182:: "So understood, 'naturalism' is not a particularly informative term as applied to contemporary philosophers. The great majority of contemporary philosophers would happily accept naturalism as just characterized—that is, they would both reject 'supernatural' entities, and allow that science is a possible route (if not necessarily the only one) to important truths about the 'human spirit'." Papineau remarks that philosophers widely regard naturalism as a "positive" term, and "few active philosophers nowadays are happy to announce themselves as 'non-naturalists'", while noting that "philosophers concerned with religion tend to be less enthusiastic about 'naturalism'" and that despite an "inevitable" divergence due to its popularity, if more narrowly construed, (to the chagrin of
384:. If the mind were a completely separate substance from the brain, how could it be possible that every single time the brain is injured, the mind is also injured? Indeed, it is very frequently the case that one can even predict and explain the kind of mental or psychological deterioration or change that human beings will undergo when specific parts of their brains are damaged. So the question for the dualist to try to confront is how can all of this be explained if the mind is a separate and immaterial substance from, or if its properties are ontologically independent of, the brain.
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accurately, and that 3) rational explanations exist for elements of the real world. These assumptions are the basis of naturalism, the philosophy on which science is grounded. Philosophy is at least implicitly at the core of every decision we make or position we take, it is obvious that correct philosophy is a necessity for scientific inquiry to take place."
900:, p. 2 "Personally, I place great emphasis on the phrase "in principle", since there are many things that science does not now explain. And perhaps we need some natural piety concerning the ontological limit question as to why there is anything at all. But the idea that naturalism is a polemical notion is important."
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According to
Richard Dawkins, 'It is absolutely safe to say that, if you meet somebody who claims not to believe in evolution, that person is ignorant, stupid, or insane (or wicked, but I'd rather not consider that).' Daniel Dennett goes Dawkins one (or two) further: 'Anyone today who doubts that the
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to be the belief that there aren't any supernatural entities—no such person as God, for example, but also no other supernatural entities, and nothing at all like God. My claim was that naturalism and contemporary evolutionary theory are at serious odds with one another—and this despite the fact that
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We did not need neurophysiology to come to know that a person whose head is bashed in with a club quickly loses his or her ability to think or have any conscious processes. Why should we not think of neurophysiological findings as giving us detailed, precise knowledge of something that human beings
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Modern experiments have demonstrated that the relation between brain and mind is much more than simple correlation. By damaging, or manipulating, specific areas of the brain repeatedly under controlled conditions (e.g. in monkeys) and reliably obtaining the same results in measures of mental state
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is the refinement and improvement of naturally evolved faculties. Naturalists believe anyone who wishes to have more beliefs that are true than are false should seek to perfect and consistently employ their reason in testing and forming beliefs. Empirical methods (especially those of proven use in
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with or without fully accepting or believing it ... science is not metaphysical and does not depend on the ultimate truth of any metaphysics for its success, but methodological naturalism must be adopted as a strategy or working hypothesis for science to succeed. We may therefore be agnostic about
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this section, please edit it and do so. You may remove this message if you improve this section or otherwise object to its removal for any reason. Although not required, you are encouraged to explain why you object to this section's removal, either in your edit summary or on the talk page. If this
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and the idea that human beings have evolved in the way contemporary evolutionary science suggests.) More particularly, I argued that the conjunction of naturalism with the belief that we human beings have evolved in conformity with current evolutionary doctrine... is in a certain interesting way
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Metaphysical naturalism is the philosophical basis of science as described by Kate and Vitaly (2000). "There are certain philosophical assumptions made at the base of the scientific method – namely, 1) that reality is objective and consistent, 2) that humans have the capacity to perceive reality
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in the sense of being susceptible to explanation through methods which, although paradigmatically exemplified in the natural sciences, are continuous from domain to domain of objects and events. Hence, naturalism is polemically defined as repudiating the view that there exists or could exist any
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in general, comments: "Naturalism is presumably not a religion. In one very important respect, however, it resembles religion: it can be said to perform the cognitive function of a religion. There is that range of deep human questions to which a religion typically provides an answer ... Like a
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The argument postulates that if, as naturalism entails, all of our thoughts are the effect of a physical cause, then we have no reason for assuming that they are also the consequent of a reasonable ground. However, knowledge is apprehended by reasoning from ground to consequent. Therefore, if
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Through this logic, the statement "I have reason to believe naturalism is valid" is inconsistent in the same manner as "I never tell the truth." That is, to conclude its truth would eliminate the grounds from which it reaches it. To summarize the argument in the book, Lewis quotes
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is no more a defeater for naturalism than it is for theistic metaphysics founded upon a non-deceiving God who designed the human mind: " can construct a non-question-begging argument that refutes global skepticism." Plantinga's argument has also been criticized by
355:. The immaterial nothingness of the soul, being a non-ontic state, is not compartmentalizable nor attributable to different persons and different memories, it is non-operational and it (nothingness) cannot be manifested in different states in order it represents
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If minds are wholly dependent on brains, and brains on biochemistry, and biochemistry (in the long run) on the meaningless flux of the atoms, I cannot understand how the thought of those minds should have any more significance than the sound of the wind in the
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variety of life on this planet was produced by a process of evolution is simply ignorant—inexcusably ignorant.' You wake up in the middle of the night; you think, can that whole
Darwinian story really be true? Wham! You are inexcusably ignorant.
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and abilities, neuroscientists have shown that the relation between damage to the brain and mental deterioration is likely causal. This conclusion is further supported by data from the effects of neuro-active chemicals (e.g., those affecting
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are nonetheless consistent with being made in the image of a rational God. Whereas evolutionary science already acknowledges that cognitive processes are unreliable, including the fallibility of the scientific enterprise itself, Plantinga's
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have always known, or at least could have known, which is that the mind (at least in this mortal life) requires and depends on a functioning brain? We now know a lot more than we used to know about precisely
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argue that
Plantinga must show that the combination of evolution and naturalism also defeats the more modest claim that "at least a non-negligible minority of our beliefs are true", and that defects such as
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If my mental processes are determined wholly by the motions of atoms in my brain, I have no reason to suppose that my beliefs are true ... and hence I have no reason for supposing my brain to be composed of
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Veli-Matti
Karkkainen. (2015). Creation and Humanity: A Constructive Christian Theology for the Pluralistic World, Volume 3. Pg 36. William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company. ISBN 978-0802868558.
