7068:
7037:Milky Way novae
6973:Smallest volume
6917:
6898:Radial velocity
6821:
6815:
6767:Common envelope
6743:
6642:
6611:Helioseismology
6582:Bipolar outflow
6523:Microturbulence
6518:Convection zone
6499:
6393:Lithium burning
6380:Nucleosynthesis
6370:
6252:
6161:
5888:
5767:
5716:Molecular cloud
5697:
5684:
5679:
5601:
5595:
5582:
5579:
5577:Further reading
5574:
5525:
5462:
5458:
5400:
5399:
5395:
5388:
5367:
5366:
5362:
5316:
5315:
5311:
5265:
5264:
5260:
5196:
5195:
5191:
5133:
5132:
5128:
5066:
5065:
5061:
5015:
5014:
5010:
4966:
4965:
4961:
4915:
4914:
4910:
4852:
4851:
4847:
4819:
4818:
4811:
4753:
4752:
4748:
4690:
4689:
4685:
4633:
4632:
4628:
4582:
4581:
4577:
4519:
4518:
4514:
4458:
4457:
4453:
4446:
4399:
4375:
4374:
4370:
4352:
4351:
4347:
4297:
4296:
4292:
4254:
4253:
4249:
4240:
4238:
4224:
4223:
4219:
4175:
4174:
4170:
4126:
4125:
4121:
4083:
4082:
4078:
4034:
4033:
4029:
3999:
3998:
3994:
3964:
3959:
3957:
3956:
3952:
3930:
3929:
3925:
3877:
3876:
3872:
3832:
3831:
3827:
3781:
3780:
3776:
3727:
3726:
3722:
3690:
3689:
3685:
3639:
3638:
3634:
3584:
3583:
3576:
3536:
3535:
3531:
3482:
3481:
3477:
3433:
3432:
3428:
3384:
3383:
3379:
3369:
3367:
3355:Overbye, Dennis
3353:
3352:
3348:
3297:
3296:
3292:
3282:
3280:
3266:
3265:
3261:
3254:
3239:
3238:
3234:
3176:
3175:
3171:
3121:
3120:
3116:
3094:
3093:
3089:
3053:
3052:
3048:
3019:(5675): 35–37.
3010:
3009:
3005:
2969:
2968:
2964:
2957:
2942:
2941:
2934:
2925:
2923:
2921:2027/hvd.hn3317
2908:
2907:
2903:
2894:
2892:
2884:
2883:
2879:
2843:
2842:
2838:
2804:
2803:
2799:
2766:
2762:
2755:
2730:
2729:
2725:
2708:
2704:
2697:
2680:
2679:
2675:
2659:
2655:
2646:
2642:
2638:
2609:
2601:Galactic Center
2554:
2538:
2527:
2464:
2460:
2456:
2455:
2396:
2392:
2388:
2387:
2383:
2368:
2363:
2362:
2356:
2354:
2344:
2264:
2260:
2256:
2255:
2212:
2208:
2204:
2203:
2195:
2194:
2148:
2132:
2121:
2058:
2054:
2050:
2049:
2006:
2002:
1998:
1997:
1993:
1978:
1973:
1972:
1968:
1963:
1947:
1943:
1935:
1931:
1923:
1915:
1911:
1900:forbidden lines
1888:photoionization
1856:
1852:
1794:
1793:
1750:
1725:
1626:
1622:
1617:
1616:
1609:
1606:
1603:
1602:
1600:
1593:
1590:
1587:
1586:
1584:
1577:
1574:
1569:
1553:
1541:
1533:
1521:
1498:
1465:
1431:
1430:
1371:
1370:
1334:
1300:
1299:
1292:
1289:
1286:
1285:
1283:
1255:
1221:
1220:
1192:
1158:
1157:
1130:
1129:
1126:standard symbol
1106:
1105:
1079:
1071:
1070:
1041:
1033:
1032:
988:
973:
967:
966:
952:
921:
906:
900:
899:
885:
851:
846:
845:
820:
776:
768:
767:
731:
723:
722:
686:
678:
677:
642:
641:
585:
548:
547:
507:
490:
489:
463:
455:
454:
450:
415:
398:
397:
346:
345:
339:
331:
323:
319:
315:
311:
308:
291:
280:
270:
264:
232:
196:
186:
126:
39:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
7312:
7310:
7302:
7301:
7296:
7291:
7286:
7276:
7275:
7271:
7270:
7258:
7246:
7234:
7222:
7210:
7198:
7175:
7174:
7172:
7171:
7159:
7148:
7145:
7144:
7142:
7141:
7136:
7131:
7126:
7121:
7116:
7111:
7106:
7105:
7104:
7099:
7098:
7097:
7092:
7076:
7074:
7070:
7069:
7067:
7066:
7061:
7056:
7055:
7054:
7049:
7039:
7034:
7029:
7024:
7019:
7014:
7009:
7008:
7007:
7002:
7001:
7000:
6990:
6985:
6980:
6975:
6970:
6968:Largest volume
