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cameras accept roll film stock of 35 or 16 mm. For office documents a similar design may be used but bench standing. This is a smaller version of the camera described above. These are provided either with the choice of 16 or 35 mm film or accepting 16 mm film only. Non adjustable versions of the office camera are provided. These have a rigid frame or an enveloping box that holds a camera at a fixed position over a copy board. If this is to work at more than one reduction ratio there are a choice of lenses. Some cameras expose a pattern of light, referred to as blips, to digitally identify each adjacent frame. This pattern is copied whenever the film is copied for searching.
898:
images are made by a light source; this is the negative of text on paper. COM is sometimes processed normally. Other applications require that image appears as a conventional negative; the film is then reversal processed. This outputs either 16 mm film or fiche pages on a 105 mm roll. Because listing characters are a simple design, a reduction ratio of 50 gives good quality and puts about 300 pages on a microfiche. A microfilm plotter, sometimes called an aperture card plotter, accepts a stream that might be sent to a computer pen plotter. It produces corresponding frames of microfilm. These produce microfilm as 35 or 16 mm film or aperture cards.
829:
469:
contained its own independent time-piece) found use as a definitive means of recording the exact details of each and every bet taken. The use of microphotography has now largely been replaced by digital 'bet capture' systems, which also allow a computer to settle the returns for each bet once the details of the wager have been 'translated' into the system by an employee. The added efficiency of this digital system has ensured that there are now very few, if indeed any, betting offices continuing to use microfilm cameras in the UK.
808:
1074:(OCR) is also frequently employed to provide automated full-text searchable files. Common issues that affect the accuracy of OCR applied to scanned images of microfilm include unusual fonts, faded printing, shaded backgrounds, fragmented letters, skewed text, curved lines and bleed through on the originals. For film types with no distinguishing marks, or when OCR is impossible (handwriting, layout issues, degraded text), the data must be entered in manually, a very time-consuming process.
364:
627:
781:
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653:. The image to be printed is projected with synchronised movement on to the drum. These devices offer either small image preview for the operator or full size image preview, when it is called a reader printer. Microform printers can accept positive or negative films and positive or negative images on paper. New machines allow the user to scan a microform image and save it as a digital file.
78:
609:
microfilm is simple to use. In large repositories of microfilms, it is impractical to find unindexed images amongst millions of others across hundreds of rolls of film. Microfilm image quality is often described as either legible, decipherable and illegible. Photo information on film is often obliterated by the process as the image is reduced to black and white, not halftone or grays.
954:
711:
images of large engineering drawings or 800 images of broadsheet newspaper pages. 16 mm film may carry 2,400 images of letter-sized images as a single stream of microimages along the film set so that lines of text are parallel to the sides of the film or 10,000 small documents, perhaps cheques or betting slips, with both sides of the originals set side by side on the film.
678:
124:
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36:
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860:, and redox blemishes. Vinegar syndrome is the result of chemical decay and produces "buckling and shrinking, embrittlement, and bubbling". Redox blemishes are yellow, orange or red spots 15–150 micrometres in diameter created by oxidative attacks on the film, and are largely due to poor storage conditions.
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with
Hollerith information are probably the easiest since image data can be extracted from the card itself if the scanner supports it. Often, the digital image produced is better than the visual quality available prescan. Some types of microfilm will contain a counter next to the images; these can be
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Digitizing microfilm can be inexpensive when automated scanners are employed. The Utah
Digital Newspapers Program has found that, with automated equipment, scanning can be performed at $ 0.15 per page. Recent additions to the digital scanner field have brought the cost of scanning down substantially
939:
Modern microfilming standards require that a master set of films be produced and set aside for safe storage, used only to make service copies. When service copies get lost or damaged, another set can be produced from the masters, thus reducing the image degradation that results from making copies of
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For engineering drawings, a freestanding open steel structure is often provided. A camera may be moved vertically on a track. Drawings are placed on a large table for filming, with centres under the lens. Fixed lights illuminate the copy. These cameras are often over 4 metres (13 ft) high. These
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The simplest microfilm camera that is still in use is a rail mounted structure at the top of which is a bellows camera for 105 x 148 mm film. A frame or copy board holds the original drawing vertical. The camera has a horizontal axis which passes through the center of the copy. The structure may
819:
is mounted with the vertical axis above a copy that is stationary during exposure. High volume output is possible with a rotary camera which moves the copy smoothly through the camera to expose film which moves with the reduced image. Alternatively, it may be produced by computers, i.e. COM (computer
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Microfilm does not allow for simple reproduction. Film is not forever, so in order to keep the images they will require duplication to a new image. This process from analog to analog image reduces the quality of the image by 12% or more. Over time the image will be lost if maintained in analog form
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calculated that research libraries were doubling in space every sixteen years. His suggested solution was microfilming, specifically with his invention, the microcard. Once items were put onto film, they could be removed from circulation and additional shelf space would be made available for rapidly
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reduced to thumb-nail size onto reels of microfilm, which weighed much less than the originals would have. The film reels were shipped by priority air freight to and from the home fronts, sent to their prescribed destinations for enlarging at receiving stations near the recipients, and printed out on
