2070:
1624:(a famous Icelandic volcano). Such toponyms pose numerous problems, but the main one can be stated in a very simple question: if they are neither Icelandic nor Celtic, which language do they come from? Perhaps they have been taken from a language (or languages) of unknown ethnicity, or perhaps (and this is a fascinating though highly improbable hypothesis) these names are a sign that Iceland was already inhabited not only before the
1460:
273:
171:
76:
35:
1912:"part". With regard to modern languages, Icelandic has been influenced (in recent times quite heavily) only by English, particularly in the technical lexis and by the younger generation. In languages such as Italian, English words are simply borrowed just as they are; in contrast, in Icelandic they are adapted to the local phonetic and morphological system. For example,
1304:, they have no difficulty in reading works of medieval literature, but to speak to their ancestors they would probably need an interpreter. The most consistent changes have been that to the vowel system, which followed the segmental phonological quantity in the 16th century or perhaps as early as the 14th century, and the consequent development of
1636:, have concerned themselves with the question, attempting to demonstrate this hypothesis, which would force a complete rewrite of Icelandic history. Others have asserted that since Icelandic is an imported language, such names could in reality be traced back to some unknown substrate of Norwegian (comparisons have consequently been made with
1693:. So when the battle for the purification of Icelandic from all Danicisms began in the 19th century, the groundwork had already been laid. The purification campaign was such a success that Danish borrowings were almost completely eliminated. Only a few terms by now stable in the spoken and administrative language survive, like
1040:
In the old language the verbs forming past tense with the dental suffix (corresponding to -d in
English) were apart in the first and third person, ending with -a in the first person but -i in the third person. The first person took the form of the third person and are now identical. This is the only
522:
languages, the development of the language was entirely independent. However, it would be wrong to suggest that the language that was brought to
Iceland was completely homogeneous; even though most of the settlers were from western Norway, there were a number from other parts of the country and also
1688:
have left in their wake many Danish terms in official documents, but they have little lasting success. The rural population remained faithful to their own ancestral language, while Danish borrowings were used only by a restricted class of ageing educated people who were heavily influenced by Danish
1049:
The current spelling of the language is unchanged from about 1300. In discussing the development of the language it is usually most convenient to divide it into two sections where the changes prior to the current spelling are outlined in the former and later changes in another. In the period from
1272:), Icelandic certainly remained at an earlier evolutionary stage in terms of its morphology, but this should not imply that the language did not change; the phonological developments of the language from the ancient to the modern language are enormous. A conservative writing system, rich
1241:
Despite this phonetic 'earthquake', some very ancient and fundamental characteristics were retained, like the conservation of word-final unaccented vowels , elsewhere reduced to an indistinct schwa ; as stated, this is probably the principal cause of the morphological conservation.
543:) contributed to even out the differences between the various dialects: traits common to all dialects were reinforced, while the most marked differences gradually disappeared. Although it is not known exactly how the language developed, modern Icelandic has evolved less than other
705:. Given that changes to a spoken language are often only recorded later in the written language, it is probable that in spoken Danish these changes occurred around 1250 and perhaps even earlier. The rapid evolution of Danish (a simplification comparable to that seen between
437:, that were written down a little later nevertheless contain older language because poetic language was kept in memory unchanged over sometimes a remarkably long time. The most famous of these, written in Iceland from the 12th century onward, are without doubt the
1225:). Neither phenomenon is written, which reflects the fact that they are (still) merely phonetic (i. e., are not used to distinguish meanings) and have not (yet) become phonological (but this is a common phenomenon in many languages of cultures like English,
1197:
The digraph ⟨au⟩, which in Old
Icelandic signified the same thing as it does in Spanish or German (, similar to the ⟨ow⟩ in English "how"), changed to , which is similar to German ⟨eu⟩ (), but starting with (i.e. Icelandic ⟨ö⟩) instead of (i.e. Icelandic
1644:), and have therefore been transplanted to the island by colonists who originated from parts of Norway where such substrate languages would have still been present. Naturally, there have been numerous attempts to explain the names in terms of Icelandic:
1986:
Icelandic writers (who provide the bulk of our surviving documentation)commonly employed the term dǫnsk tunga (literally "Danish tongue") to identify the language not just of those who were ruled by the Dana konungr, but of all
Germanic-speaking
488:
Nevertheless, written
Icelandic has changed relatively little since the 13th century. As a result of this, and of the similarity between the modern and ancient grammar, modern speakers can still understand, more or less, the original
493:
and Eddas that were written some 800 years ago. This ability is sometimes mildly overstated by
Icelanders themselves, most of whom actually read the Sagas with updated modern spelling and footnotes—though otherwise intact.
1194:. However the pronunciation of unaccented vowels remained very clear, compared to what happened in the other Scandinavian and Germanic languages, a factor that played an important role in the conservation of some forms.
1560:"the mixed (river)" (which is formed by the confluence of different rivers)) there are some that up to now have resisted any plausible interpretation, even in the light of the Celtic languages. For example,
1300:, as examples, have a morphological system at least as complex as that of Icelandic, and Hungarian, moreover, behaves exactly like Icelandic in terms of its acceptance of most loanwords. As is often said of
1050:
1350 to 1550, coinciding with the total loss of independence and Danish rule, the difference between
Norwegian and Icelandic grew even larger. Norway also fell to the Danish Crown, and Danish became its
1395:. Under this policy, some writers and terminologists were put in charge of the creation of new vocabulary to adapt the Icelandic language to the evolution of new concepts, without resorting to borrowed
1349:
by an anonymous author who has later been referred to as the 'First
Grammarian'. The later Rasmus Rask standard was basically a re-enactment of the old treatise, with some changes to fit concurrent
655:) was composed, a highly original description of the language unique in Europe at the time. The treatise was concerned with the sounds of the language; it described the internal workings of the
1399:
as in many other languages. A few old words that had fallen into disuse were updated to fit in with the modern language, and neologisms were created from Old Norse roots. For example, the word
647:
for the first time in 1117–1118. The first manuscripts among those still in our possession date back to the second half of the 12th century. Sometime in the latter half of the 12th century the
1102:. On the one hand it retained, practically unaltered, its rich inflectional morphology; on the other it underwent a phonological reorganization comparable in its scope to the development from
485:, the language has nevertheless been subject to some important changes. The pronunciation, for instance, changed considerably between the 12th and 16th centuries, especially that of vowels.
579:
The period from 550 to 1050 is called the
Scandinavian or "Common Nordic" period. During this time, a notably unified common language was spoken throughout Scandinavia. The key position of
727:
developed more slowly, but show equally notable differences from
Icelandic, which is always more conservative and has maintained even to this day many common Scandinavian features.