6965:
6960:
6955:
6945:
6944:
6943:
6938:
6927:
6925:
6919:
6918:
6916:
6915:
6910:
6905:
6900:
6895:
6894:
6893:
6888:
6883:
6873:
6868:
6863:
6858:
6853:
6852:
6851:
6846:
6841:
6836:
6825:
6823:
6817:
6816:
6814:
6813:
6808:
6807:
6806:
6801:
6796:
6786:
6781:
6780:
6779:
6774:
6769:
6764:
6753:
6751:
6745:
6744:
6742:
6741:
6736:
6731:
6726:
6721:
6716:
6711:
6706:
6701:
6696:
6691:
6686:
6681:
6679:Magnetic field
6676:
6671:
6666:
6661:
6656:
6650:
6648:
6644:
6643:
6641:
6640:
6635:
6630:
6625:
6620:
6615:
6614:
6613:
6603:
6602:
6601:
6596:
6589:Accretion disk
6586:
6585:
6584:
6579:
6569:
6568:
6567:
6565:Alfvén surface
6562:
6560:Stellar corona
6557:
6552:
6547:
6537:
6535:Radiation zone
6532:
6531:
6530:
6525:
6515:
6509:
6507:
6501:
6500:
6498:
6497:
6492:
6491:
6490:
6485:
6480:
6475:
6470:
6460:
6455:
6450:
6445:
6440:
6435:
6430:
6425:
6420:
6415:
6410:
6405:
6400:
6395:
6390:
6384:
6382:
6376:
6375:
6372:
6371:
6369:
6368:
6363:
6358:
6353:
6348:
6343:
6342:
6341:
6336:
6333:
6325:
6324:
6323:
6318:
6313:
6308:
6303:
6298:
6293:
6288:
6283:
6273:
6268:
6262:
6260:
6254:
6253:
6251:
6250:
6245:
6244:
6243:
6233:
6228:
6227:
6226:
6221:
6220:
6219:
6214:
6204:
6194:
6193:
6192:
6182:
6177:
6171:
6169:
6163:
6162:
6160:
6159:
6157:Blue straggler
6154:
6153:
6152:
6142:
6137:
6136:
6135:
6125:
6124:
6123:
6118:
6113:
6108:
6103:
6098:
6093:
6088:
6083:
6073:
6068:
6067:
6066:
6061:
6056:
6046:
6045:
6044:
6034:
6033:
6032:
6027:
6022:
6012:
6007:
6006:
6005:
6000:
5995:
5985:
5980:
5975:
5970:
5969:
5968:
5963:
5953:
5952:
5951:
5946:
5941:
5936:
5931:
5926:
5921:
5915:Main sequence
5913:
5908:
5902:
5896:
5894:Classification
5890:
5889:
5887:
5886:
5885:
5884:
5879:
5869:
5864:
5859:
5854:
5849:
5844:
5839:
5834:
5833:
5832:
5830:Protoplanetary
5822:
5817:
5816:
5815:
5810:
5800:
5799:
5798:
5788:
5783:
5777:
5775:
5769:
5768:
5766:
5765:
5760:
5755:
5750:
5749:
5748:
5743:
5738:
5733:
5723:
5718:
5713:
5707:
5705:
5699:
5698:
5696:
5695:
5689:
5686:
5685:
5680:
5678:
5677:
5670:
5663:
5655:
5649:
5648:
5599:
5593:
5578:
5575:
5573:
5572:
5560:10.1086/338487
5536:(1): 532–543.
5523:
5502:10.1.1.258.923
5477:(2): 113–120.
5459:
5457:
5456:
5393:
5386:
5360:
5346:10.1086/303771
5331:(1): 190–205.
5309:
5258:
5211:(1): 130–138.
5189:
5168:10.1086/306673
5144:(1): 118–135.
5126:
5081:(2): 594–604.
5059:
5045:10.1086/170569
5008:
4994:10.1086/164432
4959:
4908:
4887:10.1086/444557
4845:
4809:
4788:10.1086/306987
4764:(2): 544–557.
4746:
4725:10.1086/316403
4683:
4662:10.1086/131863
4626:
4612:10.1086/149385
4575:
4512:
4491:10.1086/341326
4451:
4444:
4398:
4397:
4368:
4365:on 2021-05-07.
4345:
4290:
4284:10.1086/428383
4247:
4217:
4203:10.1086/190339
4168:
4154:10.1086/133398
4119:
4106:10.1086/116008
4076:
4062:10.1086/131822
4027:
3992:
3962:
3950:
3923:
3921:
3920:
3910:
3870:
3857:10.1086/114782
3825:
3811:10.1086/157383
3774:
3760:10.1086/150271
3720:
3683:
3669:10.1086/146094
3632:
3618:10.1086/147251
3574:
3561:10.1086/146926
3529:
3500:(3): 278–296.
3475:
3461:10.1086/190021
3426:
3413:10.1086/145697
3377:
3346:
3290:
3259:
3252:
3232:
3169:
3132:(1): 481–522.
3114:
3103:(3): L10–L12.