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format. Otlet's overarching goal was to create a World Center
Library of Juridical, Social and Cultural Documentation, and he saw microfiche as a way to offer a stable and durable format that was inexpensive, easy to use, easy to reproduce, and extremely compact. In 1925, the team spoke of a massive
710:
standard is used, usually unperforated. Roll microfilm is stored on open reels or put into cassettes. The standard lengths for using roll film is 30.48 m (100 ft) for 35 mm rolls, and 100 ft, 130 ft and 215 feet for 16 mm rolls. One roll of 35 mm film may carry 600
514:
It is cheaper to distribute than paper copy if users have related equipment to access those images. Most microfiche services get a bulk discount on reproduction rights, and have lower reproduction and carriage costs than a comparable amount of printed paper. This is dependent on the current price of
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Jesse White
Secretary of State & State Archivist Volume 2 Number 1 Quote: "Despite Dancer’s early work, in 1859, Ree Dagron, a French optician, received the first patent for microfilm. Using Dancer’s techniques, Dagron manufactured and sold microphotograph trinkets. In 1870–71, during the
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Vesicular film is sensitised with a diazo dye, which after exposure is developed by heat. Where light has come to the film remains clear, in the areas under the dark image the diazo compound is destroyed quickly, releasing millions of minute bubbles of nitrogen into the film. This produces an image
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Equipment is available that accepts a data stream from a mainframe computer. This exposes film to produce images as if the stream had been sent to a line printer and the listing had been microfilmed. Because of the source one run may represent many thousands of pages. Within the equipment character
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A camera is built into a box. In some versions this is for bench top use, other versions are portable. The operator maintains a stack of material to be filmed in a tray, the camera automatically takes one document after another for advancement through the machine. The camera lens sees the documents
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Microfilm can be digitally converted and spread to a very large number of users at the same time with little or no added cost to the users. Digital microfilm or
Computer Output Microfilm is often created from digital surrogates so there are both digital and analog images providing for a very secure
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Color microform is extremely expensive, thus discouraging most libraries supplying color films. Color photographic dyes also tend to degrade over the long term. This results in the loss of information, as color materials are usually photographed using black and white film. The lack of quality and
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began using microfilm in the mid-20th century as a preservation strategy for deteriorating newspaper collections. Books and newspapers that were deemed in danger of decay could be preserved on film and thus access and use could be increased. Microfilming was also a space-saving measure. In his 1945
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Desktop readers are boxes with a translucent screen at the front on to which is projected an image from a microform. They have suitable fittings for whatever microform is in use. They may offer a choice of magnifications. They usually have motors to advance and rewind film. When coding blips are
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It is common to accidentally mutilate, damage or lose microfilm. Users can easily cut, fold, scratch, roll over and deface microforms very easily. Most damage to film is caused through general use where readers' glass guides and dirt will often scratch emulsion, jam film in carriers and otherwise
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were reproduced about one-quarter the original size and the miniature mails were then delivered to the addressee. Use of these microfilm systems saved significant volumes of cargo capacity needed for war supplies. An additional benefit was that the small, lightweight reels of microfilm were almost
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Aperture card mounted microfilm is roughly 3% of the size and space of conventional paper or vellum engineering drawings. Some military contracts around 1980 began to specify digital storage of engineering and maintenance data because the expenses were even lower than microfilm, but these programs
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demand archival engineering drawings to support purchased equipment (in case the vendor goes out of business, for example), they normally specify punch-card-mounted microfilm with an industry-standard indexing system punched into the card. This permits automated reproduction, as well as permitting
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105 × 148 mm flat film is used for microimages of very large engineering drawings. These may carry a title photographed or written along one edge. Typical reduction is about 20, representing a drawing that is 2.00 × 2.80 metres, that is 79 × 110 in. These films are stored as microfiche.
608:
media, the format requires no software to decode the data stored thereon. It is comprehensible to persons literate in the written language; the only equipment that is needed is a device to magnify the image appropriately. Many feel, because an image can be seen with a loupe or other small device,
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Photographic illustrations reproduce poorly in microform format, with loss of clarity and halftones. The latest electronic digital viewer/scanners can scan in gray shade, which greatly increases the quality of photographs, but the inherent bi-tonal nature of microfilm limits its ability to convey
468:
Around the same time, Licensed
Betting Offices in the UK began using microphotography as a means of keeping compact records of bets taken. Betting shop customers would sometimes attempt to amend their betting slip receipt to attempt fraud, and so the microphotography camera (which also generally
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Transparent jackets are made A5 size each with six pockets into which strips of 16 mm film may be inserted (or fewer pockets for 35 mm strips), so creating microfiche jackets or jacketed microfiche. Equipment allows an operator to insert strips from a roll of film. This is particularly
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film is a slow version of camera film with a robust top coat. It is suitable for prints or for use as an intermediate from which further prints may be produced. The result is a negative copy. Preservation standards require a master negative, a duplicate negative, and a service copy (positive).