1105:
Alterations of sociomoral judgement and glucose utilization in the frontomedial cortex induced by electrical stimulation of the subthalamic nucleus (STN) in
Parkinsonian patients (2004):
1361:...I do indeed think that evolution functions as a contemporary shibboleth by which to distinguish the ignorant fundamentalist goats from the informed and scientifically literate sheep.
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I do think that evolution has become a modern idol of the tribe. But of course it doesn't even begin to follow that I think the scientific theory of evolution is false. And I don't.
1109:"Alterations of sociomoral judgement and glucose utilization in the frontomedial cortex induced by electrical stimulation of the subthalamic nucleus (STN) in Parkinsonian patients"
123:
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Buchman AL, Sohel M, Brown M, et al. (2001). "Verbal and visual memory improve after choline supplementation in long-term total parenteral nutrition: a pilot study".
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Gould, Stephen J. (1984). "Toward the vindication of punctuational change in catastrophes and earth history". In
Bergren, W. A.; Van Couvering, J. A. (eds.).
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https://web.archive.org/web/20190705061915/http://www.stephenjaygould.org/ctrl/schafersman_nat.html "Naturalism is Today An
Essential Part of Science"
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Contemporary naturalists possess a wide diversity of beliefs within metaphysical naturalism. Most metaphysical naturalists have adopted some form of
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writes that it is always the case that the mental substance and/or properties of the person are significantly changed or compromised via
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have described these arguments as "neurobabble", and consider them as flawed or as being compatible with other metaphysical ideas like
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the ultimate truth of naturalism, but must nevertheless adopt it and investigate nature as if nature is all that there is."
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argument. She showed that an argument could be valid and ground-consequent even if its propositions were generated via
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the latter is ordinarily thought to be one of the main pillars supporting the edifice of the former. (Of course I am
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1414:. Reference, Information and Interdisciplinary Subjects Series. Ithaca: Cornell University Press. pp. 1–2, 10.
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According to metaphysical naturalism, immateriality being unprocedural and unembodiable, is not differentiable from
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1729:. G – Reference, Information and Interdisciplinary Subjects Series. State University of New York Press. p. 2.
602:, is low or inscrutable, unless their evolution was guided, for example, by God. According to David Kahan of the
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attacking the theory of evolution, or anything in that neighborhood; I am instead attacking the conjunction of
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In his essay "Is
Theology Poetry?", Lewis himself summarises the argument in a similar fashion when he writes:
194:, for example), those not so disqualified remain nonetheless content "to set the bar for 'naturalism' higher."
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the mind depends on the body, at least prior to death, is surely not something discovered in the 20th century.
497:; Lewis called the argument "The Cardinal Difficulty of Naturalism", which was the title of chapter three of
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with the view that human beings have evolved in that way. I see no similar problems with the conjunction of
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This article is about the worldview. For the working assumption without suggesting ultimate truth, see
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is a philosophical basis for science, for which metaphysical naturalism provides only one possible
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naturalism were true, there would be no way of knowing it (or anything else), except by a fluke.
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itself would also be susceptible to the same evolutionary principles that select other traits.
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Creation and
Humanity: A Constructive Christian Theology for the Pluralistic World, Volume 3
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who argue that a cognitive apparatus for truth-finding can result from natural selection.
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have developed an argument for dualism dubbed the "argument from reason". They credit
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the sciences) are unsurpassed for discovering the facts of reality, while methods of
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typical religion, naturalism gives a set of answers to these and similar questions".
183:
1411:
Naturalism
Defeated?: Essays on Plantinga's Evolutionary Argument Against Naturalism
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Naturalism Defeated?: Essays on Plantinga's Evolutionary Argument Against Naturalism
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Plantinga argues that together, naturalism and evolution provide an insurmountable "
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Naturalism Defeated? Essays on Plantinga's Evolutionary Argument Against Naturalism
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Reason in the Balance: The Case Against Naturalism in Science, Law & Education
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are able to provide accounts of how cultural and psychological phenomena, such as
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Time's Arrow, Time's Cycle: Myth and Metaphor in the Discovery of Geological Time
1168:, "Separable Souls: Dualism, Selfhood, and the Possibility of Life After Death."
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traces the current usage to philosophers in early 20th century America such as
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1882:, ed. Gary B. Ferngren, Johns Hopkins University Press, 2002, pp. 322–34.
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entities which lie, in principle, beyond the scope of scientific explanation.
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Simpson, G. G. (1963). "Historical science". In Albritton, C. C. Jr. (ed.).
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Arguments against metaphysical naturalism include the following examples.
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1032:. N.Y.: Macmillan, 1960; reprinted, Los Angeles: Jeremy P. Tarcher, 1987.
255:
54:
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1224:"A Response to Richard Carrier's Review of C.S. Lewis's Dangerous Idea"
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412:
42:
2252:
3001:
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C.S. Lewis and the Search for Rational Religion (Revised and Updated)
991:"Victor Stenger - God: The Failed Hypothesis | Point of Inquiry"
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303:
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According to metaphysical naturalism, if nature is all there is, the
41:) is a philosophical worldview which holds that there is nothing but
1960:
Sense and Goodness without God: A Defense of Metaphysical Naturalism
1518:
Sense and Goodness without God: A defense of Metaphysical Naturalism
2163:
C.S. Lewis's Dangerous Idea: In Defense of the Argument from Reason
1569:. New York: The Macmillan Co. and The Free Press. pp. 448–450.
1452:"Plantinga's Probability Arguments Against Evolutionary Naturalism"
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for the belief that our cognitive faculties are reliable", i.e., a
147:’s words: "The Cosmos is all that is or ever was or ever will be."
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2331:
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Religious Naturalism Today: The Rebirth of a Forgotten Alternative
1429:
1353:"Evolution, Shibboleths, and Philosophers – Letters to the Editor"
287:
57:
foundation. Broadly, the corresponding theological perspective is
1504:
Audi, Robert (1996). "Naturalism". In Borchert, Donald M. (ed.).
2359:
2199:
2146:
World without Design: The Ontological Consequences of Naturalism
1641:
World Without Design: The Ontological Consequences of Naturalism
1451:
1334:"Gifford Lecture Series – Warrant and Proper Function 1987–1988"
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are better explained by natural causes than as the work of God.
