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cut off food rations to
Apaches settled near presidios. The 2,000 Apache at the presidios quickly departed, it being necessary for them to resume their hunting-gathering lifestyle if they were to survive. The military commander of Chihuahua declared war on the Apache on October 16, 1831, and initiated military action against them. Mexico, however, was ill-prepared for a war against the Apache. The two states most affected, Chihuahua and Sonora, operated almost independently of each other and the federal government. Sonora (which included Arizona at this time) had a thinly-scattered population of perhaps 50,000 people; Chihuahua had a more concentrated population of 134,000 and a better organized government.
101:
155:
636:
between
Indians (Apache and Comanche) and Mexicans. Of these 1,040 were reported to be Apache. The remaining 667 were by Comanche or Indians unidentified by tribe. Data was sufficient to total up casualty figures for nine of the years between 1835 and 1846. A total of 1,394 Mexicans were killed, including 774 killed by Apache and 620 killed by Comanche or unidentified Indians. A total of 559 Indians were reported killed, including 373 Apache and 186 Comanche and unidentified Indians. Casualty figures for both sides included many women and children. Additional incidents and casualties undoubtedly were unrecorded.
114:
380:, Jano, and Jocome. Chihuahua, Sonora, and Coahuila were more populated and richer than the Spanish colonies in New Mexico, and Apache raiding soon became a serious problem. In 1737, a Spanish military officer said, "many mines have been destroyed, 15 large estancias along the frontier have been totally destroyed, having lost two hundred head of cattle, mules, and horses; several missions have been burned and two hundred Christians have lost their lives to the Apache enemy, who sustains himself only with the bow and arrow, killing and stealing livestock."
141:
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enlisting more soldiers. In
Chihuahua, in 1832, to supplement the presidios all civilian men were ordered to carry weapons at all times, all occupied places were ordered to be fortified, and local defense forces were organized. By the early 1840s Chihuahua had 1,500 soldiers under arms in addition to local defense forces. However, much of this force was devoted to protecting the eastern part of the state against Comanches rather than fighting the Apache.
399:" (forts) along the northern frontier, undertake punitive missions against the Apache, usually with Indian allies, and encourage peace with the Apache. The chain of 18 presidios located about 100 miles (160 km) apart in Sonora, Chihuahua, Texas, New Mexico, and future Arizona was the backbone of the defense against Apache raids. In the late 18th century, presidios each had a complement of 43 soldiers, with the exceptions of
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Mexicans, but most Apache raids were relatively small scale, involving a few dozen warriors. The Apache also negotiated separately with
Mexican states and municipalities, carrying on war with some while at peace with others. Mexico's problem defeating the mobile and elusive Apache was exacerbated by the rising hostility of the Comanche,
538:
pesos for a child under 14. Bounty hunters were also allowed to keep any Apache property they captured. The bounty for one Apache male was more than many
Mexicans and American workers earned in a full year. It is unclear, however, whether the scalp bounty was actually paid during the first few years.
635:
It is impossible to come up with an accurate estimate of casualties for either
Mexicans or Apache, but historian William E. Griffen found enough data to illustrate the scope of the war in Chihuahua. From 1832 to 1849, there were 1,707 recorded encounters, 80 percent of which resulted in hostilities,
675:
did not initially impact the ongoing war between Mexico and the Apache as raids into Mexico and in the new territories of the United States continued as usual. Over time, however, the U.S. took the bulk of the responsibility for defeating and pacifying the Apache, most of whom resided in the United
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and his followers. In 1838, 22 fur trappers were killed nearby and the Apache severed the mine's supply line. The 300 to 400 inhabitants of Santa Rita fled south toward the Janos presidio, 150 miles away, but the Apache killed nearly all of them en route. Afterwards, the Santa Rita mine was only
537:
In 1835, the government of Sonora put a bounty on the Apache which, over time, evolved into a payment by the government of 100 pesos for each scalp of a male 14 or more years old. Later, Chihuahua offered the same bounty for males plus a bounty of 50 pesos for the capture of an adult female and 25
483:
When Mexico became independent in 1821 the long-standing peace with the Apache began to fall apart. The number of soldiers at the frontier presidios was reduced, as was the budget for supporting the soldiers and the Apache. The key element leading to war was that, in 1831, the
Mexican government
450:
to continue war with the Apache, but also to persuade them to make peace. Military operations intensified, but, at the same time, Apache who voluntarily surrendered and settled at the presidios were treated kindly and provided rations. Another factor inducing the Apache to make peace may have been
615:
In 1849, the bounty laws in
Chihuahua were formalized and strengthened. Apache adult male prisoners were worth 250 pesos each, females and children 150 pesos. Dead Apache adult males were worth 200 pesos, the scalp to be given to local governments for verification. The state that year paid out
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in New Mexico. Juan José Compá led the group which consisted of, according to