3087:
3066:(3): 341–358.
3046:
3003:
2997:10.1086/144650
2962:
2955:
2932:
2901:
2877:
2856:(2): 275–301.
2836:
2817:(1): 148–150.
2797:
2795:
2794:
2779:
2760:
2753:
2723:
2702:
2695:
2689:. p. 27.
2673:
2653:
2639:
2637:
2634:
2633:
2632:
2627:
2621:
2616:
2608:
2605:
2586:
2573:
2565:
2559:
2550:
2543:
2532:
2518:
2510:
2507:
2502:
2494:
2489:
2482:
2479:
2476:
2469:
2459:
2454:
2447:
2439:
2436:
2431:
2423:
2418:
2411:
2408:
2401:
2391:
2380:
2375:
2371:
2352:
2338:emission lines
2318:
2310:
2307:
2302:
2294:
2289:
2282:
2279:
2276:
2269:
2259:
2254:
2247:
2239:
2234:
2227:
2224:
2217:
2207:
2180:
2167:
2159:
2153:
2144:
2137:
2126:
2112:
2104:
2101:
2096:
2088:
2083:
2076:
2073:
2070:
2063:
2053:
2048:
2041:
2033:
2028:
2021:
2018:
2011:
2001:
1990:
1985:
1981:
1966:
1855:
1850:
1832:
1823:
1818:
1815:
1806:
1760:planets, like
1749:
1746:
1713:
1706:
1698:
1695:
1688:
1685:
1682:
1675:
1672:
1668:
1660:
1651:
1646:
1643:
1634:
1625:
1573:
1570:
1568:
1565:
1530:Hyades cluster
1497:
1494:
1476:
1470:
1460:
1457:
1452:
1443:
1409:
1400:
1397:
1392:
1383:
1345:
1339:
1329:
1324:
1321:
1312:
1266:
1260:
1250:
1245:
1242:
1233:
1203:
1197:
1187:
1182:
1179:
1170:
1137:
1113:
1087:
1082:
1052:
1049:
1044:
1018:
1009:
1004:
996:
991:
984:
981:
976:
970:
964:
959:
955:
948:
942:
937:
929:
924:
917:
914:
909:
903:
897:
892:
888:
881:
874:
868:
863:
860:
854:
819:
816:
806:
805:
791:
788:
783:
779:
765:
761:
760:
746:
743:
738:
734:
720:
716:
715:
701:
698:
693:
689:
675:
671:
670:
667:
649:
624:
618:
615:
612:
609:
606:
603:
597:
592:
588:
577:
574:
569:
566:
562:
558:
555:
533:
524:
518:
515:
510:
503:
500:
471:
466:
438:
429:
423:
418:
411:
408:
371:
368:
365:
362:
359:
356:
353:
307:
304:
290:
287:
282:population III
231:
228:
224:early Universe
185:
182:
165:emission lines
125:
122:
120:in chemistry.
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
7311:
7300:
7297:
7295:
7292:
7290:
7287:
7285:
7282:
7281:
7279:
7269:
7264:
7259:
7257:
7247:
7245:
7235:
7233:
7223:
7221:
7216:
7211:
7209:
7199:
7197:
7192:
7187:
7183:
7170:
7165:
7160:
7158:
7150:
7149:
7146:
7140:
7137:
7135:
7132:
7130:
7129:Intergalactic
7127:
7125:
7122:
7120:
7117:
7115:
7112:
7110:
7109:Galactic year
7107:
7103:
7100:
7096:
7093:
7091:
7088:
7087:
7086:
7083:
7082:
7081:
7078:
7077:
7075:
7071:
7065:
7062:
7060:
7057:
7053:
7050:
7048:
7045:
7044:
7043:
7040:
7038:
7035:
7033:
7030:
7028:
7025:
7023:
7020:
7018:
7015:
7013:
7010:
7006:
7003:
6999:
6996:
6995:
6994:
6991:
6989:
6988:Most luminous
6986:
6984:
6981:
6979:
6976:
6974:
6971:
6969:
6966:
6964:
6961:
6959:
6956:
6954:
6951:
6950:
6949:
6946:
6942:
6939:
6937:
6934:
6933:
6932:
6929:
6928:
6926:
6924:
6920:
6914:
6911:
6909:
6906:
6904:
6903:Proper motion
6901:
6899:
6896:
6892:
6889:
6887:
6884:
6882:
6879:
6878:
6877:
6874:
6872:
6869:
6867:
6866:Constellation
6864:
6862:
6859:
6857:
6854:
6850:
6847:
6845:
6842:
6840:
6837:
6835:
6834:Solar eclipse
6832:
6831:
6830:
6827:
6826:
6824:
6820:Earth-centric
6818:
6812:
6809:
6805:
6802:
6800:
6797:
6795:
6792:
6791:
6790:
6787:
6785:
6782:
6778:
6775:
6773:
6770:
6768:
6765:
6763:
6760:
6759:
6758:
6755:
6754:
6752:
6750:
6746:
6740:
6737:
6735:
6732:
6730:
6727:
6725:
6722:
6720:
6717:
6715:
6712:
6710:
6707:
6705:
6702:
6700:
6697:
6695:
6692:
6690:
6687:
6685:
6682:
6680:
6677:
6675:
6672:
6670:
6667:
6665:
6662:
6660:
6657:
6655:
6652:
6651:
6649:
6645:
6639:
6636:
6634:
6631:
6629:
6626:
6624:
6621:
6619:
6616:
6612:
6609:
6608:
6607:
6604:
6600:
6597:
6595:
6592:
6591:
6590:
6587:
6583:
6580:
6578:
6575:
6574:
6573:
6570:
6566:
6563:
6561:
6558:
6556:
6553:
6551:
6548:
6546:
6543:
6542:
6541:
6538:
6536:
6533:
6529:
6526:
6524:
6521:
6520:
6519:
6516:
6514:
6511:
6510:
6508:
6506:
6502:
6496:
6493:
6489:
6486:
6484:
6481:
6479:
6476:
6474:
6471:
6469:
6466:
6465:
6464:
6461:
6459:
6456:
6454:
6451:
6449:
6446:
6444:
6441:
6439:
6436:
6434:
6431:
6429:
6426:
6424:
6421:
6419:
6418:Alpha process
6416:
6414:
6411:
6409:
6406:
6404:
6401:
6399:
6396:
6394:
6391:
6389:
6386:
6385:
6383:
6381:
6377:
6367:
6364:
6362:
6359:
6357:
6354:
6352:
6349:
6347:
6344:
6340:
6337:
6334:
6332:
6329:
6328:
6326:
6322:
6319:
6317:
6314:
6312:
6309:
6307:
6304:
6302:
6299:
6297:
6294:
6292:
6289:
6287:
6284:
6282:
6279:
6278:
6277:
6274:
6272:
6269:
6267:
6264:
6263:
6261:
6259:
6255:
6249:
6246:
6242:
6239:
6238:
6237:
6234:
6232:
6229:
6225:
6222:
6218:
6215:
6213:
6210:
6209:
6208:
6205:
6203:
6200:
6199:
6198:
6195:
6191:
6190:Helium planet
6188:
6187:
6186:
6183:
6181:
6180:Parker's star
6178:
6176:
6173:
6172:
6170:
6168:
6164:
6158:
6155:
6151:
6148:
6147:
6146:
6143:
6141:
6138:
6134:
6131:
6130:
6129:
6126:
6122:
6119:
6117:
6114:
6112:
6111:Lambda Boötis
6109:
6107:
6104:
6102:
6099:
6097:
6094:
6092:
6089:
6087:
6084:
6082:
6079:
6078:
6077:
6074:
6072:
6069:
6065:
6062:
6060:
6057:
6055:
6052:
6051:
6050:
6047:
6043:
6040:
6039:
6038:
6035:
6031:
6028:
6026:
6023:
6021:
6018:
6017:
6016:
6013:
6011:
6008:
6004:
6001:
5999:
5996:
5994:
5991:
5990:
5989:
5986:
5984:
5981:
5979:
5976:
5974:
5971:
5967:
5964:
5962:
5959:
5958:
5957:
5954:
5950:
5947:
5945:
5942:
5940:
5937:
5935:
5932:
5930:
5927:
5925:
5922:
5920:
5917:
5916:
5914:
5912:
5909:
5907:
5904:
5903:
5900:
5897:
5895:
5891:
5883:
5880:
5878:
5877:Superluminous
5875:
5874:
5873:
5870:
5868:
5865:
5863:
5860:
5858:
5855:
5853:
5850:
5848:
5845:
5843:
5840:
5838:
5835:
5831:
5828:
5827:
5826:
5823:
5821:
5818:
5814:
5811:
5809:
5806:
5805:
5804:
5801:
5797:
5794:
5793:
5792:
5789:
5787:
5784:
5782:
5781:Main sequence
5779:
5778:
5776:
5774:
5770:
5764:
5761:
5759:
5758:Hayashi track
5756:
5754:
5751:
5747:
5744:
5742:
5739:
5737:
5734:
5732:
5729:
5728:
5727:
5724:
5722:
5719:
5717:
5714:
5712:
5709:
5708:
5706:
5704:
5700:
5694:
5691:
5690:
5687:
5683:
5676:
5671:
5669:
5664:
5662:
5657:
5656:
5653:
5645:
5641:
5637:
5633:
5629:
5625:
5620:
5615:
5612:(1): 79–118.
5611:
5607:
5606:
5600:
5596:
5594:0-7637-0810-0
5590:
5586:
5581:
5580:
5576:
5569:
5565:
5561:
5557:
5553:
5549:
5544:
5539:
5535:
5531:
5530:
5524:
5520:
5516:
5512:
5508:
5503:
5498:
5494:
5490:
5485:
5480:
5476:
5472:
5471:
5470:New Astronomy
5466:
5465:Schneider, R.