291:
279:
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would all be natural phenomena without supernatural influences.
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1565:
Danto, Arthur C. (1967). "Naturalism". In Edwords, Paul (ed.).
1253:
598:, that the probability that evolution has produced humans with
45:
elements, principles, and relations of the kind studied by the
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Lacey, Alan R. (1995). "Naturalism". In Honderich, Ted (ed.).
80:
2247:
1701:
Understanding Science: An Introduction to Concepts and Issues
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The principle of uniformity in geology, biology, and theology
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and John Beversluis have written extensive objections to the
1759:
Gould, Stephen J. (1965). "Is uniformitarianism necessary".
2180:
The Applicability of Mathematics as a Philosophical Problem
2116:
The Wedge of Truth: Splitting the Foundations of Naturalism
1619:
Post, John F. (1995). "Naturalism". In Audi, Robert (ed.).
1153:"Tyler Burge, A Real Science of Mind - The New York Times"
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Regarding the vagueness of the general term "naturalism",
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philosophy of religion professor and Christian apologist
65:. More specifically, metaphysical naturalism rejects the
1408:
Beilby, J.K. (2002). "Introduction by Alvin Plantinga".
396:(direct electrical stimulation of the brain, including
103:
16:
Philosophical worldview rejecting anything supernatural
2015:
A Physicalist Manifesto: Thoroughly Modern Materialism
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906:
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with first bringing the argument to light in his book
2224:"Naturalism in the Philosophy of Mathematics" in the
1692:. Stanford, California: Freeman, Cooper, and Company.
1206:. Downers Grove, Illinois: InterVarsity Press, 2003.
1556:. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. pp.
1543:. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press.
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1943:Scientific Realism: Selected Essays of Mario Bunge
1781:"Evolution and Philosophy: Science and Philosophy"
1698:
1620:
1593:
1549:
1536:
1268:
610:theism, as in Plantinga's epistemology. (See also
392:) on mental functions, but also from research on
657:self-defeating or self-referentially incoherent.
69:concepts and explanations that are part of many
1916:, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997.
1880:Science and Religion: A Historical Introduction
637:
534:
515:
421:
322:, and more, evolved through natural processes.
95:
565:by non-rational factors. Similar to Anscombe,
513:, who appeals to a similar line of reasoning:
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1983:. Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press.
1508:. USA: Macmillan Reference. pp. 372–374.
1403:
1401:
1384:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Chap. 11.
278:Metaphysical naturalists do not believe in a
8:
2083:Stewart Goetz and Charles Taliaferro, 2008,
1585:Philosophical Essays in Pragmatic Naturalism
573:on the untenability of its first postulate.
343:alone can securely discover logical errors.
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290:, and when explaining what constitutes the
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2531:
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2299:
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2029:Physicalism: The Philosophical Foundations
1198:
1196:
3698:Relationship between religion and science
2131:, ed., 1996, "Miracles", Harper Collins.
1506:The Encyclopedia of Philosophy Supplement
2216:"Naturalism in Legal Philosophy" in the
952:
925:Karkkainen, Veli-Matti (14 April 2015).
912:
596:evolutionary argument against naturalism
583:Evolutionary argument against naturalism
577:Evolutionary argument against naturalism
447:evolutionary argument against naturalism
1627:. Cambridge University Press. pp.
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1041:
1003:
850:
545:The Weight of Glory and Other Addresses
428:the mind depends on the body. However,
2624:Proper basis and Reformed epistemology
1851:
1840:
1623:The Cambridge Dictionary of Philosophy
1139:"Edward Feser: Against "Neurobabble""
1119:from the original on 3 September 2004
1060:(rev. ed.). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
897:
475:Philosophers and theologians such as
363:Arguments for metaphysical naturalism
90:proposed that this section be removed
7:
1931:Chasing Reality: Strife over Realism
1600:. Oxford University Press. pp.
1183:"The Argument from Cognitive Biases"
2234:Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
2226:Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
2218:Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
2210:Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
2202:Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
1809:Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
1578:(2nd ed.). London: E.J. Brill.
662:Alvin Plantinga, "Introduction" in
334:Metaphysical naturalists hold that
114:If you can address this concern by
1596:The Oxford Companion to Philosophy
1351:Plantinga, Alvin (11 April 2010).
675:University of California, Berkeley
330:Utility of intelligence and reason
14:
2255:entry in The Skeptic's Dictionary
1779:A., Kate; Sergei, Vitaly (2000).
1357:The Chronicle of Higher Education
1019:19.5 (November 2004), pp. 739–64.
398:transcranial magnetic stimulation
298:. If one's mind, or rather one's
93:because of the following concern:
3733:
3732:
3722:
2267:resource page by Richard Carrier
717:
274:The mind is a natural phenomenon
266:, and the processes involved in
2071:Naturalism: A Critical Analysis
1933:, University of Toronto Press.
1459:Pacific Philosophical Quarterly
989:Kreidler, Marc (2 March 2007).
890:Danto, Arthur C. "Naturalism".
683:University of Wisconsin–Madison
415:. According to the philosopher
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2017:, Cambridge University Press.
1878:, "Scientific Naturalism". In
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1539:Catastrophes and Earth History
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931:. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing.
892:The Encyclopedia of Philosophy
627:along the lines of Descartes'
437:Argument from cognitive biases
1:
1783:. Think Quest. Archived from
1705:. Buffalo: Prometheus Books.
260:formation of the Solar System
3663:Desacralization of knowledge
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2052:, Cornell University Press.
1914:A World of States of Affairs
1807:. In Edward N. Zalta (ed.).
1697:Strahler, Arthur N. (1992).
1520:. AuthorHouse. p. 444.
1072:JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr
553:But Lewis later agreed with
368:Argument from physical minds
3075:Best of all possible worlds
3032:Eschatological verification
2589:Fine-tuning of the universe
2148:, Oxford University Press.
2031:, Oxford University Press.
1761:American Journal of Science
1382:Warrant and Proper Function
1271:Jack: A Life of C. S. Lewis
1204:C.S. Lewis's Dangerous Idea
774:Naturalist computationalism
197:Philosopher and theologian
3792:
1548:Gould, Stephen J. (1987).
1084:10.1177/014860710102500130
580:
468:
234:Various associated beliefs
213:
18:
3718:
2392:
2273:by Keith Augustine (2001)
2265:Naturalism as a Worldview
2048:James Beilby, ed., 2002,
1380:Plantinga, Alvin (1993).