1365:, had actually not seen much use in the later centuries, so Rask's standard constituted a major change in practice. Later 20th century changes include most notably the adoption of
896:
Again along with English, Icelandic is unusual among Germanic languages to have conserved, if only at a local level, the pronunciation of the word-initial consonantal cluster
2151:
470:
from 1380 to 1918 had little effect on the evolution of Icelandic, which remained in daily use among the general population: Danish was not used for official communications.
551:
or first settlement. Icelandic has lost all trace of the tonal nature of early Scandinavian languages, traces of which are noticeable in modern Norwegian and especially
1041:
alteration in person inflection from the old language, here in stark contrast to the other Scandinavian languages where they vanished completely and halved in Faroese.
678:, which, due to its metric structure and oral tradition, conserved notably archaic forms. Between 1050 and 1350 Icelandic began to develop independently from other
547:. The unique development of Icelandic, which eventually resulted in its complete separation from Norwegian and the other Scandinavian languages, began with the
587:). Even though the first hints of individual future developments were already identifiable in different parts of the vast region, there were no problems with
2843:
2235:
2016:
1205:
appeared through contact, forming consonant phonemes that were probably previously absent. The most obvious change was the formation of unvoiced consonants:
674:
Although the oldest manuscripts date back to around 1150, they show structures that were in use from around 900. This is particularly true of the ancient
2462:
86:
788:, which were retained only in Icelandic and English (which shows here a notably archaic phonological trait). They were replaced with the corresponding
1825:
origin are present in Icelandic, but these date back to the common Germanic period and are present in all the other Germanic languages. For example,
838:, at least from a graphic point of view (their pronunciation is in part modified by the desonorization of the second consonantal element): Icelandic
671:('Manuscript Institute of Iceland') is a later copy of the original text. Three other grammatical treaties were composed in the following decades.
393:
1481:
188:
48:
4793:
3380:
1086:
of the state and is now particularly used in Western Norway. All the continental Scandinavian languages evolved in this period from more
694:
ever existed in Iceland; all indications suggest that from the outset the language has maintained an extraordinary level of homogeneity.
2774:
2644:
2448:
2412:
1343:. It is ultimately based heavily on an orthographic standard created in the early 12th century in a mysterious document known as The
2555:
2438:
2299:
1507:
377:
359:
254:
62:
340:
235:
144:
2836:
2758:
2726:
2545:
2520:
2386:
2366:
2228:
2009:
1264:, modern Icelandic was definitively formed. Compared to other Scandinavian and Germanic languages (with the partial exception of
312:
207:
116:
3765:
2779:
2698:
2592:
2550:
2504:
2458:
2433:
2407:
2391:
2628:
2587:
2571:
2499:
2468:
2181:
1485:
1386:
643:
All of the documents use the Latin alphabet, which was introduced to Iceland in the 12th century. Laws were transcribed onto
297:
192:
101:
319:
214:
123:
4659:
2677:
2672:
2443:
2335:
2330:
2304:
2279:
1202:
1066:
kept relatively pure and free from Danish influence, so much so that in the second half of the 19th century the linguist
4689:
3859:
3821:
3806:
3133:
2171:
640:
and documents dating from this period, which allows researchers to characterize Icelandic from this period accurately.
4788:
4669:
4529:
3879:
3838:
3828:
2829:
2708:
2221:
2002:
1288:
formed from native material) obscures the true nature of modern Icelandic, which is a modern language like any other;
1213:, while voiced consonants lost their vibration while retaining their articulation. Another very notable phenomenon is
326:
221:
130:
1470:
3045:
2453:
2176:
1345:
648:
1489:
1474:
1142:
were formed, often under the influence of preceding or following consonants and, in general, the pronunciation of
181:
4386:
2202:
308:
203:
112:
54:
2161:
4664:
4618:
4613:
4537:
4147:
4131:
4010:
3869:
2360:
702:
690:
and notably homogeneous across the country. From the manuscripts it has not been possible to determine whether
478:
4445:
2166:
4603:
4547:
4542:
4462:
4135:
4085:
3843:
3385:
3203:
2887:
2875:
2197:
2089:
1532:
1445:
1273:
994:
An important vocalic development, also from a morphological standpoint, was the disappearance of word-final
987:), exactly as is usual in modern Icelandic (southern dialect and literary). There are also indications that
687:
474:
1579:
4608:
4090:
4056:
3674:
3490:
3350:
3190:
3085:
2805:
2800:
2703:
2244:
2156:
1210:
1135:
1127:
1123:
1115:
1095:
1002:
792:
785:
751:
735:
679:
588:
544:
524:
4766:
4730:
3998:
3991:
3943:
3713:
3684:
3653:
3616:
3541:
3390:
3298:
3211:
3072:
3034:
2494:
2381:
2049:
1336:
1325:
1222:
519:
503:
411:
4231:
3106:
730:
In Norwegian a kind of vocalic harmony developed, in which a syllable after a stressed syllable with a
555:. Research has been carried out to identify certain traits of the language, for example the so-called
4735:
4715:
4684:
4557:
4417:
4391:
4163:
3981:
3573:
3400:
3362:
3357:
3231:
3178:
2936:
2795:
2269:
2120:
2059:
1257:
559:, but the results were inconclusive. Icelandic shares such characteristics with two other languages:
2069:
4674:
4221:
4066:
3910:
3864:
3798:
3551:
3313:
3198:
3111:
2909:
2428:
2125:
2054:
1941:
1599:
656:
1591:
1526:
1308:. In the consonant system there have also been notable changes, for example the desonorization of
1229:
and Danish). Morphophonetic phenomena have also developed, some of them denoted by the graphemes (
768:). Such innovation was only accepted in eastern Norwegian and in Swedish (Mod. Norwegian, Swedish
426:
333:
282:
228:
137:
4798:
4720:
4572:
4562:
4517:
4279:
4206:
4103:
3948:
3923:
3918:
3811:
3639:
3524:
3345:
3123:
3118:
3097:
3058:
2862:
2852:
2613:
2478:
2371:
2351:
2309:
2284:
2248:
2025:
1754:
1350:
1297:
1251:
1087:
978:
720:
683:
528:
467:
406:
4644:
1615:
953:. Until the early years of the 20th century Swedish maintained the orthography in words such as
3563:
1339:
has developed from a standard established in the 19th century primarily by the Danish linguist
834:
Icelandic is the only Germanic language to have conserved the word-initial consonant sequences
583:
as the focal point of the whole area meant that the language was often simply called "Danish" (
425:
The oldest preserved texts in Icelandic were written around 1100, the oldest single text being
4694:
4493:
4409:
4402:
4357:
4301:
4061:
4051:
4034:
4029:
3933:
3816:
3695:
3495:
3456:
3436:
3274:
3166:
3148:
3000:
2742:
2682:
2665:
2597:
2356:
2289:
2274:
2213:
2094:
2044:
2039:
1946:
1905:
1757:
names that have been more common in Iceland than elsewhere in Scandinavia over the centuries,
1633:
1607:
1571:
1449:
1392:
1091:
1083:
1051:
430:
397:
1652:, and therefore mean "the chosen land"; moreover, there is also the common Norwegian surname
531:
dialects of the time. The close intermingling of the people of the island, especially at the
4649:
4440:
4374:
4330:
4325:
4274:
4266:
4071:
4039:
3986:
3975:
3888:
3760:
3755:
3597:
3536:
3326:
3308:
3143:
2904:
2896:
2660:
2623:
2525:
2473:
2376:
2314:
1641:
1321:
1289:
1265:
1221:
followed a light aspiration. Other consonant clusters developed an unvoiced dental element (
789:
724:
560:
552:
442:
1587:
392:
4679:
4472:
4379:
4362:
4347:
4342:
4335:
4044:
3953:
3938:
3893:
3745:
3708:
3700:
3679:
3666:
3646:
3632:
3395:
3372:
3303:
3293:
3285:
3065:
1293:
1269:
1226:
1054:, which led to the formation of a hybrid Dano-Norwegian language, the basis of the modern
879:
781:, Continental Scandinavian languages and most other Germanic languages lost the series of
564:
518:
of Old Norse. Due to its geographic isolation and consequent lack of influence from other
490:
438:
4639:
598:
spoken in Iceland, there are no written documents from this period. Ancient Scandinavian
4760:
4654:
4634:
4586:
4478:
4352:
4022:
3789:
3728:
3507:
3464:
3421:
3338:
3333:
3222:
3172:
3023:
2974:
2929:
2922:
2135:
2084:
1822:
1544:
1107:
1103:
933:
710:
610:) or skin. Few runic inscriptions have been found and nearly all are dated after 1200.