5461:
5460:
5452:
5448:
5444:
5440:
5436:
5432:
5428:
5424:
5419:
5414:
5410:
5406:
5405:
5397:
5394:
5389:
5383:
5379:
5375:
5371:
5364:
5361:
5356:
5352:
5347:
5342:
5338:
5334:
5330:
5326:
5325:
5320:
5313:
5310:
5305:
5301:
5296:
5291:
5287:
5283:
5280:(1): 53–112.
5279:
5275:
5274:
5269:
5262:
5259:
5254:
5250:
5246:
5242:
5237:
5232:
5228:
5224:
5219:
5214:
5210:
5206:
5205:
5200:
5193:
5190:
5185:
5181:
5177:
5173:
5169:
5165:
5161:
5157:
5152:
5147:
5143:
5139:
5138:
5130:
5127:
5122:
5118:
5114:
5110:
5106:
5102:
5098:
5094:
5089:
5084:
5080:
5076:
5075:
5070:
5063:
5060:
5055:
5051:
5046:
5041:
5037:
5033:
5029:
5025:
5024:
5019:
5012:
5009:
5004:
5000:
4995:
4990:
4986:
4982:
4978:
4974:
4970:
4963:
4960:
4955:
4951:
4946:
4941:
4937:
4933:
4930:(1): 95–113.
4929:
4925:
4924:
4919:
4912:
4909:
4904:
4900:
4896:
4892:
4888:
4884:
4880:
4876:
4871:
4866:
4862:
4858:
4857:
4849:
4846:
4841:
4837:
4832:
4827:
4823:
4816:
4814:
4810:
4805:
4801:
4797:
4793:
4789:
4785:
4781:
4777:
4772:
4767:
4763:
4759:
4758:
4750:
4747:
4742:
4738:
4734:
4730:
4726:
4722:
4718:
4714:
4709:
4704:
4700:
4696:
4695:
4687:
4684:
4679:
4675:
4671:
4667:
4663:
4659:
4655:
4651:
4648:(608): 1009.
4647:
4643:
4642:
4637:
4630:
4627:
4622:
4618:
4613:
4608:
4604:
4600:
4596:
4592:
4591:
4586:
4579:
4576:
4571:
4567:
4563:
4559:
4555:
4551:
4547:
4543:
4538:
4533:
4530:(1): 85–101.
4529:
4525:
4524:
4516:
4513:
4508:
4504:
4500:
4496:
4492:
4488:
4484:
4480:
4475:
4470:
4466:
4462:
4455:
4452:
4447:
4441:
4436:
4431:
4427:
4423:
4419:
4415:
4411:
4407:
4403:
4395:
4394:
4391:
4387:
4383:
4379:
4372:
4369:
4364:
4360:
4356:
4349:
4346:
4341:
4337:
4333:
4329:
4325:
4321:
4316:
4311:
4307:
4303:
4302:
4294:
4291:
4285:
4280:
4276:
4272:
4268:
4264:
4263:
4258:
4251:
4248:
4237:on 2017-07-13
4236:
4232:
4228:
4221:
4218:
4213:
4209:
4204:
4199:
4195:
4191:
4187:
4183:
4179:
4172:
4169:
4164:
4160:
4155:
4150:
4146:
4142:
4138:
4134:
4130:
4123:
4120:
4115:
4111:
4107:
4103:
4099:
4095:
4091:
4087:
4080:
4077:
4072:
4068:
4063:
4058:
4054:
4050:
4046:
4042:
4038:
4031:
4028:
4023:
4019:
4015:
4011:
4007:
4003:
3996:
3993:
3988:
3984:
3980:
3976:
3972:
3968:
3954:
3951:
3946:
3942:
3938:
3934:
3927:
3924:
3919:
3915:
3911:
3909:
3908:0-2264-5964-0
3905:
3901:
3897:
3893:
3892:
3889:
3885:
3881:
3874:
3871:
3866:
3862:
3858:
3854:
3850:
3846:
3842:
3838:
3837:
3829:
3826:
3821:
3817:
3812:
3807:
3803:
3799:
3795:
3791:
3790:
3785:
3778:
3775:
3770:
3766:
3761:
3756:
3752:
3748:
3744:
3740:
3739:
3734:
3730:
3729:Sandage, A.R.
3724:
3721:
3716:
3712:
3708:
3704:
3700:
3696:
3695:
3687:
3684:
3679:
3675:
3670:
3665:
3661:
3657:
3653:
3649:
3648:
3643:
3636:
3633:
3628:
3624:
3619:
3614:
3610:
3606:
3602:
3598:
3597:
3592:
3588:
3587:Sandage, A.R.
3581:
3579:
3575:
3570:
3566:
3562:
3558:
3554:
3550:
3546:
3542:
3541:
3533:
3530:
3525:
3521:
3516:
3511:
3507:
3503:
3499:
3495:
3494:
3489:
3485:
3484:Sandage, A.R.