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monochrome stock. Positive color film giving good reproduction and high resolution can also be used. Roll film is provided 16, 35 and 105 mm wide in lengths of 30 metres (100 ft) and longer, and is usually unperforated. Roll film is developed, fixed and washed by continuous processors.
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proposed the application of photographic methods with prints of a reduced size. The prints were on photographic paper and did not exceed 40 mm, to permit insertion in a goose-quill or thin metal tube, which protected against the elements. The pigeons each carried a dispatch that was tightly
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in their entirety which he then converted into miniature photographs. He subsequently removed the collodion film from the glass base and rolled it tightly into a cylindrical shape which he then inserted into miniature tubes that were transported fastened to the tail feathers of the pigeons. Upon
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into which a hole has been cut. A 35 mm microfilm chip is mounted in the hole inside of a clear plastic sleeve or secured over the aperture with adhesive tape. They are used for engineering drawings in all engineering disciplines. There are libraries of these containing over 3 million
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All microfiche cameras are planetary with a step and repeat mechanism to advance the film after each exposure. The simpler versions use a dark slide loaded by the operator in a dark room; after exposure the film is individually processed, which may be by hand or using a dental X-ray processor.
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Modern microform scanners utilize 8-bit gray shade scanning arrays and are thus able to provide quite high quality scans in a wealth of different digital formats: CCITT Group IV which is compressed black and white -bitonal, JPG or JPEG which is gray or color compression, bitmaps which are not
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array and captures it in a raw digital format. Until early in the 21st century, since the different types of microform are dissimilar in shape and size, the scanners were usually able to handle only one type of microform at a time. Some scanners would offer swappable modules for the different
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Ultrafiche (also "ultramicrofiche") is an exceptionally compact version of a microfiche or microfilm, storing analog data at much higher densities. Ultrafiche can be created directly from computers using appropriate peripherals. They are typically used for storing data gathered from extremely
510:
It is relatively compact, with far smaller storage costs than paper documents. Normally 75 document size pages at 24x fit on one 4x6 microfiche jacket, 240 report pages at 48X fit onto a 4x6 COM fiche. When compared to filing paper, microforms can reduce space storage requirements by up to
1070:. Other microfilm reels will have a 'blip' system: small marks next to the images of varying lengths used to indicate document hierarchy (longest: root, long: branch, short: leaf). If the scanner is able to capture and process these then the image files can be arranged in the same manner.
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printed on high-acid newsprint and it launched its "Foreign
Newspaper Project" to preserve such ephemeral publications in 1938. Roll microfilm proved far more satisfactory as a storage medium than earlier methods of film information storage, such as the Photoscope, the Film-O-Graph, the
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Prints from microfilm are accepted in legal proceedings as surrogates for original documents but require reader/printers to convert images back to paper. Nearly all of the analog reader printer manufactures have discontinued production and support of these units in favor of digital
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In the 1920s, microfilm began to be used in a commercial setting. New York City banker George McCarthy was issued a patent in 1925 for his "Checkograph" machine, designed to make micrographic copies of cancelled checks for permanent storage by financial institutions. In 1928, the
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When stored in the highest-density drawers, it is easy to misfile a fiche, which is thereafter unavailable. As a result, some libraries store microfiche in a restricted area and retrieve it on demand. Some fiche services use lower-density drawers with labeled pockets for each
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Sheet film is supplied in ISO A6 size. This is either processed by hand or using a dental X-ray processor. Camera film is supplied ready mounted in aperture cards. Aperture cards are developed, fixed and washed immediately after exposure by equipment fitted to the camera.
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These conversions may be applied to camera output or to release copies. Single microfiche are cut from rolls of 105 mm film. A bench top device is available that enables an operator to cut exposed frames of roll film and fit these into ready made aperture cards.
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Like all analog media formats, microfiche is lacking in features enjoyed by users of digital media. Analog copies degrade with each generation, while some digital copies have much higher copying fidelity. Digital data can also be indexed and searched
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microform types. The latest viewer/scanner can accept any microform (roll, fiche, opaque cards, fiche, or aperture cards). Software in an attached PC is then used to convert the raw capture into a standard image format for immediate or archival uses.
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as they pass a slot. Film behind the lens advances exactly with the image. Special purpose flow cameras film both sides of documents, putting both images side by side on 16 mm film. These cameras are used to record cheques and betting slips.
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The most commonly used format is a portrait image of about 10 × 14 mm. Office-size papers or magazine pages require a reduction of 24 or 25 in size. Microfiche are stored in open-top envelopes, which are put in drawers or boxes as
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suggested microforms were a compact solution to engineers' unwieldy but frequently consulted materials. He proposed that up to 150,000,000 words could be made to fit in a square inch, and that a one-foot cube could contain 1.5 million volumes.
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over a light box and then individually processing the film. Roll films are contact exposed via motor, either round a glass cylinder or through a vacuum, under a controlled light source. Processing may be in the same machine or separately.