Johnson, of 80 men plus women and children. Johnson and his men attacked the Apache, killing 20, including Compá, and wounding another 20. For his accomplishment, Johnson received a reward of 100 pesos and the official
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was also to travel by horseback in small groups into Mexico, rendezvous with other groups, attack a settlement, kill the men and capture as many women, children, and livestock as desired, and then flee toward their homeland, setting ambushes along the way to discourage pursuit. The Apache avoided
511:
Apache raids beginning in 1831 occurred in fits and starts as bands and leaders, most prominently Juan José Compá, who was literate and spoke
Spanish, alternately raided and responded to peace overtures from Mexican authorities. Most often the Apache objective in a raid was to steal livestock and
495:
numbered only 2,500 to 3,000 people. Neither tribe had a central authority but consisted of a number of independent bands, numbering 100 to 500, each of which made their own decision concerning peace or war with the Mexicans. Bands would often unite temporarily to launch larger forces against the
520:
However, after Mexican independence the resources and manpower devoted to the presidios declined. In Sonora, in 1833, the state government solicited public donations to bolster its defenses, and in 1834 briefly reduced salaries of all state officials by 10 to 33 percent to devote the money to
430:
The punitive missions of the Spanish against the Apache extracted a heavy toll of lives but were ineffective in halting Apache raids. The intensity of the conflict was at its peak from 1771 to 1776 when in Chihuahua and Coahuila "1,674 Spaniards were killed, 154 were captured, over one hundred
639:
Deaths due to the Apache war in Sonora may have been even higher, although data is anecdotal. A Mexican official estimated that 5,000 Sonorans had lost their lives to the Apaches in the 1830s. That seems an exaggeration although, undoubtedly, casualties were substantial. The town of
691:). Illustrating the tenacity and elusiveness of the Apache, thousands of U.S. and Mexican soldiers and Apache scouts pursued Geronimo for more than one year, mostly in northern Mexico, until he was induced to surrender his band of only 36 men, women, and children.
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and Mexicans. Kirker's small army seems to have worsened the situation by killing friendly Apache or groups negotiating peace, after which Apache raids increased. In 1846, Kirker and local Mexicans were responsible for a massacre of 130 peaceful Apaches at
348:
valley. The early contacts were friendly, but in the 17th century, the relationship between Spaniard and Apache deteriorated because of slave raids by the Spaniards and Apache attacks on the Spanish and Pueblo settlements in New Mexico.
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the fact that New Mexico had made peace with the Comanche in 1786, and Comanche were now joining the Spanish in military operations against the Apache. During this time, the Spanish sold captured Apaches into slavery and sent them to
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A famous and often-exaggerated battle (or massacre) involved a United States citizen named James Johnson, resident in Sonora, who led an expedition against the Apache in April 1837. The Apache had raided near the municipality of
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and driven away a herd of cattle. Johnson gathered together 17 North Americans and 5 Mexico muleskinners, apparently collected expense money from the Sonora government, and borrowed an artillery piece, probably a
463:." By 1790, most of the Apache bands, which had no central leadership, were at peace with the Spanish. By 1793, almost 2,000 Apache were settled at a dozen presidios, including 400 at Janos and 800 at El Norte (
1207:
533:
John Johnson's massacre of Apaches in 1837 took place near here in the Animas Valley of New Mexico. The landscape is typical of that inhabited by the Apache, a mix of desert plains and rugged mountains.
1005:
as there are Spybucks in early census reports of the tribe."Wyandot and Shawnee Indian Lands in Wyandotte county, Kansas" Collections of Kansas State Historical Society, Vol 15 (1919–1922), p. 116
196:
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into the more austere desert and mountains of the Southwest probably caused the Apache to become more dependent upon raiding for a livelihood. By 1692, they settled in the present-day state of
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What is clear is that Mexico's capacity for defense was seriously weakened by Apache and Comanche raids at the same time as Mexico was suffering from "centralism, clericalism, militarism, and
415:, Chihuahua each with a complement of 144 soldiers. The 1,000 soldiers in the presidios were reinforced by local militia and Indian allies. The most prominent of the presidios was at
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17,896 for scalps and prisoners. The law was quickly abandoned as it was too costly and Apache scalps could not be distinguished from those of other Indians or of Mexicans.
443:
467:). The number of Apache still living in the mountains and deserts is unknown. Relative peace between the Apache and the Spaniards and Mexicans would endure until 1831.
189:
308:. War between the Mexicans and the Apache was especially intense from 1831 into the 1850s. Thereafter, Mexican operations against the Apache coincided with the
1222:
982:, accessed 30 Jul 2012; Cooper, James E. (1975) "Santa Rita" Ghost Towns and Mining Camps of New Mexico University of Oklahoma Press, Norman, OK, pp. 188–191,
644:
saw its population reduced from 7,000 to 1,500 in a few years because it was necessary to move the capital of the state from there because of Apache attacks.