1308:Beversluis, John (2007).
1170:Christian Scholars Review
839:Transcendental naturalism
563:physical cause and effect
51:Methodological naturalism
21:Methodological naturalism
3304:Friedrich Schleiermacher
2890:Theories about religions
2692:Inconsistent revelations
1058:Matter and Consciousness
1030:Mysticism and Philosophy
703:and independent scholar
641:philosophical naturalism
449:, it can be argued that
35:philosophical naturalism
3774:Naturalism (philosophy)
3764:Metaphysics of religion
2271:A Defense of Naturalism
2087:, Eerdmans Publishing.
1899:, The MIT Press, 2006.
1811:(Spring 2007 ed.).
1645:Oxford University Press
1471:10.1111/1468-0114.00053
824:Scientistic materialism
809:Revisionary materialism
769:Natural Supernaturalism
764:Materialism Controversy
99:Naturalism (Philosophy)
27:Metaphysical naturalism
3769:Metaphysics of science
3168:Gaunilo of Marmoutiers
2308:Philosophy of religion
2165:, InterVarsity Press.
2118:, InterVarsity Press.
2106:, InterVarsity Press.
2027:Jeffrey Poland, 1994,
1981:Naturalism in Question
1819:Schafersman, Steven D.
1267:Sayer, George (2005).
1113:Genman Medical Science
1017:Biology and Philosophy
784:Naturalistic pantheism
668:
551:
530:
434:
294:they rarely appeal to
210:Science and naturalism
113:
31:ontological naturalism
3759:Metaphysical theories
3703:Faith and rationality
3658:Criticism of religion
3596:Robert Merrihew Adams
3586:Nicholas Wolterstorff
2789:Divine command theory
2248:Center for Naturalism
2242:Catholic Encyclopedia
2232:"Physicalism" in the
2013:Andrew Melnyk, 2003,
1910:David Malet Armstrong
1574:Hooykaas, R. (1963).
814:School of Naturalists
799:Reductive materialism
789:Platonized naturalism
604:University of Glasgow
600:reliable true beliefs
441:In contrast with the
3693:Religious philosophy
3173:Pico della Mirandola
3138:Anselm of Canterbury
3070:Augustinian theodicy
2982:Religious skepticism
2315:Concepts in religion
2240:"Naturalism" in the
2208:"Naturalism" in the
2200:"Naturalism" in the
1945:, Prometheus Books.
1874:Edward B. Davis and
1723:Stone, J.A. (2008).
1583:Kurtz, Paul (1990).
1312:. Prometheus Books.
1256:on 20 December 2008.
1234:on 20 December 2008.
1015:Richard Carrier, ,
829:Spiritual naturalism
804:Religious naturalism
779:Naturalistic fallacy
571:argument from reason
471:Argument from reason
465:Argument from reason
443:argument from reason
127:message is removed,
63:spiritual naturalism
59:religious naturalism
3678:History of religion
3379:Friedrich Nietzsche
3256:Gottfried W Leibniz
3251:Nicolas Malebranche
3183:King James VI and I
2463:Abrahamic religions
1869:Historical overview
1587:. Prometheus Books.
1296:The Socratic Digest
1250:philosophy.uncc.edu
1155:. 19 December 2010.
613:Supernormal stimuli
557:'s response to his
372:In his critique of
302:and existence as a
39:antisupernaturalism
3688:Religious language
3668:Ethics in religion
3626:William Lane Craig
3501:Charles Hartshorne
3241:Desiderius Erasmus
3143:Augustine of Hippo
3085:Inconsistent triad
3047:Apophatic theology
3042:Logical positivism
3024:Religious language
2644:Watchmaker analogy
2609:Necessary existent
2385:Conceptions of God
2345:Intelligent design
2261:at the Secular Web
2259:Naturalism Library
2098:Phillip E. Johnson
2063:William Lane Craig
1852:|archive-url=
1787:on 4 December 2008
1486:, pp. 181–188
1340:on 4 January 2012.
1172:34 (2005): 333-34.
1141:. 20 January 2011.
759:Liberal naturalism
749:Ethical naturalism
625:skeptical argument
555:Elizabeth Anscombe
523:J. B. S. Haldane,
308:Cognitive sciences
223:Steven Schafersman
3746:
3745:
3646:
3645:
3606:Peter van Inwagen
3591:Richard Swinburne
3536:George I Mavrodes
3396:Vladimir Solovyov
3336:Søren Kierkegaard
3261:William Wollaston
3208:William of Ockham
3188:Marcion of Sinope
3090:Irenaean theodicy
3080:Euthyphro dilemma
3007:Transcendentalism
2836:Womanist theology
2826:Feminist theology
2730:
2729:
2521:
2520:
2407:Divine simplicity
2327:Euthyphro dilemma
2093:978-0-8028-0768-7
1736:978-0-7914-7537-9
1690:Fabric of geology
1680:978-0-375-50832-5
1611:978-0-19-866132-0
1444:Fitelson, Branden
1421:978-0-8014-8763-7
1006:, pp. 166–68
938:978-0-8028-6855-8
794:Poetic naturalism
457:Arguments against
390:neurotransmitters
374:mind–body dualism
296:substance dualism
227:scientific method
216:Uniformitarianism
141:
140:
136:
130:do not replace it
111:
3781:
3736:
3735:
3726:
3631:Ali Akbar Rashad
3494:Reinhold Niebuhr
3454:Bertrand Russell
3449:George Santayana
3346:Albrecht Ritschl
3331:Ludwig Feuerbach
3121:
3117:(by date active)
2977:Process theology
2722:Russell's teapot
2532:
2527:Existence of God
2437:Process theology
2390:
2375:Theological veto
2338:religious belief
2301:
2294:
2287:
2278:
1859:
1853:
1848:
1846:
1838:
1836:
1834:
1825:. Archived from
1812:
1796:
1794:
1792:
1768:
1748:
1716:
1704:
1693:
1684:
1658:
1632:
1626:
1615:
1599:
1588:
1579:
1570:
1561:
1555:
1544:
1542:
1531:
1514:Carrier, Richard
1509:
1487:
1481:
1475:
1474:
1456:
1440:
1434:
1433:
1405:
1396:
1395:
1377:
1371:
1370:
1348:
1342:
1341:
1336:. Archived from
1330:
1324:
1323:
1305:
1299:
1293:
1287:
1286:
1274:
1264:
1258:
1257:
1252:. Archived from
1242:
1236:
1235:
1230:. Archived from
1220:
1214:
1200:
1191:
1190:
1179:
1173:
1166:C. Stephen Evans
1163:
1157:
1156:
1149:
1143:
1142:
1135:
1129:
1128:
1126:
1124:
1102:
1096:
1095:
1067:
1061:
1054:Churchland, Paul
1051:
1045:
1044:, pp. 53–54
1039:
1033:
1026:
1020:
1013:
1007:
1001:
995:
994:
986:
980:
977:Schafersman 1996
974:
968:
965:Schafersman 1996
962:
956:
949:
943:
942:
922:
916:
910:
901:
895:
887:
881:
880:
855:
727:
722:
721:
693:hyperbolic doubt
671:Branden Fitelson
666:
549:
528:
511:J. B. S. Haldane
451:cognitive biases
403:Critics such as
394:neurostimulation
347:View on the soul
250:Natural sciences
192:Jennifer Hornsby
180:Roy Wood Sellars
134:
101:
81:
47:natural sciences
3791:
3790:
3784:
3783:
3782:
3780:
3779:
3778:
3749:
3748:
3747:
3742:
3714:
3642:
3638:Alexander Pruss
3621:Jean-Luc Marion
3576:Alvin Plantinga
3571:Dewi Z Phillips
3558:
3556:
3550:
3521:Walter Kaufmann
3511:Frithjof Schuon
3484:Rudolf Bultmann
3441:
3435:
3431:Joseph Maréchal
3421:Pavel Florensky
3416:Sergei Bulgakov
3401:Ernst Troeltsch
3384:Harald Høffding
3361:
3355:
3326:William Whewell
3314:Georg W F Hegel
3309:Karl C F Krause
3296:
3290:
3286:Johann G Herder
3276:Baron d'Holbach
3226:Augustin Calmet
3212:
3128:
3116:
3115:
3112:
3104:
3062:Problem of evil
3056:
3052:Verificationism
3018:
2726:
2672:Atheist's Wager
2655:
2517:
2451:
2379:
2355:Problem of evil
2310:
2305:
2196:
2045:
1999:Freedom Evolves
1977:David Macarthur
1962:, AuthorHouse.
1956:Richard Carrier
1889:
1871:
1866:
1864:Further reading
1849:
1839:
1832:
1830:
1817:
1801:Papineau, David
1799:
1790:
1788:
1778:
1758:
1737:
1722:
1713:
1696:
1687:
1681:
1661:
1655:
1635:
1618:
1612:
1591:
1582:
1573:
1564:
1547:
1534:
1528:
1512:
1503:
1495:
1490:
1482:
1478:
1454:
1442:
1441:
1437:
1422:
1407:
1406:
1399:
1392:
1379:
1378:
1374:
1367:
1366:
1363:
1362:
1350:
1349:
1345:
1332:
1331:
1327:
1320:
1307:
1306:
1302:
1294:
1290:
1283:
1266:
1265:
1261:
1244:
1243:
1239:
1222:
1221:
1217:
1202:Victor Reppert
1201:
1194:
1189:. 31 July 2018.
1181:
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1099:
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1064:
1052:
1048:
1040:
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1023:
1014:
1010:
1002:
998:
988:
987:
983:
975:
971:
963:
959:
950:
946:
939:
924:
923:
919:
911:
904:
889:
888:
884:
877:
857:
856:
852:
848:
843:
834:Supernaturalism
725:Religion portal
723:
716:
713:
705:Richard Carrier
667:
661:
594:argues, in his
592:Alvin Plantinga
585:
579:
567:Richard Carrier
550:
541:
529:
525:Possible Worlds
522:
485:Alvin Plantinga
473:
467:
459:
439:
378:Paul Churchland
370:
365:
349:
332:
276:
252:
236:
218:
212:
199:Alvin Plantinga
152:Arthur C. Danto
137:
135:(February 2024)
97:duplication in
94:
79:
24:
17:
12:
11:
5:
3789:
3788:
3785:
3777:
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3771:
3766:
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3719:
3716:
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3713:
3712:
3705:
3700:
3695:
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3680:
3675:
3670:
3665:
3660:
3654:
3652:
3651:Related topics
3648:
3647:
3644:
3643:
3641:
3640:
3634:
3633:
3628:
3623:
3618:
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3611:Daniel Dennett
3608:
3603:
3601:Ravi Zacharias
3598:
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3588:
3583:
3578:
3573:
3568:
3566:William L Rowe
3562:
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3543:
3541:William Alston
3538:
3533:
3528:
3523:
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3508:
3503:
3497:
3496:
3491:
3489:Gabriel Marcel
3486:
3481:
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3471:
3466:
3461:
3456:
3451:
3445:
3443:
3437:
3436:
3434:
3433:
3428:
3426:Ernst Cassirer
3423:
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3321:Thomas Carlyle
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3253:
3248:
3246:Baruch Spinoza
3243:
3238:
3233:
3231:René Descartes
3228:
3222:
3220:
3214:
3213:
3211:
3210:
3205:
3203:Thomas Aquinas
3200:
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3019:
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2999:
2994:
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2979:
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2972:Possibilianism
2969:
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2927:
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2850:
2848:Fundamentalism
2845:
2840:
2839:
2838:
2833:
2823:
2822:
2821:
2816:
2809:Existentialism
2806:
2801:
2796:
2791:
2786:
2781:
2776:
2771:
2766:
2761:
2756:
2751:
2746:
2740:
2738:
2732:
2731:
2728:
2727:
2725:
2724:
2719:
2714:
2709:
2704:
2702:Noncognitivism
2699:
2694:
2689:
2684:
2679:
2674:
2669:
2663:
2661:
2657:
2656:
2654:
2653:
2651:Transcendental
2648:
2647:
2646:
2641:
2631:
2626:
2621:
2619:Pascal's wager
2616:
2611:
2606:
2601:
2596:
2591:
2586:
2581:
2576:
2571:
2570:
2569:
2564:
2554:
2549:
2547:Christological
2544:
2538:
2536:
2529:
2523:
2522:
2519:
2518:
2516:
2515:
2510:
2505:
2500:
2495:
2490:
2485:
2480:
2475:
2470:
2465:
2459:
2457:
2453:
2452:
2450:
2449:
2444:
2439:
2434:
2429:
2424:
2419:
2414:
2409:
2404:
2399:
2393:
2387:
2381:
2380:
2378:
2377:
2372:
2367:
2362:
2357:
2352:
2347:
2342:
2341:
2340:
2329:
2324:
2318:
2316:
2312:
2311:
2306:
2304:
2303:
2296:
2289:
2281:
2275:
2274:
2268:
2262:
2256:
2250:
2245:
2237:
2229:
2221:
2213:
2205:
2195:
2194:External links
2192:
2191:
2190:
2173:
2159:Victor Reppert
2156:
2139:
2126:
2095:
2081:
2069:, eds., 2000,
2060:
2044:
2041:
2040:
2039:
2025:
2011:
1994:Daniel Dennett
1991:
1970:
1953:
1924:
1907:
1888:
1885:
1884:
1883:
1870:
1867:
1865:
1862:
1861:
1860:
1829:on 5 July 2019
1815:
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1589:
1580:
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1562:
1545:
1532:
1526:
1510:
1500:
1499:
1494:
1491:
1489:
1488:
1476:
1465:(2): 115–129.