511:
287:
4782:
4725:
4710:
4552:
4308:
4259:
4076:
4015:
3928:
3874:
3833:
3771:
3718:
3602:
3529:
2959:
1956:
1821:
Influences of other languages are relatively insignificant. Certainly, many terms of
1637:
1391:
During the 18th century, the Icelandic authorities implemented a stringent policy of
1329:
1201:
The consonant system underwent even more profound transformations. Phenomena such as
607:
539:
717:. In 1350 Danish assumed characteristics that are still seen in the language today.
4579:
4003:
3967:
3900:
3723:
3546:
3519:
3502:
3446:
3405:
2987:
2966:
1873:
4226:
1690:
1550:
664:
93:
4486:
4396:
4369:
4241:
4187:
4095:
3777:
3738:
3321:
3016:
2980:
2915:
2130:
1961:
1459:
1340:
1218:
1217:, in which certain consonant clusters are preceded by a complete closure of the
1178:
in many morphemes (probably already pronounced in the early period) changed to
1143:
1072:
714:
706:
675:
660:
447:
272:
170:
75:
17:
527:. Therefore, the language that grew up in Iceland was influenced by all of the
4236:
4216:
3581:
3251:
2952:
1925:
1681:
1317:
1301:
1067:
999:
731:
637:
533:
463:
1098:
begin to assume a modern character. However Icelandic in this period shows a
4422:
4285:
4170:
3733:
3514:
3469:
3441:
3267:
2618:
2115:
1951:
1921:
1396:
1305:
1285:
1261:
1139:
1099:
1058:(successfully "re-Norwegianized" only in the 20th century). Only in western
965:, which is purely historical. In Danish one writes but does not pronounce :
921:
782:
778:
755:
747:
698:
619:
459:
419:
4246:
1146:
became less tense: they are now very lax. Orthography changed: the letters
1055:
920:
represents /ʍ/ only in certain dialects. The other Germanic languages have
4211:
3559:
1538:
1313:
1309:
1281:
1206:
871:
1070:
created an authentic Norwegian idiom on the basis of them, first called
697:
Around 1300, the Danish language saw a very rapid evolution in both its
537:(the general meeting that took place at the beginning of each summer at
4252:
3848:
3750:
1685:
1521:
1277:
1078:
1063:
691:
603:
580:
568:
515:
507:
482:
1833:
1827:
3555:
2821:
1994:
1556:
1404:
1059:
644:
415:
1981:
3473:
1629:
1620:
1412:
1131:
1119:
713:) gave rise to a marked difference between the north and south of
599:
391:
1260:, the introduction of printing and the consequent translation of
1562:
455:
434:
4515:
4129:
2873:
2825:
2217:
1998:
1082:
or "neo-Norwegian", which obtained immediate recognition as an
2810:
1908:, one of the few remaining words in use of that language) and
1453:
266:
164:
69:
28:
1753:
These influences are very slight and most notable in simple
1373:(reflecting the modern pronunciation), and the abolition of
602:
were certainly widely known but were never used to write on
1062:(whence came the original settlers of Iceland) were the
477:
than other living Germanic languages, especially in its
293:
97:
746:), while a syllable after a stressed syllable with a
1872:
Latin borrowings dating back to the introduction of
1648:, for example, could come from the root of the verb
1632:. But who were these people? Some scholars, such as
4703:
4627:
4596:
4528:
4460:
4318:
4199:
4155:
4146:
3966:
3909:
3797:
3788:
3693:
3665:
3624:
3615:
3590:
3572:
3483:
3455:
3429:
3420:
3371:
3284:
3259:
3250:
3189:
3084:
3033:
3008:
2999:
2895:
2886:
2788:
2767:
2751:
2735:
2719:
2691:
2653:
2637:
2606:
2580:
2564:
2538:
2513:
2487:
2421:
2400:
2344:
2323:
2262:
2255:
2190:
2144:
2103:
2077:
2032:
1126:changed. In the 15th and 16th centuries the vowels
300:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
195:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
1668:"inhabit", present in many names of farms such as
1664:"dwelling, habitation", from the root of the verb
1524:are native and clearly interpretable (for example
1403:("electricity") literally means "amber power" – a
4292:
481:and other grammatical aspects, as well as in its
458:is called Old Icelandic, a dialect of (Western)
280:An editor has performed a search and found that
1189:
1183:
1169:
1163:
1016:
1010:
826:
820:
814:
808:
802:
796:
774:), while in Icelandic there is no trace of it.