3479:
3476:
3471:
3467:
3462:
3457:
3453:
3449:
3445:
3441:
3437:
3430:
3427:
3422:
3418:
3414:
3410:
3406:
3402:
3398:
3394:
3393:
3388:
3381:
3378:
3366:
3365:
3360:
3356:
3350:
3347:
3342:
3338:
3334:
3330:
3326:
3322:
3317:
3312:
3308:
3304:
3303:
3294:
3291:
3279:on 2014-10-09
3278:
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2349:Balmer series
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1999:
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1790:dwarf planets
1787:
1786:eight planets
1783:
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1615:of the Sun's
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1111:
1080:
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989:
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306:Mass fraction
305:
303:
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297:
288:
286:
283:
278:
273:
272:population II
267:
262:
258:
251:
248:
244:
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229:
227:
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221:
217:
213:
209:
208:stellar winds
206:. Over time,
205:
201:
195:
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183:
181:
179:
174:
170:
166:
162:
161:Robert Bunsen
158:
153:
151:
147:
143:
139:
130:
123:
121:
119:
115:
111:
107:
103:
99:
96:use the word
95:
91:
87:
83:
79:
75:
71:
67:
63:
55:
51:
48:
43:
37:
33:
19:
7256:Solar System
7032:White dwarfs
7022:Brown dwarfs
7005:Most distant
6953:Most massive
6931:Proper names
6891:Photographic
6844:Solar System
6822:observations
6749:Star systems
6693:
6572:Stellar wind
6555:Chromosphere
6528:Oscillations
6408:Helium flash
6258:Hypothetical
6236:X-ray binary
6175:Compact star
6010:Bright giant
5763:Henyey track
5741:Herbig Ae/Be
5609:
5603:
5584:
5533:
5527:
5474:
5468:
5408:
5402:
5396:
5369:
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4854:
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4698:
4692:
4686:
4645:
4639:
4629:
4594:
4588:
4578:
4527:
4521:
4515:
4467:(1): 35–52.
4464:
4460:
4454:
4405:
4381:
4371:
4363:the original
4358:
4348:
4305:
4299:
4293:
4266:
4260:
4250:
4239:. Retrieved
4235:the original
4220:
4185:
4181:
4171:
4136:
4132:
4122:
4089:
4085:
4079:
4047:(606): 762.
4044:
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4005:
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3429:
3396:
3390:
3386:
3380:
3368:. Retrieved
3362:
3349:
3306:
3300:
3293:
3281:. Retrieved
3277:the original
3262:
3242:
3235:
3192:
3186:
3180:
3172:
3129:
3123:
3117:
3100:
3096:
3090:
3063:
3059:
3049:
3016:
3012:
3006:
2979:
2975:
2965:
2945:
2924:. Retrieved
2912:
2904:
2893:. Retrieved
2889:
2880:
2853:
2849:
2839:
2814:
2810:
2800:
2790:
2786:
2775:
2763:
2734:
2726:
2718:
2714:
2705:
2682:
2676:
2668:
2664:
2656:
2643:
2598:
2361:
2192:
1971:
1904:
1876:ground-state
1874:that ionize
1857:
1778:planetesimal
1751:
1742:neutron star
1730:solar masses
1726:population I
1575:
1558:
1499:
1363:
1030:
844:
821:
809:
669:Solar value
636:
546:
383:
344:
309:
292:
266:population I
257:Walter Baade
254:
250:IC 2118
239:Population I
199:
197:
177:
154:
135:
101:
97:
65:
59:
7244:Outer space
7220:Mathematics
7085:Brown dwarf
6861:Circumpolar
6739:Kraft break
6719:Color index
6694:Metallicity
6654:Designation
6623:Cosmic dust
6545:Photosphere
6311:Dark-energy
6286:Electroweak
6271:Black dwarf
6202:Radio-quiet
6185:White dwarf
6071:White dwarf
5721:Bok globule
4269:(2): 1102.
3283:7 September
2982:: 121–146.
2741:McGraw-Hill
1550:color index
1538:temperature
1518:ultraviolet
764:Metallicity
666:Description
146:wavelengths
94:astronomers
66:metallicity
7278:Categories
7047:Candidates
7042:Supernovae
7027:Red dwarfs
6886:Extinction
6674:Kinematics
6669:Luminosity
6647:Properties
6540:Atmosphere
6438:Si burning
6428:Ne burning
6366:White hole
6339:Quasi-star
6266:Blue dwarf
6121:Technetium
6037:Hypergiant
6015:Supergiant
4241:2016-09-28
4225:Wang, Ji.
3316:1504.01734
3309:(2): 139.
2926:2024-07-02
2913:HathiTrust
2895:2024-07-02
2743:. p.
2636:References
2624:GRB 090423
2342:rest frame
1954:spectrum.