1435:
1420:
1397:
1390:
1372:
1343:
1325:
1319:978-1591025313
1318:
1300:
1298:, No. 4 (1948)
1288:
1282:978-1581347395
1281:
1259:
1237:
1215:
1192:
1174:
1158:
1144:
1130:
1097:
1062:
1046:
1034:
1028:Stace, W. T.,
1021:
1008:
996:
981:
969:
957:
944:
937:
917:
902:
882:
875:
849:
847:
844:
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841:
836:
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801:
796:
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771:
766:
761:
756:
751:
746:
741:
736:
730:
729:
728:
712:
709:
701:Daniel Dennett
688:cognitive bias
659:
633:brain in a vat
581:Main article:
578:
575:
539:
520:
481:William Hasker
477:Victor Reppert
469:Main article:
466:
463:
458:
455:
438:
435:
369:
366:
364:
361:
348:
345:
331:
328:
275:
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214:Main article:
211:
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188:David Chalmers
164:David Papineau
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3581:Anthony Kenny
3579:
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3509:
3507:
3506:Mircea Eliade
3504:
3502:
3499:
3498:
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3414:
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3409:
3407:
3404:
3402:
3399:
3397:
3394:
3393:
3390:
3389:William James
3387:
3385:
3382:
3380:
3377:
3375:
3372:
3370:
3369:Ernst Haeckel
3367:
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3334:
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3329:
3327:
3324:
3322:
3319:
3318:
3315:
3312:
3310:
3307:
3305:
3302:
3301:
3299:
3293:
3287:
3284:
3282:
3281:Immanuel Kant
3279:
3277:
3274:
3272:
3269:
3267:
3264:
3262:
3259:
3257:
3254:
3252:
3249:
3247:
3244:
3242:
3239:
3237:
3236:Blaise Pascal
3234:
3232:
3229:
3227:
3224:
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3215:
3209:
3206:
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3201:
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3141:
3139:
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3119:
3114:
3107:
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3098:
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3067:
3065:
3063:
3059:
3053:
3050:
3048:
3045:
3043:
3040:
3038:
3037:Language game
3035:
3033:
3030:
3029:
3027:
3025:
3021:
3015:
3014:
3010:
3008:
3005:
3003:
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2990:
2988:
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2800:
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2742:
2741:
2739:
2737:
2733:
2723:
2720:
2718:
2715:
2713:
2710:
2708:
2707:Occam's razor
2705:
2703:
2700:
2698:
2695:
2693:
2690:
2688:
2685:
2683:
2680:
2678:
2675:
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2670:
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2658:
2652:
2649:
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2640:
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2630:
2627:
2625:
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2617:
2615:
2612:
2610:
2607:
2605:
2602:
2600:
2597:
2595:
2592:
2590:
2587:
2585:
2582:
2580:
2577:
2575:
2572:
2568:
2565:
2563:
2560:
2559:
2558:
2555:
2553:
2552:Consciousness
2550:
2548:
2545:
2543:
2540:
2539:
2537:
2533:
2530:
2528:
2524:
2514:
2511:
2509:
2506:
2504:
2501:
2499:
2496:
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2491:
2489:
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2484:
2481:
2479:
2476:
2474:
2471:
2469:
2466:
2464:
2461:
2460:
2458:
2454:
2448:
2447:Unmoved mover
2445:
2443:
2442:Supreme Being
2440:
2438:
2435:
2433:
2430:
2428:
2425:
2423:
2420:
2418:
2415:
2413:
2410:
2408:
2405:
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2400:
2398:
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2368:
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2330:
2328:
2325:
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2320:
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2309:
2302:
2297:
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2282:
2279:
2272:
2269:
2266:
2263:
2260:
2257:
2254:
2251:
2249:
2246:
2244:
2243:
2238:
2236:
2235:
2230:
2228:
2227:
2222:
2220:
2219:
2214:
2212:
2211:
2206:
2204:
2203:
2198:
2197:
2193:
2189:
2188:0-674-00970-3
2185:
2181:
2177:
2174:
2172:
2171:0-8308-2732-3
2168:
2164:
2160:
2157:
2155:
2154:0-19-924761-7
2151:
2147:
2143:
2140:
2138:
2137:0-06-065301-9
2134:
2130:
2127:
2125:
2124:0-8308-2395-6
2121:
2117:
2113:
2112:0-8308-1929-0
2109:
2105:
2104:
2099:
2096:
2094:
2090:
2086:
2082:
2080:
2079:0-415-23524-3
2076:
2073:, Routledge.
2072:
2068:
2067:J.P. Moreland
2064:
2061:
2059:
2058:0-8014-8763-3
2055:
2051:
2047:
2046:
2042:
2038:
2037:0-19-824980-2
2034:
2030:
2026:
2024:
2023:0-521-82711-6
2020:
2016:
2012:
2009:
2008:0-14-200384-0
2005:
2001:
2000:
1995:
1992:
1990:
1989:0-674-01295-X
1986:
1982:
1979:(eds), 2004.