181:, developed in 1850–51, but he dismissed his decades-long work on microphotographs as a personal hobby and did not document his procedures. The idea that microphotography could be no more than a novelty was an opinion shared in the 1858
565:
Reader machines used to view microform are often difficult to use; microfiche is very time-consuming, and microfilm requires users to carefully wind and rewind until they have arrived at the point where the data they are looking for is
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Master negatives are kept in deep storage, and duplicate negatives are used to create service copies, which are the copies available to researchers. This multi-generational structure ensures the preservation of the master negative.
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film and postage as well as end user equipment availability for the needs required. This is why courts specify the printed image from film and not the film itself. The US Supreme Court, since Nov 2017, has shown a preference to a
538:
base. With appropriate, albeit difficult to maintain, storage conditions, this film has a life expectancy of ~500 years. However, when temperature and humidity levels are greater than required a number of things often happen.
351:. For the next half century, UMI would dominate the field, filming and distributing microfilm editions of current and past publications and academic dissertations. After another short-lived name change, UMI was made a part of
551:. Redox is the oxidation of the surface of the film and is often found in higher humidity areas. Regardless of temperature, blemishes (REDOX) appear on film and are caused by oxidation of materials stored with or near film.
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in London, where the exhibit on photography greatly influenced
Glaisher. He called it "the most remarkable discovery of modern times", and argued in his official report for using microphotography to preserve documents.
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a single film may be inserted into a dark slide or the camera may be fitted with a roll film holder which after an exposure advances the film into a box and cuts the frame off the roll for processing as a single film.
297:, which looked closely at microform's potential to serve small print runs of academic or technical materials. In 1933, Charles C. Peters developed a method to microformat dissertations, and in 1934 the United States
240:
The developments in microphotography continued through the next decades, but it was not until the turn of the century that its potential for practical usage was applied more broadly. In 1896, Canadian engineer
507:
Microfilm has a one to one ratio to users. Only one user can access one microform at a time. To increase this you must duplicate, distribute and store increasing the manpower needed to maintain the collection.
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and other comic historians' work to rescue and maintain original paper archives of color pages from the history of newspaper comics. Many non-comics color images were not targeted by these efforts and were
894:
Cameras for high output are loaded with a roll of 105 mm film. The exposed film is developed as a roll; this is sometimes cut to individual fiche after processing or kept in roll form for duplication.
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For the resulting files to be useful, they must be organized in some way. This can be accomplished in a variety of different ways, dependent on the source media and the desired usage. In this regard,
465:
started; the intention to film records and archives from the United
Kingdom relating to Australia and the Pacific. Over 10,000 reels were produced, making it one of the largest projects of its kind.
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Franco-Prussian War, Dagron demonstrated a practical use for microforms. During the siege of Paris, the French used carrier pigeons to transparrt microfilmed messages across German dices."
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rolled and tied with a thread, and then attached to a tail feather of the pigeon. The dispatch was protected by being inserted in the quill, which was then attached to the tail feather.
852:, which poses high risks to their holding institutions, as nitrate film is chemically unstable and a fire hazard. From the late 1930s to the 1980s, microfilms were usually printed on a
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The physical condition of microfilm greatly impacts the quality of the digitized copy. Microfilm with a cellulose acetate base (popular through the 1970s) is frequently subject to
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Robert B. Goldschmidt and Paul Otlet, "La
Conseration et la Diffusion Internationale de la Pensée." Publication no. 144 of the Institut International de Bibliographie (Brussels).
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surfaces are commonly used as a means to duplicate and distribute film to a broader number of users. Diazo is not used as a film master but as a duplicate of a silver based image.
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The principal disadvantage of microforms is that the image is (usually) too small to read with the naked eye and requires analog or digital magnification to be read.
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before the siege, clerks in Tours photographed paper dispatches and compressed them to microfilm, which were carried by homing pigeons into Paris and projected by
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developed a simple, inexpensive ($ 2.00 in 1950), monocular microfilm viewing device, known as the "Seidell viewer", that was sold during the 1940s and 1950s.
110:. Microcards, also known as "micro-opaques", a format no longer produced, were similar to microfiche, but printed on cardboard rather than photographic film.
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Reader-printers are not always available, limiting the user's ability to make copies for their own purposes. Conventional photocopy machines cannot be used.
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on reels of 35 millimeter microfilm, ushering in the era of newspaper preservation on film. This method of information storage received the sanction of the
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Portable readers are plastic devices that fold for carrying; when open they project an image from microfiche on to a reflective screen. For example, with
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Exhibition of the Works of Industry of All Nations 1851. Reports by the Juries on the Subject in the Thirty Classes into which the Exhibition was Divided
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useful as frames may be added to a fiche at any time. The pockets are made using a thin film so that duplicates may be made from the assembled fiche.
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Molyneux, R. E. (1994). "What did rider do? An inquiry into the methodology of Fremont Rider's the scholar and the future of the research library".