763:
2152:Árni Magnússon Institute for Icelandic Studies
1628:, but even preceding the arrival of the first
2837:
2229:
2010:
1982:"The Danish Tongue and Scandinavian Identity"
982:
981:, in some cases, one writes and pronounces (
960:
954:
948:
769:
8:
972:
966:
102:introducing citations to additional sources
1520:Even though the vast majority of Icelandic
1488:. Unsourced material may be challenged and
1419:("telephone") originally meant "wire", and
1110:. To cite only the most important changes:
663:methodology. The manuscript, today kept in
63:Learn how and when to remove these messages
4525:
4512:
4152:
4143:
4126:
3794:
3621:
3426:
3256:
3005:
2892:
2883:
2870:
2844:
2830:
2822:
2259:
2236:
2222:
2214:
2017:
2003:
1995:
1353:conventions, such as the exclusive use of
462:, the common Scandinavian language of the
1729:, lit. "can happen") and some nouns like
1508:Learn how and when to remove this message
686:; it is particularly conservative in its
624:The period from 1050 to 1350 is known as
614:Ancient Scandinavian or Norse (1050–1350)
378:Learn how and when to remove this message
360:Learn how and when to remove this message
255:Learn how and when to remove this message
1684:to make Danish the official language of
92:Relevant discussion may be found on the
1972:
1369:, which had previously been written as
1932:"on the parquet of the discothèques".
498:The language of the Norwegian settlers
7:
1486:adding citations to reliable sources
1114:In the vowel system the long vowels
473:Though Icelandic is considered more
298:adding citations to reliable sources
193:adding citations to reliable sources
3406:Plautdietsch / Mennonite Low German
4765:Languages between parentheses are
575:The Scandinavian period (550–1050)
433:. Some of the poetry, such as the
410:began in the 9th century when the
25:
1896:); more recently the very common
1680:The efforts of the government in
1606:(the area that gives its name to
514:, bringing with them the western
44:This article has multiple issues.
2068:
1458:
271:
169:
85:relies largely or entirely on a
74:
33:
1888:"prophesy, preach" (< Latin
1435:Foreign influences on Icelandic
738:) exhibited only a high vowel (
659:in much the same way as modern
454:The language of the era of the
180:needs additional citations for
52:or discuss these issues on the
4769:of the language on their left.
1387:Linguistic purism in Icelandic
1076:"national language" and later
1:
4660:Germanic substrate hypothesis
1817:Influences of other languages
1725:"perhaps, maybe" (cf. Danish
1709:"pass sentence", (cf. Danish
1361:. Various old features, like
908:, more commonly . In English
441:, the historical writings of
4690:Ingvaeonic nasal spirant law
3381:Mecklenburgisch-Vorpommersch
2172:Icelandic Language Institute
1741:"postage stamp" (cf. Danish
1312:, the rise of a correlative
1045:Middle Icelandic (1350–1550)
991:was originally pronounced .
4794:Germanic language histories
4670:High German consonant shift
1880:"creed, dogma" (< Latin
1566:(a mountain on Kjalarnes),
1191:löndum, við gefum, þeir eru
1185:londom, vér gefom, þeir ero
1118:became diphthongs, and the
286:to establish the subject's
4815:
3208:Westlauwers–Terschellings
2861:According to contemporary
2177:Icelandic Naming Committee
2162:Icelandic Language Council
1701:, corresponding to German
1689:culture and lived only in
1443:
1431:("female fortuneteller").
1384:
1346:First Grammatical Treatise
1249:
1012:akr, gestr, merkr, þú gefr
836:⟨hl, hr, hn⟩
649:First Grammatical Treatise
617:
4752:
4524:
4511:
4433:
4387:Southern Schleswig Danish
4142:
4125:
2882:
2869:
2859:
2203:List of Icelandic writers
2066:
1743:blyant, fængsel, frimærke
1590:, traversed by the river
762:"brother", cf. Icelandic
4665:West Germanic gemination
4619:Ancient Belgian language
4614:Germanic parent language
4558:Weser-Rhine (Istvaeonic)
3680:Austrian Standard German
1427:("digit"; "number") and
1168:became Modern Icelandic
1094:languages, and with the
1015:became Modern Icelandic
742:'sister', cf. Icelandic
653:Fyrsta Málfrœðiritgerðin
283:sufficient sources exist
2198:Icelandic Sign Language
2167:Icelandic Language Fund
1980:Anderson, Carl Edlund.
1446:Street names in Iceland
1415:"); similarly the word
1274:inflectional morphology
1184:
1164:
1011:
688:inflectional morphology
669:Handritastofnun Íslands
418:, brought a dialect of
4726:Preterite-present verb
4609:Proto-Germanic grammar
4563:North Sea (Ingvaeonic)
3675:German Standard German
3351:East Frisian Low Saxon
2157:Icelandic Language Day
2104:History and literature
1930:á parketi diskótekanna
1598:(a volcanic crater in
1423:("computer") combines
1256:Around 1550, with the
1190:
1170:
1017:
983:
973:
967:
961:
955:
949:
827:
821:
815:
809:
807:"smith", cf Icelandic
803:
797:
770:
764:
589:mutual intelligibility
545:Scandinavian languages
525:Scandinavian countries
468:Danish rule of Iceland
400:
309:"History of Icelandic"
204:"History of Icelandic"
113:"History of Icelandic"
4731:Grammatischer Wechsel