1978:
1974:
1973:Mario De Caro
1971:
1969:
1968:1-4208-0293-3
1965:
1961:
1957:
1954:
1952:
1951:1-57392-892-5
1948:
1944:
1940:
1939:0-8020-9075-3
1936:
1932:
1928:
1925:
1923:
1922:0-521-58064-1
1919:
1915:
1911:
1908:
1906:
1905:0-262-04233-9
1902:
1898:
1897:Good and Real
1894:
1893:Gary Drescher
1891:
1890:
1886:
1881:
1877:
1876:Robin Collins
1873:
1872:
1868:
1863:
1857:
1844:
1828:
1824:
1820:
1816:
1814:
1810:
1806:
1802:
1798:
1786:
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1777:
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1772:
1771:
1766:
1762:
1757:
1756:
1752:
1751:
1746:
1742:
1738:
1732:
1728:
1727:
1721:
1718:
1714:
1712:9780879757243
1708:
1703:
1702:
1695:
1691:
1686:
1682:
1676:
1672:
1668:
1664:
1660:
1656:
1654:0-19-924760-9
1650:
1646:
1642:
1638:
1634:
1630:
1625:
1624:
1617:
1613:
1607:
1603:
1598:
1597:
1590:
1586:
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1572:
1568:
1563:
1559:
1554:
1553:
1546:
1541:
1540:
1533:
1529:
1527:1-4208-0293-3
1523:
1519:
1515:
1511:
1507:
1502:
1501:
1497:
1496:
1492:
1485:
1480:
1477:
1472:
1468:
1464:
1460:
1453:
1449:
1448:Elliott Sober
1445:
1439:
1436:
1431:
1427:
1423:
1417:
1413:
1412:
1404:
1402:
1398:
1393:
1391:0-19-507863-2
1387:
1383:
1376:
1373:
1369:
1358:
1354:
1347:
1344:
1339:
1335:
1329:
1326:
1321:
1315:
1311:
1304:
1301:
1297:
1292:
1289:
1284:
1278:
1273:
1272:
1263:
1260:
1255:
1251:
1247:
1241:
1238:
1233:
1229:
1225:
1219:
1216:
1213:
1212:0-8308-2732-3
1209:
1205:
1199:
1197:
1193:
1188:
1184:
1178:
1175:
1171:
1167:
1162:
1159:
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1148:
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1140:
1134:
1131:
1118:
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1110:
1106:
1101:
1098:
1093:
1089:
1085:
1081:
1077:
1073:
1066:
1063:
1059:
1055:
1050:
1047:
1043:
1038:
1035:
1031:
1025:
1022:
1018:
1012:
1009:
1005:
1000:
997:
992:
985:
982:
978:
973:
970:
966:
961:
958:
954:
953:A.Sergei 2000
948:
945:
940:
934:
930:
929:
921:
918:
914:
913:Papineau 2007
909:
907:
903:
899:
893:
886:
883:
878:
876:9780375508325
872:
868:
864:
860:
854:
851:
845:
840:
837:
835:
832:
830:
827:
825:
822:
820:
817:
815:
812:
810:
807:
805:
802:
800:
797:
795:
792:
790:
787:
785:
782:
780:
777:
775:
772:
770:
767:
765:
762:
760:
757:
755:
752:
750:
747:
745:
742:
740:
737:
735:
732:
731:
726:
720:
715:
710:
708:
706:
702:
699:
694:
689:
684:
680:
679:Elliott Sober
676:
672:
665:
658:
655:
651:
647:
642:
636:
634:
630:
626:
622:
617:
615:
614:
609:
605:
601:
597:
593:
589:
584:
576:
574:
572:
568:
564:
560:
556:
547:
546:
542:C. S. Lewis,
538:
533:
526:
519:
514:
512:
506:
502:
500:
496:
495:
490:
486:
482:
478:
472:
464:
462:
456:
454:
452:
448:
444:
436:
433:
431:
427:
420:
418:
417:Stephen Evans
414:
410:
406:
401:
399:
395:
391:
385:
383:
379:
375:
367:
362:
360:
358:
354:
346:
344:
342:
337:
329:
327:
325:
324:Consciousness
321:
317:
313:
309:
305:
301:
297:
293:
289:
285:
281:
273:
271:
269:
265:
261:
257:
249:
247:
245:
241:
233:
231:
228:
224:
217:
209:
207:
204:
200:
195:
193:
189:
185:
184:John McDowell
181:
177:
173:
169:
165:
160:
157:
153:
150:According to
148:
146:
132:
131:
125:
121:
117:
112:
109:
105:
100:
92:
91:
85:
83:
82:
76:
74:
72:
68:
64:
60:
56:
52:
48:
44:
40:
36:
32:
29:(also called
28:
22:
3707:
3526:Martin Lings
3479:Emil Brunner
3469:Paul Tillich
3459:Martin Buber
3374:W K Clifford
3351:Afrikan Spir
3266:Thomas Chubb
3218:Early modern
3198:Adi Shankara
3111:Philosophers
3095:Natural evil
3011:
2987:Spiritualism
2962:Perennialism
2915:Metaphysical
2914:
2759:Antireligion
2634:Teleological
2557:Cosmological
2508:Baháʼà Faith
2473:Christianity
2432:Personal god
2241:
2233:
2225:
2217:
2209:
2201:
2179:
2176:Mark Steiner
2162:
2145:
2115:
2101:
2084:
2070:
2049:
2028:
2014:
1997:
1980:
1959:
1942:
1930:
1913:
1896:
1879:
1831:. Retrieved
1827:the original
1808:
1805:"Naturalism"
1789:. Retrieved
1785:the original
1764:
1760:
1725:
1700:
1689:
1671:Random House
1666:
1640:
1637:Rea, Michael
1622:
1595:
1584:
1575:
1566:
1551:
1538:
1517:
1505:
1484:Carrier 2005
1479:
1462:
1458:
1438:
1410:
1381:
1375:
1360:
1356:
1346:
1338:the original
1328:
1309:
1303:
1295:
1291:
1275:. Crossway.
1270:
1262:
1254:the original
1249:
1240:
1232:the original
1228:infidels.org
1227:
1218:
1203:
1187:infidels.org
1186:
1177:
1169:
1161:
1147:
1133:
1121:. Retrieved
1112:
1104:
1100:
1078:(1): 30–35.