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U.S. Government Scientific and Technical Information by Subject Category on Microfiche available from the National Technical Information Service
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A microcard of a translation published by the US Government in the Atomic Energy Commission technical translation report series; card from the
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424:, and the British "Airgraph" system it was based on, were used for delivering mail between those at home and troops serving overseas during
409:. As the pigeons could not carry paper dispatches, the Tours government turned to microfilm. Using a microphotography unit evacuated from
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A microfiche is a sheet of flat film, 105 × 148 mm in size, the same size as the international standard for paper size
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implemented the first microform print-on-demand service, which was quickly followed by a similar commercial concern, Science Service.
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or paper, made for the purposes of transmission, storage, reading, and printing. Microform images are commonly reduced to about 4% or
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library where each volume existed as master negatives and positives, and where items were printed on demand for interested patrons.
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on the wall. The message contained in the microfilm could then be transcribed or copied. By 28 January 1871, when Paris and the
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base can be subject to silvering and degradation of the emulsion—all issues which affect the quality of the scanned image.
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expanding collections. The microcard was superseded by microfiche. By the 1960s, microfilming had become standard policy.
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Sanders, Mark; Martin, Mark (Summer 2004). "Extra! Extra! Read all about it! Newspaper access in the academic library".
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It enables libraries to access collections without putting rare, fragile, or valuable items at risk of theft or damage.
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It is a relatively stable archival form when properly processed and stored. Preservation standard microfilms use the
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that diffuses light. It produces a good black appearance in a reader, but it cannot be used for further copying.
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Arlitsch, Kenning; Herbert, John (Spring 2004). "Microfilm, Paper, and OCR: Issues in Newspaper Digitization".
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747:. It carries a matrix of microimages. All microfiche are read with their text parallel to the long side of the
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Microcards are an opaque, non-reversed format, sometimes known as microopaques. They were invented in 1948 by
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for computer programs was printed to microfiche during the 1970s and distributed to customers in this form.
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bought McCarthy's invention and began marketing check microfilming devices under its "Recordak" division.
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Since it is analog image (an image of the original data), it is viewable with mild magnification. Unlike
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The Focal Encyclopedia of Photography: Digital Imaging, Theory and Applications, History, and Science
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joined to create a Joint Committee on Materials for Research, chaired for most of its existence by
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Newsletter of the Illinois State Archives & The Illinois State Historical Records Advory Board
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color images in microfilm, when libraries were discarding paper originals, was a major impetus to
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Microphotography was first suggested as a document preservation method in 1851 by the astronomer
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can eat the gelatin used to bind the silver halide. The acetate base of the film degrades into
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Molyneux, R. E. (1994). "What did Rider do? An inquiry into the methodology of Fremont Rider's
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so that when large projects are scanned (millions of pages) the price per scan can be pennies.
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gives blue or black dye positive copies. The black image film can be used for further copying.
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of the original document size. For special purposes, greater optical reductions may be used.
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35 mm microfilming station: positioning of the light meter for adjusting the camera exposure
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recorded on the film a reader is used that can read the blips to find any required image.
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use microfilm (roll microfilm and fiche) to store financial, personal, and legal records.
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All regular microfilm copying involves contact exposure under pressure. Then the film is
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Additionally, microfiche was used to write out long casework for some proofs such as the
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always transported by air, and as such were delivered much more quickly than any surface
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to provide a permanent image. Hand copying of a single fiche or aperture card involves
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p. 94 By Michael R. Peres Contributor Michael R. Peres Published by Focal Press, 2007
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receipt the microphotograph was reattached to a glass frame and was then projected by
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Investigations on Color Microfilm as a Medium for Long-Term Storage of Digital Data
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Bourke, Thomas A. (1994). "The Curse of Acetate; or a Base conundrum Confronted".
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Reading microfilms on a machine for some time may cause headache and/or eyestrain.
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was the first major institution to realize the potential of microfilm to preserve
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Metcalf, K. D. (1996). Implications of microfilm and microprint for libraries .
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755:. Along the top of the fiche a title may be recorded for visual identification.
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cards. Aperture cards may be stored in drawers or in freestanding rotary units.
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555:-based systems with lower archival lives (<20 years) which have polyester or
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surrendered, Dagron had delivered 115,000 messages to Paris by carrier pigeon.
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The scholar and the future of the research library: a problem and its solution
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Jamison, M. (1988). "The microcard: Fremont Rider's precomputer revolution".
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Micropublishing: a history of scholarly micropublishing in America, 1938–1980
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The year 1938 also saw another major event in the history of microfilm when
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backup and the ability to use the images without risk of damaging the film.
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Three formats are common: microfilm (reels), microfiche (flat sheets), and
35:
1018:
Another type of conversion is microform to digital. This is done using an
390:
are now finding it difficult to purchase new readers for the old formats.
281:
microfilmed more than three million pages of books and manuscripts in the
2135:
2085:
1994:
1666:
1417:
Scientific Information in Wartime : The Allied-German Rivalry, 1939-1945.