3714:Namibian Black German
3685:Swiss Standard German
3654:Early New High German
3212:Mainland West Frisian
3073:Harlingerland Frisian
1904:"person" (originally
1697:"happen" (cf. Danish
1280:that is resistant to
998:with the addition of
636:. There are numerous
412:settlement of Iceland
395:
4736:Indo-European ablaut
4716:Germanic strong verb
4685:Germanic spirant law
3822:Southeast Limburgish
3318:Gelders-Overijssels
2947:Irish Middle English
2937:Early Modern English
2145:Promotion and purism
1831:"to buy" < Latin
1542:"golden waterfall",
1482:improve this section
1284:(instead preferring
1258:Lutheran Reformation
924:the cluster: German
795:(Norwegian, Swedish
294:improve this article
189:improve this article
98:improve this article
4704:Synchronic features
4675:Germanic a-mutation
4628:Diachronic features
3978:in the broad sense
3911:East Central German
3865:Lorraine Franconian
3839:Transylvanian Saxon
3799:West Central German
3574:East Low Franconian
3484:West Low Franconian
1942:Icelandic phonology
1174:. The vowel letter
657:phonological system
594:With regard to the
4789:Icelandic language
4721:Germanic weak verb
4530:Language subgroups
3880:Pennsylvania Dutch
3829:Moselle Franconian
3807:Central Franconian
3640:Middle High German
3391:Central Pomeranian
3346:Northern Low Saxon
3059:Wangerooge Frisian
2853:Germanic languages
2026:Icelandic language
1924:" and just plain "
1857:"emperor" (German
1733:"pencil, crayon",
1337:Icelandic alphabet
1252:Icelandic language
1209:consonants became
918:⟨wh⟩
898:⟨hv⟩
819:(modern Icelandic
684:Germanic languages
407:Icelandic language
401:
4776:
4775:
4761:extinct languages
4748:
4747:
4744:
4743:
4695:Great Vowel Shift
4507:
4506:
4503:
4502:
4456:
4455:
4302:Greenlandic Norse
4121:
4120:
4117:
4116:
4113:
4112:
4052:Southern Bavarian
4035:Northern Bavarian
4011:Highest Alemannic
3962:
3961:
3696:standard variants
3611:
3610:
3457:Standard variants
3416:
3415:
3275:Middle Low German
3246:
3245:
3242:
3241:
3046:Saterland Frisian
2819:
2818:
2534:
2533:
2249:world's languages
2211:
2210:
2182:Linguistic purism
1947:Greenlandic Norse
1749:Gaelic influences
1548:"water glacier",
1518:
1517:
1510:
1450:Icelandic exonyms
1393:linguistic purism
1381:Linguistic purism
1180:⟨u⟩
1176:⟨o⟩
1160:⟨ö⟩
1156:⟨æ⟩
1154:were replaced by
1152:⟨ǫ⟩
1148:⟨œ⟩
1084:official language
1052:official language
1007:⟨u⟩
989:⟨h⟩
504:original settlers
388:
387:
380:
370:
369:
362:
344:
265:
264:
257:
239:
163:
162:
148:
67:
16:(Redirected from
4806:
4553:Elbe (Irminonic)
4526:
4513:
4441:Mainland Gutnish
4331:Swedish dialects
4293:Middle Icelandic
4267:Middle Norwegian
4156:Historical forms
4153:
4144:
4127:
4086:South Franconian
4072:Hutterite German
4040:Central Bavarian
3860:Rhine Franconian
3795:
3625:Historical forms
3622:
3537:Surinamese Dutch
3430:Historical forms
3427:
3260:Historical forms
3257:
3009:Historical forms
3006:
2893:
2884:
2871:
2846:
2839:
2832:
2823:
2709:Standard Chinese
2260:
2238:
2231:
2224:
2215:
2085:Patronymic names
2072:
2019:
2012:
2005:
1996:
1990:
1989:
1977:
1841:"paper" (German
1676:Danish influence
1660:could be simply
1642:Uralic languages
1554:"bay of smoke",
1513:
1506:
1502:
1499:
1493:
1462:
1454:
1302:Icelandic people
1246:Modern Icelandic
1193:
1187:
1181:
1177:
1173:
1167:
1162:: Old Icelandic
1161:
1157:
1153:
1149:
1137:
1134:and merged with
1129:
1125:
1117:
1036:
1014:
1009:: Old Icelandic
1008:
1004:
990:
986:
976:
970:
964:
958:
952:
919:
899:
837:
830:
824:
818:
812:
806:
800:
794:
787:
773:
767:
754:) showed only a
753:
737:
626:Old Scandinavian
443:Snorri Sturluson
396:A page from the
383:
376:
365:
358:
354:
351:
345:
343:
302:
275:
267:
260:
253:
249:
246:
240:
238:
197:
173:
165:
158:
155:
149:
147:
106:
78:
70:
59:
37:
36:
29:
21:
18:Middle Icelandic
4814:
4813:
4809:
4808:
4807:
4805:
4804:
4803:
4779:
4778:
4777:
4772:
4740:
4699:
4680:Germanic umlaut
4645:Holtzmann's law
4623:
4592:
4520:
4499:
4452:
4429:
4363:South Jutlandic
4348:Danish dialects
4314:
4195:
4138:
4109:
4091:East Franconian
4045:Viennese German
3958:
3939:Silesian German
3905:
3894:Central Hessian
3784:
3709:Namibian German
3698:
3689:
3667:Standard German
3661:
3647:New High German
3633:Old High German
3607:
3586:
3568:
3479:
3451:
3412:
3396:East Pomeranian
3386:Brandenburgisch
3373:East Low German
3367:
3294:Dutch Low Saxon
3286:West Low German
3280:
3238:
3204:Schiermonnikoog
3185:
3080:
3066:Wursten Frisian
3029:
2995:
2878:
2865:
2855:
2850:
2820:
2815:
2784:
2763:
2747:
2731:
2715:
2687:
2649:
2633:
2602:
2576:
2560:
2530:
2509:
2483:
2417:
2396:
2340:
2319:
2251:
2242:
2212:
2207:
2186:
2140:
2099:
2095:List of exonyms
2073:
2064:
2028:
2023:
1993:
1979:
1978:
1974:
1970:
1938:
1819:
1751:
1717:(more commonly
1713:), the adverbs
1678:
1536:"flat island",
1514:
1503:
1497:
1494:
1479:
1463:
1452:
1442:
1437:
1389:
1383:
1254:
1248:
1179:
1175:
1159:
1155:
1151:
1147:
1047:
1006:
988:
917:
897:
835:
777:With regard to
622:
616:
577:
500:
439:Icelandic Sagas
422:to the island.