1075:
1071:
1065:
1057:
1049:
1042:Carrier 2005
1037:
1029:
1024:
1016:
1011:
1004:Carrier 2005
999:
984:
972:
960:
947:
927:
920:
891:
885:
867:Random House
862:
853:
754:Hylomorphism
744:Dysteleology
669:
663:
653:
649:
645:
640:
638:
620:
618:
611:
608:supernatural
586:
558:
552:
543:
535:
531:
524:
516:
507:
503:
498:
492:
474:
460:
440:
429:
425:
422:
405:Edward Feser
402:
386:
382:brain damage
371:
350:
336:intelligence
333:
277:
253:
237:
219:
196:
172:Ernest Nagel
161:
155:
149:
142:
128:
96:
88:
67:supernatural
38:
34:
30:
26:
25:
3546:Antony Flew
3531:Peter Geach
3464:René Guénon
3411:Lev Shestov
3406:Rudolf Otto
3113:of religion
2952:Panentheism
2885:Inclusivism
2804:Exclusivism
2799:Esotericism
2769:Creationism
2749:Agnosticism
2717:Poor design
2712:Omnipotence
2639:Natural law
2614:Ontological
2567:Contingency
2417:Holy Spirit
2142:Michael Rea
2002:, Penguin.
1927:Mario Bunge
1663:Sagan, Carl
1123:8 September
859:Sagan, Carl
698:philosopher
409:Tyler Burge
357:information
353:nothingness
341:pure reason
264:abiogenesis
244:physicalism
240:materialism
176:Sidney Hook
120:copyediting
108:Roxie-Leach
55:ontological
3753:Categories
3516:J L Mackie
3474:Karl Barth
3271:David Hume
3193:Maimonides
3178:Heraclitus
2967:Polytheism
2937:Nondualism
2925:Humanistic
2910:Naturalism
2900:Monotheism
2858:Henotheism
2853:Gnosticism
2784:Demonology
2667:747 gambit
2584:Experience
2422:Misotheism
2253:Naturalism
2129:C.S. Lewis
2114:and 2002,
2085:Naturalism
1941:and 2001,
1833:3 November
1791:19 January
1745:2007048682
1493:References
1430:2001006111
898:Stone 2008
650:naturalism
629:evil demon
588:Notre Dame
548:, page 139
527:, page 209
489:C.S. Lewis
168:John Dewey
145:Carl Sagan
77:Definition
3616:Loyal Rue
3341:Karl Marx
3163:Gaudapada
2992:Shamanism
2957:Pantheism
2942:Nontheism
2920:Religious
2905:Mysticism
2878:Christian
2868:Religious
2819:Atheistic
2814:Christian
2697:Nonbelief
2682:Free will
2498:Mormonism
2322:Afterlife
819:Scientism
286:, nor in
268:evolution
116:improving
71:religions
3738:Category
3683:Religion
3673:Exegesis
3158:Boethius
3153:Averroes
3148:Avicenna
3130:medieval
3100:Theodicy
2947:Pandeism
2863:Humanism
2831:Thealogy
2774:Dharmism
2744:Acosmism
2736:Theology
2604:Morality
2599:Miracles
2478:Hinduism
2468:Buddhism
2427:Pandeism
2402:Demiurge
2370:Theodicy
2178:, 2002,
2161:, 2003,
2144:, 2004,
2100:, 1998,
2010:and 2006
1996:, 2003,
1958:, 2005,
1929:, 2006,
1843:cite web
1821:(1996).
1803:(2007).
1753:Journals
1665:(2002).
1639:(2002).
1516:(2005).
1450:(1998).
1117:Archived
1092:11190987
1056:. 1988.
861:(2002).
711:See also
660:—
621:defeater
559:Miracles
540:—
521:—
499:Miracles
494:Miracles
320:language
316:morality
312:religion
300:identity
256:Big Bang
124:sourcing
104:proposed
3709:more...
3442:postwar
3125:Ancient
3013:more...
2932:New Age
2873:Secular
2843:Fideism
2794:Dualism
2764:Atheism
2754:Animism
2660:Against
2503:Sikhism
2493:Judaism
2488:Jainism
2397:Brahman
2350:Miracle
1854:value (
1629:517–518
1602:604–606
896:Editor
734:Atheism
681:of the
673:of the
413:Thomism
156:natural
43:natural
3728:Portal
3002:Theism
2895:Monism
2629:Reason
2579:Desire
2574:Degree
2542:Beauty
2456:God in
2412:Egoism
2365:Spirit
2186:
2169:
2152:
2135:
2122:
2110:
2091:
2077:
2056:
2035:
2021:
2006:
1987:
1975:&
1966:
1949:
1937:
1920:
1903:
1850:Check
1743:
1733:
1709:
1677:
1667:Cosmos
1651:
1608:
1524:
1428:
1418:
1388:
1316:
1279:
1210:
1090:
935:
873:
863:Cosmos
739:Daoism
654:theism
537:trees.
518:atoms.
483:, and
304:person
288:ghosts
284:spirit
258:, the
178:, and
87:It is
2997:Taoic
2779:Deism
2562:Kalam
2513:Wicca
2483:Islam
2332:Faith
1498:Books
1455:(PDF)
846:Notes
639:Take
122:, or
3559:2010
3557:1990
3555:1970
3440:1920
3362:1900
3360:1880
3297:1850
3295:1800
2687:Hell
2677:Evil
2594:Love
2360:Soul
2184:ISBN
2167:ISBN
2150:ISBN
2133:ISBN
2120:ISBN
2108:ISBN
2089:ISBN
2075:ISBN
2065:and
2054:ISBN
2033:ISBN
2019:ISBN
2004:ISBN
1985:ISBN
1964:ISBN
1947:ISBN
1935:ISBN
1918:ISBN
1901:ISBN
1856:help
1835:2010
1793:2009
1741:LCCN
1731:ISBN
1707:ISBN
1675:ISBN
1649:ISBN
1606:ISBN
1522:ISBN
1426:LCCN
1416:ISBN
1386:ISBN
1314:ISBN
1277:ISBN
1208:ISBN
1125:2008
1088:PMID
933:ISBN
871:ISBN
677:and
430:that
407:and
292:mind
280:soul
201:, a
190:and
37:and
3127:and
2535:For
2336:or
2043:Con
1887:Pro
1773:Web
1765:263
1558:119
1467:doi
1080:doi
646:not
631:or
616:.)
445:or
426:how
400:).
282:or
242:or
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