1402:
Fussler, Herman H.. “American Microphotography at the Paris Exposition.”
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878:
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Early cut sheet microforms and microfilms (to the 1930s) were printed on
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mechanical card-sorting equipment to sort and select microfilm drawings.
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1976:
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have been widely used for archival storage of engineering information.
314:
at its annual meeting in 1936, when it officially endorsed microforms.
1853:"Can You Tell Me What Kind of Microfilm I Have?" – BMI Imaging Systems
1179:
Sutton, Thomas (1976). "Microphotography". In Veaner, Allen B. (ed.).
748:
19:"Microfilm" redirects here. For the digital collection of ebooks, see
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2079:
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1982:
1970:
816:
540:
527:
421:
982:. Statements consisting only of original research should be removed.
868:
261:
as a way to alleviate the cost and space limitations imposed by the
1819:"Microfilm and Microfiche" — Northeast Document Conservation Center
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A microfilm printer contains a xerographic copying process, like a
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2020:
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In 1935, Kodak's Recordak division began filming and publishing
1861:
1436:. University of California, Southern Regional Library Facility.
1955:
1837:
1351:
Sur une forme nouvelle du livre— le livre microphotographique,
1055:
947:
117:
89:
is a scaled-down reproduction of a document, typically either
29:
1034:, redox blemishes, and tears, and even preservation standard
370:
brand microfiche reader with source code printed on the films
185:, which called the process "somewhat trifling and childish".
1353:
L'Institut international de bibliographie, Bulletin, 1907.
1181:
Studies in micropublishing, 1853–1976: documentary sources
1566:"The Microcard: Fremont Rider's Precomputer Revolution"
1121:
Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets
1106:
Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets
971:
428:. The systems worked by photographing large amounts of
1262:
CHRONOLOGY OF MICROFILM DEVELOPMENTS 1800 – 1900
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compressed, or a number of other formats such as PDF,
832:
Production and duplication of 16 and 35 mm microfilms
547:
under non-ideal conditions, causing what is known as
1183:. Westport, Conn: Microform Review Inc. p. 88.
1155:
Biographical Dictionary of the History of Technology
2157:
2119:
2036:
2004:
1954:
1934:
1896:
1648:
1646:
1549:
The Scholar and the Future of the Research Library.
1536:
The Scholar and the Future of the Research Library.
23:. For the industrial microfabrication process, see
797:The Scholar and the Future of the Research Library
772:data-intensive operations such as remote sensing.
451:The Scholar and the Future of the Research Library
1492:
1490:
433:lightweight photo paper. These facsimiles of the
401:, the only way for the provisional government in
196:, another astronomer. Both men attended the 1851
1814:The Library of Congress Photoduplication Service
1725:Double Fold: Libraries and the Assault on Paper
1299:"The History of Microfilm: 1839 To The Present"
417:while clerks copied the dispatches onto paper.
1789:Micrographics: Technology for the 21st Century
1457:compiled by Steve Howell and published by the
1086: – Steganograph method of hiding messages
763:or fitted into pockets in purpose-made books.
1873:
1434:The History of Microfilm: 1839 To The Present
1275:"Micscape Microscopy and Microscope Magazine"
8:
393:Microfilm first saw military use during the
21:Internet Archive § Microfilm collection
1791:. Prairie Village, KS: ARMA International.
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1117:Preservation (library and archival science)
836:Normally microfilming uses high resolution
133:needs attention from an expert in libraries
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1516:"Seidell Microfilm Viewer in Production".
1158:. Taylor & Francis. pp. 333–334.
1113: – Catalog published by manufacturers
16:Forms with microreproductions of documents
1092: – Machine used to produce microfilm
998:Learn how and when to remove this message
500:The medium has numerous characteristics:
327:World Congress of Universal Documentation
325:set up an exhibition of microform at the
1128: – French photographer and inventor
60:of all important aspects of the article.
1637:
1481:
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1390:
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815:To create microform media, a planetary
374:Systems that mount microfilm images in
1430:"The Pigeon Post into Paris 1870–1871"
1419:Westport, Conn: Greenwood Press, 1994.
144:may be able to help recruit an expert.
56:Please consider expanding the lead to
1404:American Library Association Bulletin
928:-sensitised film for dye coupling in
877:be moved horizontally on rails. In a
597:damage film through user mishandling.
519:digital submittal over analog images.
291:American Council of Learned Societies
7:
753:landscape or portrait in orientation
739:A microfiche holder with microfiches
1349:Robert Goldschmidt and Paul Otlet,
1152:Lance Day & Ian McNeil (1998).
345:University Microfilms International
1459:Library Board of Western Australia
1066:referenced to an already existing
14:
2199:Audiovisual introductions in 1839
1329:. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press.
1104: – Newspaper archive website
1098: – Printing at a small scale
673:Aperture card with hollerith info
405:to communicate with Paris was by
353:ProQuest Information and Learning
952:
630:A microfiche reader in a library
463:Australian Joint Copying Project
169:was one of the first to produce
122:
34:
1825: (archived August 19, 2000)
856:base, which is prone to tears,
340:Fiske-O-Scope, and filmslides.