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who, especially in the 1840s and 1850s, launched large raids involving hundreds of men into northeastern Mexico from their safehaven on the Texas plains.(See:
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was contracted by the governor of Chihuahua for 25,000 pesos to raise an army of up to 200 men to suppress the Apache. Kirker's second in command was a
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States. The employment of friendly Apache as scouts to find and fight hostile Apache was a critical element in the eventual success of the U.S. (see
1089:
479:
The approximate locations of the principal Apache tribes, ca. 1840. Most of the raids into Mexico were carried out by the Chiricahua and Mescalero.
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The Spanish response to the Apache problem in the 1770s was to reorganize its frontier defenses, withdraw from some areas, establish a "cordon of
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999:
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The punitive missions of Johnson, Kirker, and the Mexican army do not appear to have reduced the scope and scale of Apache depredations.
551:, small enough to be carried mule-back from the presidio at Fronteras. Johnson found an Apache encampment near the southern end of the
260:
987:
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687:, surrendered in 1886, although individual Apaches continued with banditry in the U.S. and Mexico for many additional years (see
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and Christian Indians. Apache casualties were also heavy. In October and November 1775, a Spanish military operation headed by
431:
ranches were abandoned, and over sixty-eight thousand animals were stolen." Many of the Spaniard deaths recorded were probably
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796:
758:
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54:
A camp of the Coyotero Apache in 1873. Brush shelters, called wikiups, were typical, temporary homes for the nomadic Apache.
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455:. The Spanish would continue deporting Apaches to Cuba and central Mexico into the nineteenth century, a practice which
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was attacked several times and 200 people were killed by infiltrating Apache inside the walls of the presidio of
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Geronimo's last camp and his warriors at the time of his surrender in 1886 in New Mexico near the Mexican border.
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225:
220:
830:
700:
668:
529:
456:
245:
235:
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612:, Chihuahua. Kirker claimed that he had followed the trail of stolen livestock to the Apache encampment.
230:
868:
Utmost Good Faith: Patterns of Apache-Mexican Hostilities in Northern Chihuahua Border Warfare, 1821–1848
782:
Griffen, William B. (1991), "The Chiricahua Apache Population Resident at the Janos Presido, 1792–1858,"
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and seem to have absorbed several other Indian peoples native to the future U.S.-Mexico border area, the
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Punitive missions such as Johnson's however, inflamed the Apache rather than intimidated them. The rich
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Indian named Skybuck. The "Sahuanos", or Shawnees, as Kirker's men were called also included
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http://www.mexconnect.com/articles/374-indigenous-chihuahua-a-story-of-war-and-assimilation
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http://www.mexconnect.com/articles/374-indigenous-chihuahua-a-story-of-war-and-assimilation
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peoples. The wars began in the 1600s with the arrival of Spanish colonists in present-day
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Strickland, Rex W. "The Birth and Death of a Legend: The Johnson "Massacre" of 1837",
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pitched battles unless they were superior in numbers or had the element of surprise.
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A Lipan Apache in 1857. The Lipan were the easternmost of the Apache, living in the
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17:
1075:
Smith, Ralph A. "Indians in American-Mexican Relations Before the War of 1846."
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320:. Mexico continued to operate against hostile Apache bands as late as 1915.
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Schmal, John P. "Indigenous Chihuahua: a story of war and assimilation"
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who were also expanding southward. Being pushed off the buffalo-rich
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hunting nomads and semi-nomads who had trading relationships with the
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571:, the most prominent Apache leader of the 1850s. Photo taken in 1884.
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119:
27:
Conflicts involving Apache Indians in New Spain and Mexican Republic
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837:. New York: Liveright Publishing Corporation. pp. 422–423.
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signed a peace agreement with the US and the mine was reopened.
178:
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918:
Stevens, Robert C. "The Apache Menace in Sonora, 1831–1849",
980:
http://www.newmexicohistory.org/filedetails.php?fileID-25010
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The Apache migrated south and west, under pressure from the
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The Spanish first encountered the Apache, whom they called
809:
Apaches at War & Peace: The Janos Presidio, 1750–1858
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thanks of the state government. With the death of Compá,
835:
Indigenous Continent: The Epic Contest for North America
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in New Mexico killed 132 Apache and took 104 prisoners.
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occasionally in operation until 1873 when Apache chief
560:(Red Sleeves) became the most prominent Apache leader.