1872:UV photons
1526:magnitudes
1508:(see also
212:supernovae
188:See also:
169:absorption
18:Metal-poor
7232:Astronomy
7208:Chemistry
6978:Brightest
6876:Magnitude
6856:Pole star
6777:Symbiotic
6772:Eclipsing
6704:Starlight
6505:Structure
6495:Supernova
6488:Micronova
6483:Recurrent
6468:Symbiotic
6453:p-process
6448:r-process
6443:s-process
6433:O burning
6423:C burning
6403:CNO cycle
6346:Gravastar
5882:Hypernova
5872:Supernova
5847:Dredge-up
5820:Blue loop
5813:super-AGB
5796:Red clump
5773:Evolution
5731:Protostar
5711:Accretion
5703:Formation
5644:119371063
5497:CiteSeerX
5451:119252119
5443:0004-637X
5418:1106.1660
5411:(1): 27.
5355:0004-637X
5304:0035-8711
5253:119504048
5245:0035-8711
5176:0004-637X
5113:0004-6361
5054:0004-637X
5003:0004-637X
4954:0035-8711
4895:0004-637X
4796:0004-637X
4733:0004-6280
4678:120467036
4670:1538-3873
4621:0004-637X
4562:0004-6361
4499:0067-0049
4340:118415186
4315:1310.7830
4308:(1): 14.
4212:0067-0049
4163:0004-6280
4114:0004-6256
4071:1538-3873
4022:0365-0138
3987:0004-6361
3865:0004-6256
3820:0004-637X
3769:0004-637X
3715:0004-6361
3678:0004-637X
3627:0004-637X
3569:0004-637X
3524:0035-8711
3470:0067-0049
3421:0004-637X
3227:119221402
3202:1405.6719
3195:(3): 33.
3139:0909.0948
3041:121250998
2549:β
2143:β
1880:electrons
1868:H regions
1853:H regions
1848:of 0.00.
1758:gas giant
1694:−
1671:−
1475:⋆
1344:⋆
1265:⋆
1202:⋆
1136:⋆
1112:⊙
1008:⊙
963:
947:−
941:⋆
896:
782:⊙
737:⊙
692:⊙
648:⊙
614:−
608:−
561:∑
502:≡
410:≡
394:H regions
136:In 1802,
118:nonmetals
70:abundance
62:astronomy
7157:Category
7052:Remnants
6948:Extremes
6908:Parallax
6881:Apparent
6871:Asterism
6849:Sunlight
6799:Globular
6784:Multiple
6709:Variable
6699:Rotation
6659:Dynamics
6550:Starspot
6224:Magnetar
6167:Remnants
5983:Subgiant
5956:Subdwarf
5808:post-AGB
5568:16050642
5519:15085880
5184:13094276
5121:54527173
4903:17086551
4804:14643540
4741:17106463
4570:16220272
4507:16655590
4404:(eds.).
4092:: 1836.
3843:: 1843.
3745:: 1115.
3341:18471887
3164:17921922
2607:See also
1952:infrared
1920:nitrogen
384:In most
328:hydrogen
178:metallic
98:"metals"
78:hydrogen
74:elements
7268:Science
7196:Physics
7182:Portals
7124:Gravity
7073:Related
6993:Nearest
6941:Chinese
6789:Cluster
6762:Contact
6599:Proplyd
6473:Remnant
6361:Blitzar
6335:Hawking
6291:Strange
6241:Burster
6197:Neutron
6150:Extreme
6101:He-weak
5746:T Tauri
5624:Bibcode
5548:Bibcode
5489:Bibcode
5423:Bibcode
5374:Bibcode
5333:Bibcode
5282:Bibcode
5223:Bibcode
5156:Bibcode
5093:Bibcode
5032:Bibcode
5030:: 140.
4981:Bibcode
4979:: 431.
4932:Bibcode
4875:Bibcode
4836:Bibcode
4776:Bibcode
4713:Bibcode
4650:Bibcode
4599:Bibcode
4597:: 825.
4542:Bibcode
4479:Bibcode
4422:Bibcode
4320:Bibcode
4271:Bibcode
4231:Caltech
4190:Bibcode
4188:: 161.
4141:Bibcode
4139:: 436.
4094:Bibcode
4049:Bibcode
4010:Bibcode
4008:: 999.
3975:Bibcode
3973:: 305.
3941:Bibcode
3939:: 170.
3900:7047642
3884:Bibcode
3845:Bibcode
3798:Bibcode
3796:: 211.
3747:Bibcode
3703:Bibcode
3656:Bibcode
3654:: 353.
3605:Bibcode
3549:Bibcode
3547:: 276.
3502:Bibcode
3448:Bibcode
3446:: 195.
3401:Bibcode
3399:: 313.
3370:17 June
3321:Bibcode
3207:Bibcode
3144:Bibcode
3105:Bibcode
3068:Bibcode
3021:Bibcode
2984:Bibcode
2858:Bibcode
2819:Bibcode
1940:optical
1930:(e.g.
1922:(e.g.
1910:(e.g.