405:history of the
384:
373:
372:
371:
366:
355:
349:
346:
303:
301:
291:
276:
261:
250:
244:
241:
198:
196:
186:
174:
159:
153:
150:
107:
105:
91:
79:
38:
34:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
4812:
4810:
4802:
4801:
4796:
4791:
4781:
4780:
4774:
4773:
4771:
4770:
4763:
4753:
4750:
4749:
4746:
4745:
4742:
4741:
4739:
4738:
4733:
4728:
4723:
4718:
4713:
4707:
4705:
4701:
4700:
4698:
4697:
4692:
4687:
4682:
4677:
4672:
4667:
4662:
4657:
4652:
4647:
4642:
4637:
4631:
4629:
4625:
4624:
4622:
4621:
4616:
4611:
4606:
4604:Proto-Germanic
4600:
4598:
4594:
4593:
4591:
4590:
4583:
4576:
4568:
4567:
4566:
4565:
4560:
4555:
4545:
4540:
4534:
4532:
4522:
4521:
4516:
4509:
4508:
4505:
4504:
4501:
4500:
4498:
4497:
4490:
4483:
4479:Crimean Gothic
4468:
4466:
4458:
4457:
4454:
4453:
4451:
4450:
4449:
4448:
4443:
4434:
4431:
4430:
4428:
4427:
4426:
4425:
4415:
4414:
4413:
4406:
4399:
4394:
4389:
4384:
4383:
4382:
4377:
4367:
4366:
4365:
4355:
4353:Insular Danish
4350:
4340:
4339:
4338:
4336:Rinkebysvenska
4333:
4322:
4320:
4316:
4315:
4313:
4312:
4305:
4298:
4297:
4296:
4289:
4277:
4272:
4271:
4270:
4263:
4256:
4250:
4244:
4239:
4234:
4229:
4224:
4219:
4214:
4203:
4201:
4197:
4196:
4194:
4193:
4192:
4191:
4184:
4182:Old East Norse
4179:
4177:Old West Norse
4167:
4159:
4157:
4150:
4140:
4139:
4130:
4123:
4122:
4119:
4118:
4115:
4114:
4111:
4110:
4108:
4107:
4100:
4099:
4098:
4088:
4083:
4082:
4081:
4080:
4079:
4074:
4069:
4064:
4059:
4057:South Tyrolean
4049:
4048:
4047:
4037:
4027:
4026:
4025:
4020:
4019:
4018:
4008:
4007:
4006:
3999:High Alemannic
3996:
3995:
3994:
3989:
3972:
3970:
3964:
3963:
3960:
3959:
3957:
3956:
3951:
3946:
3941:
3936:
3931:
3926:
3921:
3915:
3913:
3907:
3906:
3904:
3903:
3898:
3897:
3896:
3886:
3885:
3884:
3883:
3882:
3877:
3867:
3857:
3856:
3855:
3854:
3853:
3852:
3851:
3841:
3836:
3826:
3825:
3824:
3819:
3803:
3801:
3792:
3790:Central German
3786:
3785:
3783:
3782:
3781:
3780:
3775:
3768:
3763:
3758:
3748:
3743:
3742:
3741:
3731:
3729:Barossa German
3726:
3721:
3716:
3711:
3705:
3703:
3691:
3690:
3688:
3687:
3682:
3677:
3671:
3669:
3663:
3662:
3660:
3659:
3658:
3657:
3643:
3636:
3628:
3626:
3619:
3613:
3612:
3609:
3608:
3606:
3605:
3600:
3594:
3592:
3588:
3587:
3585:
3584:
3578:
3576:
3570:
3569:
3567:
3566:
3549:
3544:
3539:
3533:
3532:
3527:
3522:
3517:
3512:
3511:
3510:
3508:French Flemish
3500:
3499:
3498:
3487:
3485:
3481:
3480:
3478:
3477:
3467:
3461:
3459:
3453:
3452:
3450:
3449:
3444:
3439:
3433:
3431:
3424:
3422:Low Franconian
3418:
3417:
3414:
3413:
3411:
3410:
3409:
3408:
3398:
3393:
3388:
3383:
3377:
3375:
3369:
3368:
3366:
3365:
3360:
3355:
3354:
3353:
3343:
3342:
3341:
3336:
3331:
3330:
3329:
3324:
3316:
3311:
3306:
3301:
3290:
3288:
3282:
3281:
3279:
3278:
3271:
3263:
3261:
3254:
3248:
3247:
3244:
3243:
3240:
3239:
3237:
3236:
3235:
3234:
3229:
3228:
3227:
3226:
3225:
3223:Westereendersk
3217:
3206:
3201:
3195:
3193:
3187:
3186:
3184:
3183:
3182:
3181:
3176:
3169:
3164:
3163:
3162:
3157:
3154:
3146:
3141:
3140:
3139:
3128:
3127:
3126:
3121:
3116:
3115:
3114:
3109:
3101:
3090:
3088:
3082:
3081:
3079:
3078:
3077:
3076:
3069:
3062:
3050:
3049:
3048:
3039:
3037:
3031:
3030:
3028:
3027:
3024:Middle Frisian
3020:
3012:
3010:
3003:
2997:
2996:
2994:
2993:
2992:
2991:
2984:
2972:
2971:
2970:
2963:
2956:
2944:
2943:
2942:
2941:
2940:
2930:Modern English
2926:
2923:Middle English
2919:
2912:
2901:
2899:
2890:
2880:
2879:
2874:
2867:
2866:
2860:
2857:
2856:
2851:
2849:
2848:
2841:
2834:
2826:
2817:
2816:
2814:
2813:
2808:
2803:
2798:
2792:
2790:
2786:
2785:
2783:
2782:
2777:
2771:
2769:
2765:
2764:
2762:
2761:
2755:
2753:
2749:
2748:
2746:
2745:
2739:
2737:
2733:
2732:
2730:
2729:
2723:
2721:
2717:
2716:
2714:
2713:
2712:
2711:
2706:
2695:
2693:
2689:
2688:
2686:
2685:
2680:
2675:
2670:
2669:
2668:
2657:
2655:
2651:
2650:
2648:
2647:
2641:
2639:
2635:
2634:
2632:
2631:
2626:
2621:
2616:
2610:
2608:
2604:
2603:
2601:
2600:
2595:
2590:
2584:
2582:
2578:
2577:
2575:
2574:
2568:
2566:
2565:Other European
2562:
2561:
2559:
2558:
2553:
2548:
2542:
2540:
2536:
2535:
2532:
2531:
2529:
2528:
2523:
2517:
2515:
2511:
2510:
2508:
2507:
2502:
2497:
2491:
2489:
2485:
2484:
2482:
2481:
2476:
2471:
2466:
2456:
2451:
2446:
2441:
2436:
2431:
2425:
2423:
2419:
2418:
2416:
2415:
2410:
2404:
2402:
2398:
2397:
2395:
2394:
2389:
2384:
2379:
2374:
2369:
2364:
2354:
2348:
2346:
2342:
2341:
2339:
2338:
2333:
2327:
2325:
2321:
2320:
2318:
2317:
2312:
2307:
2302:
2297:
2292:
2287:
2282:
2277:
2272:
2266:
2264:
2257:
2253:
2252:
2243:
2241:
2240:
2233:
2226:
2218:
2209:
2208:
2206:
2205:
2200:
2194:
2192:
2191:Related topics
2188:
2187:
2185:
2184:
2179:
2174:
2169:
2164:
2159:
2154:
2148:
2146:
2142:
2141:
2139:
2138:
2136:Skaldic poetry
2133:
2128:
2123:
2118:
2113:
2107:
2105:
2101:
2100:
2098:
2097:
2092:
2087:
2081:
2079:
2075:
2074:
2067:
2065:
2063:
2062:
2057:
2052:
2047:
2042:
2036:
2034:
2030:
2029:
2024:
2022:
2021:
2014:
2007:
1999:
1992:
1991:
1987:Scandinavians.