287:Social Science Research Council
48:may be too short to adequately
1728:. Vintage Books/Random House.
1655:Microform & Imaging Review
1022:that projects the film onto a
872:Computer output microfilm card
227:Government of National Defense
58:provide an accessible overview
1:
1213:. (London: John Weale, 1852).
1072:Optical character recognition
81:Digital scanning of microfilm
1379:"Brief History of Microfilm"
442:service could have managed.
312:American Library Association
299:National Agriculture Library
208:was in operation during the
1381:, Heritage Microfilm, 2015.
978:the claims made and adding
795:and described in his book,
277:Between 1927 and 1935, the
2245:
1134: – Optical instrument
333:Harvard University Library
18:
2121:Magneto-optic Kerr effect
1787:Saffady, William (2000).
1617:10.1515/mfir.1994.23.1.15
1534:Rider, Fremont (1944).
1415:Richards, Pamela Spence.
1325:Meckler, Alan M. (1982).
1198:Dictionary of Photography
347:(UMI) was established by
259:livre microphotographique
183:Dictionary of Photography
1690:"Aperture Card Scanning"
1564:Jamison, Martin (1988).
1279:www.microscopy-uk.org.uk
1195:Originally published in
1132:Stanhope (optical bijou)
1776:Rider, Fremont (1944).
1765:Libraries & Culture
1745:Libraries & Culture
1570:Libraries & Culture
1552:Libraries & Culture
1538:New York: Hadham Press.
397:of 1870–71. During the
234:Charles-Louis Barreswil
1518:American Documentation
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570:much subtlety of tone.
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216:photographed pages of
175:Frederick Scott Archer
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1524:(2): 118. April 1950.
1406:32.2 (1938): 104–106.
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420:Additionally, the US
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323:University of Chicago
272:Eastman Kodak Company
243:Reginald A. Fessenden
142:WikiProject Libraries
80:
1844:Microfilm Collection
1667:10.1515/mfir.2004.59
681:A duped jacket fiche
622:Readers and printers
167:John Benjamin Dancer
2214:Canadian inventions
2209:Archival technology
1499:Louisiana Libraries
1228:16 May 2008 at the
820:output microfilm).
395:Franco-Prussian War
279:Library of Congress
1453:2018-12-18 at the
963:possibly contains
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526:process, creating
490:four color theorem
381:For example, when
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307:The New York Times
255:Robert Goldschmidt
83:
2229:Library resources
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1936:Professional Disc
1694:Micro Com Seattle
1303:www.srlf.ucla.edu
1251:978-0-240-80740-9
1008:
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965:original research
944:Format conversion
854:cellulose acetate
319:Herman H. Fussler
295:Robert C. Binkley
192:, and in 1853 by
179:collodion process
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91:photographic film
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1759:(1976), 121, S5.
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858:vinegar syndrome
751:. Frames may be
644:Atherton Seidell
549:vinegar syndrome
198:Great Exhibition
171:microphotographs
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350:
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338:
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330:
328:
324:
320:
315:
313:
309:
308:
302:
300:
296:
292:
288:
284:
280:
275:
273:
267:
264:
260:
257:proposed the
256:
252:
247:
244:
238:
235:
230:
228:
224:
223:magic lantern
219:
215:
212:(1870-1871).
211:
207:
202:
199:
195:
194:John Herschel
191:
186:
184:
180:
176:
172:
168:
164:
163:daguerreotype
153:
143:
138:
134:
131:This section
129:
120:
119:
113:
111:
109:
104:
92:
88:
79:
69:
66:February 2024
59:
53:
51:
46:
41:
37:
32:
31:
26:
22:
2219:Film formats
2056:Optical disc
2050:Optical tape
2043:
2037:Discontinued
2006:Compact disc
1788:
1778:
1768:
1764:
1756:
1748:
1744:
1723:
1697:. Retrieved
1693:
1683:
1661:(2): 59–67.
1658:
1654:
1640:, p. 99
1638:Saffady 2000
1633:
1611:(1): 15–17.
1608:
1604:
1598:
1573:
1569:
1559:
1551:
1548:
1543:
1535:
1530:
1521:
1517:
1511:
1502:
1498:
1482:Saffady 2000
1477:
1470:Saffady 2000
1465:
1442:
1433:
1424:
1416:
1411:
1403:
1398:
1393:, p. 15
1391:Saffady 2000
1386:
1358:
1350:
1345:
1326:
1306:. Retrieved
1302:
1293:
1282:. Retrieved
1278:
1269:
1257:
1238:
1218:
1210:
1206:
1196:
1180:
1174:
1154:
1147:
1060:
1048:
1044:
1029:
1017:
1013:
1009:
994:
985:
962:
938:
934:
924:
917:
905:
896:
892:
888:
884:
875:
850:nitrate film
847:
843:
838:panchromatic
835:
814:
796:
790:
770:
757:
742:
718:
698:
689:
648:
637:
633:
499:
487:
481:
471:
467:
460:
450:
444:
426:World War II
422:Victory Mail
419:
392:
388:
380:
373:
349:Eugene Power
342:
331:
316:
305:
303:
276:
268:
258:
248:
239:
232:The chemist
231:
203:
187:
182:
160:
147:
139:for details.