1884:protons
1762:Jupiter
1613:
1601:
1597:
1585:
1296:
1284:
1124:is the
390:nebulae
322:. Here
114:nebulae
68:is the
7114:Galaxy
7102:Planet
7090:Desert
6998:bright
6936:Arabic
6757:Binary
6577:Bubble
6301:Planck
6276:Exotic
6212:Binary
6207:Pulsar
6145:Helium
6106:Barium
6049:Carbon
6042:Yellow
6030:Yellow
6003:Yellow
5842:PG1159
5642:
5591:
5566:
5517:
5499:
5449:
5441:
5384:
5353:
5302:
5251:
5243:
5182:
5174:
5119:
5111:
5052:
5001:
4952:
4901:
4893:
4802:
4794:
4739:
4731:
4676:
4668:
4619:
4568:
4560:
4505:
4497:
4442:
4338:
4210:
4161:
4112:
4069:
4020:
3985:
3916:
3906:
3898:
3863:
3818:
3767:
3713:
3701:: 47.
3676:
3625:
3603:: 94.
3567:
3522:
3468:
3419:
3339:
3250:
3225:
3162:
3039:
3013:Nature
2953:
2751:
2693:
2582:
2572:Å
2567:
2536:
2524:
2517:Å
2512:
2501:Å
2496:
2462:
2446:Å
2441:
2430:Å
2425:
2394:
2385:
2324:
2317:Å
2312:
2301:Å
2296:
2262:
2246:Å
2241:
2210:
2201:
2193:where
2176:
2166:Å
2161:
2130:
2118:
2111:Å
2106:
2095:Å
2090:
2056:
2040:Å
2035:
2004:
1995:
1956:Oxygen
1928:sulfur
1908:oxygen
1892:strike
1836:
1800:
1766:Saturn
1754:planet
1709:
1701:
1690:
1678:
1664:
1628:
1559:Other
1480:
1437:
1413:
1377:
1349:
1306:
1270:
1227:
1207:
1164:
1092:
1077:
1057:
1039:
1031:where
1014:
950:
883:
877:
834:– see
793:
790:0.0134
774:
748:
745:0.2485
729:
703:
700:0.7381
684:
639:symbol
620:
529:
496:
476:
461:
449:where
434:
404:
338:, and
336:helium
318:, and
204:evolve
200:metals
90:matter
82:helium
7119:Guest
6923:Lists
6804:Super
6458:Fusor
6331:Black
6316:Quark
6296:Preon
6281:Boson
6217:X-ray
6133:Shell
6086:Ap/Bp
5988:Giant
5906:Early
5852:OH/IR
5682:Stars
5640:S2CID
5614:arXiv
5564:S2CID
5538:arXiv
5515:S2CID
5479:arXiv
5447:S2CID
5413:arXiv
5249:S2CID
5213:arXiv
5180:S2CID
5146:arXiv
5117:S2CID
5083:arXiv
4899:S2CID
4865:arXiv
4826:arXiv
4800:S2CID
4766:arXiv
4737:S2CID
4703:arXiv
4674:S2CID
4566:S2CID
4532:arXiv
4503:S2CID
4469:arXiv
4336:S2CID
4310:arXiv
3337:S2CID
3311:arXiv
3223:S2CID
3197:arXiv
3160:S2CID
3134:arXiv
3037:S2CID
2767:See:
1870:emit
1866:) in
1782:bluer
1572:Stars
386:stars
245:with
243:Rigel
241:star
110:Stars
106:metal
32:Metal
6794:Open
6689:Mass
6513:Core
6463:Nova
6356:Iron
6306:Dark
6116:Lead
6096:HgMn
6091:CEMP
6020:Blue
5993:Blue
5911:Late
5693:List
5589:ISBN
5439:ISSN
5382:ISBN
5351:ISSN
5300:ISSN
5241:ISSN
5172:ISSN
5109:ISSN
5050:ISSN
4999:ISSN
4950:ISSN
4891:ISSN
4792:ISSN
4729:ISSN
4666:ISSN
4617:ISSN
4558:ISSN
4495:ISSN
4440:ISBN
4208:ISSN
4159:ISSN
4110:ISSN
4067:ISSN
4018:ISSN
3983:ISSN
3914:ISBN
3904:ISBN
3896:OCLC
3861:ISSN
3816:ISSN
3765:ISSN
3711:ISSN
3674:ISSN
3623:ISSN
3565:ISSN
3520:ISSN
3466:ISSN
3417:ISSN
3372:2015
3285:2005
3248:ISBN
2951:ISBN
2749:ISBN
2691:ISBN
2564:4861
2509:9532
2493:9069
2438:6731
2422:6716
2309:5007
2293:4959
2238:3727
2158:4861
2103:5007
2087:4959
2032:3727
1960:flux
1882:and
1862:and
1772:and
1764:and
1594:1000
1504:and
1069:and
828:Iron
824:iron
568:>
210:and
192:and
159:and
112:and
86:dark
80:and
45:The
34:and
7095:Sub
6829:Sun
6248:SGR
6025:Red
5998:Red
5632:doi
5556:doi
5534:567
5507:doi
5431:doi
5409:738
5341:doi
5329:478
5290:doi
5278:204
5231:doi
5209:312
5164:doi
5142:511
5101:doi
5079:369
5040:doi
5028:380
4989:doi
4977:307
4940:doi
4928:189
4883:doi
4861:634
4784:doi
4762:514
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