1208:
Wars involving the indigenous peoples of North America
1136:
1090:"The American Experience, We Shall Remain: Geronimo"
1001:, accessed 12 Jul 2012; Spybuck was also possibly a
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copper mine in New Mexico was a principal target of
603:Indians and escaped slaves from the U.S as well as
892:Stevens, Robert C. "The Apache Menace in Sonora"
773:. New Haven: Yale University Press, pp. 213, 216
487:The Apache tribes most involved in the war, the
423:became the most important Spanish settlement in
731:"Chiricahua History: The Apache – Mexican wars"
34:
673:annexation of much of northern Mexico in 1848
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8:
969:, Vol. 18, No 3 (Autumn 1976), pp. 257–286
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870:, Albuquerque: U of NM Press, 1988, p. 28
998:"James Kirker, the King of New Mexico."
683:The last hostile band of Apache, led by
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336:panhandle. At the time the Apache were
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1077:The Hispanic American Historical Review
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491:(called "Gileños" by Mexicans) and the
364:, Mexico. They soon were also visiting
922:, Vol. 6, No. 3 (Autumn, 1964), p. 225
407:with 76 soldiers assigned to them and
896:, Vol. 6, No. 3 (Autumn 1964), p. 213
811:Albuquerque: U of NM, 1988, pp. 32–33
771:The Spanish Frontier in North America
442:In 1786, the Viceroy in Mexico City,
7:
1223:Indian wars of the American Old West
512:other property; but a common Apache
1079:, Vol. 43, No. 1 (Feb 1963), p. 36
25:
391:, area in the early 19th century.
292:, refer to the conflicts between
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459:calls "New Spain's version of
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1029:Apaches at War & Peace
857:Griffen, pp. 139, 267–268
784:Journal of the Southwest,
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58:
47:
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1018:pp. 58–61, 119, 171–172,
769:Weber. David J. (1992),
667:The U.S. victory in the
956:, accessed 10 Jul 2012.
786:Vol. 33, No. 2, p. 158.
663:Enter the United States
652:between 1832 and 1849.
591:In 1839 North American
84:Spanish/Mexican victory
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1203:Wars involving Mexico
953:"The Scalp Industry"
866:Griffen, William B.,
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316:, such as during the
1198:Wars involving Spain
1133:at Wikimedia Commons
1066:Stevens, pp. 219–221
967:Arizona and the West
931:Stevens, pp. 215–216
920:Arizona and the West
894:Arizona and the West
807:Griffen, William B.
711:American Indian Wars
701:Comanche–Mexico Wars
669:Mexican–American War
657:American imperialism
506:Comanche-Mexico Wars
401:Santa Fe, New Mexico
324:War with the Spanish
1102:on December 9, 2009
290:Mexican Apache Wars
208:Mexican–Apache Wars
75:Northwestern Mexico
42:Mexican Indian Wars
18:Mexican Apache Wars
1193:Apache–Mexico Wars
1131:Apache–Mexico Wars
820:Griffen, pp. 53–54
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1055:Utmost Good Faith
1042:Utmost Good Faith
1016:Utmost Good Faith
942:Utmost Good Faith
907:Utmost Good Faith
881:Utmost Good Faith
844:978-1-63149-699-8
831:Hämäläinen, Pekka
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1104:. Retrieved
1100:the original
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93:Belligerents
40:Part of the
1213:Apache Wars
689:Apache Wars
567:The son of
437:Hugo Oconór
405:San Antonio
310:Apache Wars
164:(1861–1865)
149:(1850–1924)
136:(1836–1846)
123:(1821–1915)
109:(1600–1821)
1187:Categories
1177:New Mexico
717:References
623:Casualties
577:Santa Rita
549:Swivel gun
489:Chiricahua
448:Instrución
346:Rio Grande
306:New Mexico
246:4th Tucson
241:3rd Tucson
236:2nd Tucson
231:1st Tucson
66:1600s–1915
1053:Griffen,
1040:Griffen,
1027:Griffen,
1014:Griffen,
1003:Wyandotte
940:Griffen,
905:Griffen,
879:Griffen,
650:Fronteras
544:Moctezuma
493:Mescalero
397:presidios
362:Chihuahua
330:Querechos
288:, or the
1044:, p. 247
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978:Bowden;
909:, p. 183
833:(2022).
795:Schmal,
695:See also
685:Geronimo
671:and the
601:Delaware
433:mestizos
370:Coahuila
354:Comanche
71:Location
1165:History
1153:Arizona
1139:Portals
610:Galeana
597:Shawnee
586:Cochise
425:Arizona
344:of the
342:Pueblos
338:buffalo
312:of the
298:Mexican
294:Spanish
1218:Apache
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883:, p. 5
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745:"Home"
646:Tucson
642:Arizpe
403:, and
366:Sonora
302:Apache
168:Apache
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120:Mexico
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81:Result
498:Kiowa
409:Janos
378:Manso
334:Texas
1108:2009
984:ISBN
839:ISBN
500:and
453:Cuba
411:and
374:Suma
368:and
284:The
63:Date
1095:PBS
680:).
659:."
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198:e
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