132:
105:
86:
84:
63:
47:
45:lead section
25:Microforming
1576:(1): 1–17.
1505:(1): 18–24.
1484:, p. 6
1472:, p. 4
1126:René Dagron
1090:Microfilmer
902:Duplication
745:ISO A6
651:photocopier
545:acetic acid
483:Source code
407:pigeon post
337:broadsheets
214:René Dagron
206:pigeon post
135:. See the
2193:Categories
1771:: 297–325.
1712:References
1308:2023-05-07
1284:2023-05-07
1111:Parts book
1038:film on a
972:improve it
776:Microcards
767:Ultrafiche
761:file cards
731:Microfiche
704:35 mm film
251:Paul Otlet
218:newspapers
161:Using the
150:April 2015
2204:Documents
2177:Super DLT
2171:Floptical
2062:LaserDisc
2044:Microform
1625:162380229
1582:0894-8631
1264:from UCLA
1040:polyester
976:verifying
908:processed
695:Microfilm
686:Flat film
536:polyester
446:Libraries
355:in 2001.
249:In 1906,
165:process,
137:talk page
87:microform
50:summarize
2136:MiniDisc
2086:DataPlay
1995:DVD-R DL
1989:DVD+R DL
1925:BD-RE XL
1722:(2001).
1699:17 March
1675:11996587
1590:25542007
1451:Archived
1226:Archived
1084:Microdot
1078:See also
1068:database
940:copies.
912:exposure
879:darkroom
383:airlines
317:In 1937
289:and the
2142:MD Data
2132:(1980s)
2130:MO disc
2098:ProData
1919:BD-R XL
1898:Blu-ray
1821:at the
1751:: 1–17.
1201:(1858).
970:Please
930:ammonia
864:Cameras
606:digital
590:easily.
566:stored.
532:gelatin
321:of the
177:'s wet
114:History
98:⁄
2179:(1998)
2173:(1991)
2167:(1986)
2150:(2004)
2144:(1993)
2138:(1992)
2123:(1877)
2112:(2006)
2110:HD DVD
2106:(2004)
2100:(2003)
2094:(2003)
2088:(2002)
2082:(1999)
2080:MIL-CD
2076:(1997)
2074:GD-ROM
2070:(1979)
2064:(1978)
2046:(1870)
2029:(1997)
2023:(1991)
2017:(1988)
2008:(1982)
1997:(2005)
1991:(2004)
1985:(2002)
1979:(2001)
1977:DVD+RW
1973:(1999)
1971:DVD-RW
1967:(1997)
1958:(1995)
1947:(2004)
1938:(2003)
1927:(2010)
1921:(2010)
1915:(2006)
1909:(2006)
1900:(2006)
1795:
1732:
1673:
1623:
1588:
1580:
1333:
1249:
1187:
1162:
817:camera
541:Fungus
528:silver
449:book,
368:DuKane
2148:Hi-MD
2027:CD-RW
1983:DVD+R
1965:DVD-R
1913:BD-RE
1891:media
1671:S2CID
1621:S2CID
1586:JSTOR
1139:Notes
926:Diazo
749:fiche
700:16 mm
657:Media
601:only.
586:card.
582:lost.
557:epoxy
553:Diazo
517:PDF/A
411:Paris
403:Tours
263:codex
2068:WORM
2021:CD-i
2015:CD-R
1907:BD-R
1793:ISBN
1730:ISBN
1701:2015
1578:ISSN
1331:ISBN
1247:ISBN
1185:ISBN
1160:ISBN
824:Film
722:are
511:95%.
475:and
473:Visa
440:mail
359:Uses
253:and
2104:UMD
2092:UDO
1956:DVD
1945:PDD
1838:PDF
1663:doi
1613:doi
1056:GIF
1052:LZW
1024:CCD
974:by
706:to
702:or
2195::
1769:29
1767:.
1749:23
1747:.
1692:.
1669:.
1659:33
1657:.
1645:^
1619:.
1609:23
1607:.
1584:.
1574:23
1572:.
1568:.
1520:.
1503:67
1501:.
1489:^
1449:,
1432:.
1367:^
1317:^
1301:.
1277:.
1054:,
799:.
642:,
492:.
453:,
329:.
204:A
100:25
85:A
1881:e
1874:t
1867:v
1840:)
1836:(
1801:.
1738:.
1703:.
1677:.
1665::
1627:.
1615::
1592:.
1522:1
1339:.
1311:.
1287:.
1193:.
1168:.
1001:)
995:(
990:)
986:(
968:.
152:)
148:(
96:1
68:)
64:(
54:.
27:.
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