1971:
1969:
1966:
1965:
1964:
1959:
1954:
1949:
1944:
1937:
1934:
1818:
1815:
1750:
1747:
1677:
1674:
1580:Ísafjarðardjúp
1578:(an island in
1516:
1515:
1466:
1464:
1457:
1441:
1438:
1436:
1433:
1385:Main article:
1382:
1379:
1247:
1244:
1239:
1238:
1203:palatalization
1199:
1195:
1108:Modern English
1104:Middle English
1046:
1043:
711:Middle English
615:
612:
576:
573:
512:Western Norway
499:
496:
386:
385:
368:
367:
279:
277:
270:
263:
262:
177:
175:
168:
161:
160:
96:. Please help
82:
80:
73:
68:
42:
41:
39:
32:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4811:
4800:
4797:
4795:
4792:
4790:
4787:
4786:
4784:
4768:
4764:
4762:
4758:
4755:
4754:
4751:
4737:
4734:
4732:
4729:
4727:
4724:
4722:
4719:
4717:
4714:
4712:
4711:Germanic verb
4709:
4708:
4706:
4702:
4696:
4693:
4691:
4688:
4686:
4683:
4681:
4678:
4676:
4673:
4671:
4668:
4666:
4663:
4661:
4658:
4656:
4653:
4651:
4650:Sievers's law
4648:
4646:
4643:
4641:
4638:
4636:
4633:
4632:
4630:
4626:
4620:
4617:
4615:
4612:
4610:
4607:
4605:
4602:
4601:
4599:
4597:Reconstructed
4595:
4589:
4588:
4584:
4582:
4581:
4577:
4575:
4574:
4570:
4569:
4564:
4561:
4559:
4556:
4554:
4551:
4550:
4549:
4546:
4544:
4541:
4539:
4536:
4535:
4533:
4531:
4527:
4523:
4519:
4514:
4510:
4496:
4495:
4491:
4489:
4488:
4484:
4481:
4480:
4475:
4474:
4470:
4469:
4467:
4465:
4464:
4459:
4447:
4444:
4442:
4439:
4438:
4436:
4435:
4432:
4424:
4421:
4420:
4419:
4416:
4412:
4411:
4410:Middle Danish
4407:
4405:
4404:
4400:
4398:
4395:
4393:
4390:
4388:
4385:
4381:
4378:
4376:
4373:
4372:
4371:
4368:
4364:
4361:
4360:
4359:
4356:
4354:
4351:
4349:
4346:
4345:
4344:
4341:
4337:
4334:
4332:
4329:
4328:
4327:
4324:
4323:
4321:
4317:
4311:
4310:
4306:
4304:
4303:
4299:
4295:
4294:
4290:
4288:
4287:
4286:Old Icelandic
4283:
4282:
4281:
4278:
4276:
4273:
4269:
4268:
4264:
4262:
4261:
4260:Old Norwegian
4257:
4254:
4251:
4248:
4245:
4243:
4240:
4238:
4235:
4233:
4230:
4228:
4225:
4223:
4220:
4218:
4215:
4213:
4210:
4209:
4208:
4205:
4204:
4202:
4198:
4190:
4189:
4185:
4183:
4180:
4178:
4175:
4174:
4173:
4172:
4168:
4166:
4165:
4161:
4160:
4158:
4154:
4151:
4149:
4145:
4141:
4137:
4133:
4128:
4124:
4106:
4105:
4101:
4097:
4094:
4093:
4092:
4089:
4087:
4084:
4078:
4077:Gottscheerish
4075:
4073:
4070:
4068:
4065:
4063:
4060:
4058:
4055:
4054:
4053:
4050:
4046:
4043:
4042:
4041:
4038:
4036:
4033:
4032:
4031:
4028:
4024:
4021:
4017:
4016:Walser German
4014:
4013:
4012:
4009:
4005:
4002:
4001:
4000:
3997:
3993:
3990:
3988:
3985:
3984:
3983:
3982:Low Alemannic
3980:
3979:
3977:
3974:
3973:
3971:
3969:
3965:
3955:
3952:
3950:
3947:
3945:
3944:High Prussian
3942:
3940:
3937:
3935:
3932:
3930:
3929:Erzgebirgisch
3927:
3925:
3922:
3920:
3917:
3916:
3914:
3912:
3908:
3902:
3899:
3895:
3892:
3891:
3890:
3887:
3881:
3878:
3876:
3873:
3872:
3871:
3868:
3866:
3863:
3862:
3861:
3858:
3850:
3847:
3846:
3845:
3842:
3840:
3837:
3835:
3834:Luxembourgish
3832:
3831:
3830:
3827:
3823:
3820:
3818:
3815:
3814:
3813:
3810:
3809:
3808:
3805:
3804:
3802:
3800:
3796:
3793:
3791:
3787:
3779:
3776:
3774:
3773:
3772:Klezmer-loshn
3769:
3767:
3766:Scots Yiddish
3764:
3762:
3759:
3757:
3754:
3753:
3752:
3749:
3747:
3744:
3740:
3737:
3736:
3735:
3732:
3730:
3727:
3725:
3722:
3720:
3717:
3715:
3712:
3710:
3707:
3706:
3704:
3702:
3697:
3692:
3686:
3683:
3681:
3678:
3676:
3673:
3672:
3670:
3668:
3664:
3656:
3655:
3651:
3650:
3649:
3648:
3644:
3642:
3641:
3637:
3635:
3634:
3630:
3629:
3627:
3623:
3620:
3618:
3614:
3604:
3603:Meuse-Rhenish
3601:
3599:
3596:
3595:
3593:
3589:
3583:
3580:
3579:
3577:
3575:
3571:
3565:
3561:
3557:
3553:
3550:
3548:
3545:
3543:
3540:
3538:
3535:
3534:
3531:
3530:Kleverlandish
3528:
3526:
3523:
3521:
3518:
3516:
3513:
3509:
3506:
3505:
3504:
3501:
3497:
3494:
3493:
3492:
3491:Central Dutch
3489:
3488:
3486:
3482:
3475:
3471:
3468:
3466:
3463:
3462:
3460:
3458:
3454:
3448:
3445:
3443:
3440:
3438:
3435:
3434:
3432:
3428:
3425:
3423:
3419:
3407:
3404:
3403:
3402:
3399:
3397:
3394:
3392:
3389:
3387:
3384:
3382:
3379:
3378:
3376:
3374:
3370:
3364:
3361:
3359:
3356:
3352:
3349:
3348:
3347:
3344:
3340:
3337:
3335:
3332:
3328:
3325:
3323:
3320:
3319:
3317:
3315:
3312:
3310:
3307:
3305:
3302:
3300:
3299:Stellingwarfs
3297:
3296:
3295:
3292:
3291:
3289:
3287:
3283:
3277:
3276:
3272:
3270:
3269:
3265:
3264:
3262:
3258:
3255:
3253:
3249:
3233:
3230:
3224:
3221:
3220:
3219:Wood Frisian
3218:
3215:
3214:
3213:
3210:
3209:
3207:
3205:
3202:
3200:
3197:
3196:
3194:
3192:
3188:
3180:
3177:
3175:
3174:
3170:
3168:
3165:
3161:
3158:
3155:
3152:
3151:
3150:
3147:
3145:
3142:
3137:
3136:
3135:
3132:
3131:
3129:
3125:
3122:
3120:
3117:
3113:
3110:
3108:
3105:
3104:
3102:
3100:
3099:
3095:
3094:
3092:
3091:
3089:
3087:
3086:North Frisian
3083:
3075:
3074:
3070:
3068:
3067:
3063:
3061:
3060:
3056:
3055:
3054:
3051:
3047:
3044:
3043:
3041:
3040:
3038:
3036:
3032:
3026:
3025:
3021:
3019:
3018:
3014:
3013:
3011:
3007:
3004:
3002:
2998:
2990:
2989:
2985:
2983:
2982:
2978:
2977:
2976:
2973:
2969:
2968:
2964:
2962:
2961:
2957:
2955:
2954:
2950:
2949:
2948:
2945:
2939:
2938:
2934:
2933:
2932:
2931:
2927:
2925:
2924:
2920:
2918:
2917:
2913:
2911:
2908:
2907:
2906:
2903:
2902:
2900:
2898:
2894:
2891:
2889:
2888:Anglo-Frisian
2885:
2881:
2877:
2872:
2868:
2864:
2858:
2854:
2847:
2842:
2840:
2835:
2833:
2828:
2827:
2824:
2812:
2809:
2807:
2804:
2802:
2799:
2797:
2794:
2793:
2791:
2787:
2781:
2778:
2776:
2773:
2772:
2770:
2766:
2760:
2757:
2756:
2754:
2750:
2744:
2741:
2740:
2738:
2734:
2728:
2725:
2724:
2722:
2718:
2710:
2707:
2705:
2702:
2701:
2700:
2697:
2696:
2694:
2690:
2684:
2681:
2679:
2676:
2674:
2671:
2667:
2664:
2663:
2662:
2659:
2658:
2656:
2652:
2646:
2643:
2642:
2640:
2638:Austroasiatic
2636:
2630:
2627:
2625:
2622:
2620:
2617:
2615:
2612:
2611:
2609:
2605:
2599:
2596:
2594:
2591:
2589:
2586:
2585:
2583:
2579:
2573:
2570:
2569:
2567:
2563:
2557:
2554:
2552:
2549:
2547:
2544:
2543:
2541:
2537:
2527:
2524:
2522:
2519:
2518:
2516:
2512:
2506:
2503:
2501:
2498:
2496:
2493:
2492:
2490:
2486:
2480:
2477:
2475:
2472:
2470:
2467:
2464:
2460:
2457:
2455:
2452:
2450:
2447:
2445:
2442:
2440:
2437:
2435:
2432:
2430:
2427:
2426:
2424:
2420:
2414:
2411:
2409:
2406:
2405:
2403:
2399:
2393:
2390:
2388:
2385:
2383:
2380:
2378:
2375:
2373:
2370:
2368:
2365:
2362:
2358:
2355:
2353:
2350:
2349:
2347:
2343:
2337:
2334:
2332:
2329:
2328:
2326:
2322:
2316:
2313:
2311:
2308:
2306:
2303:
2301:
2298:
2296:
2293:
2291:
2288:
2286:
2283:
2281:
2278:
2276:
2273:
2271:
2268:
2267:
2265:
2261:
2258:
2256:Indo-European
2254:
2250:
2246:
2239:
2234:
2232:
2227:
2225:
2220:
2219:
2216:
2204:
2201:
2199:
2196:
2195:
2193:
2189:
2183:
2180:
2178:
2175:
2173:
2170:
2168:
2165:
2163:
2160:
2158:
2155:
2153:
2150:
2149:
2147:
2143:
2137:
2134:
2132:
2129:
2127:
2124:
2122:
2119:
2117:
2116:Old Icelandic
2114:
2112:
2109:
2108:
2106:
2102:
2096:
2093:
2091:
2088:
2086:
2083:
2082:
2080:
2076:
2071:
2061:
2058:
2056:
2053:
2051:
2048:
2046:
2043:
2041:
2038:
2037:
2035:
2031:
2027:
2020:
2015:
2013:
2008:
2006:
2001:
2000:
1997:
1988:
1984:. p. 1.
1983:
1976:
1973:
1967:
1963:
1960:
1958:
1957:Old Norwegian
1955:
1953:
1950:
1948:
1945:
1943:
1940:
1939:
1935:
1933:
1931:
1927:
1923:
1919:
1915:
1911:
1907:
1903:
1899:
1895:
1892:; cf. German
1891:
1887:
1883:
1879:
1875:
1870:
1868:
1864:
1860:
1856:
1852:
1848:
1844:
1840:
1836:
1835:
1830:
1829:
1824:
1816:
1814:
1812:
1808:
1804:
1800:
1796:
1792:
1788:
1784:
1780:
1776:
1772:
1768:
1764:
1760:
1756:
1748:
1746:
1744:
1740:
1737:"prison" and
1736:
1732:
1728:
1727:kanske, måske
1724:
1720:
1716:
1712:
1708:
1704:
1700:
1696:
1692:
1687:
1683:
1675:
1673:
1672:"main farm".
1671:
1667:
1663:
1659:
1655:
1651:
1647:
1643:
1639:
1638:Northern Sami
1635:
1631:
1630:Irish hermits
1627:
1623:
1622:
1617:
1613:
1609:
1605:
1601:
1600:Lyngdalsheiði
1597:
1593:
1589:
1585:
1581:
1577:
1573:
1570:(a farm near
1569:
1565:
1564:
1559:
1558:
1553:
1552:
1547:
1546:
1541:
1540:
1535:
1534:
1530:"ice fjord",
1529:
1528:
1523:
1512:
1509:
1501:
1491:
1487:
1483:
1477:
1476:
1472:
1467:This section
1465:
1461:
1456:
1455:
1451:
1447:
1439:
1434:
1432:
1430:
1426:
1422:
1418:
1414:
1410:
1407:of the Greek
1406:
1402:
1398:
1394:
1388:
1380:
1378:
1376:
1372:
1368:
1364:
1360:
1356:
1352:
1348:
1347:
1342:
1338:
1333:
1331:
1330:preaspiration
1327:
1323:
1319:
1315:
1311:
1307:
1303:
1299:
1295:
1291:
1287:
1283:
1279:
1275:
1271:
1267:
1263:
1259:
1253:
1245:
1243:
1236:
1232:
1228:
1224:
1220:
1216:
1215:preaspiration
1212:
1208:
1204:
1200:
1196:
1192:
1186:
1172:
1171:bækur, löndum
1166:
1145:
1141:
1133:
1121:
1116:/aː,eː,ɛː,oː/
1113:
1112:
1111:
1109:
1105:
1101:
1097:
1093:
1089:
1085:
1081:
1080:
1075:
1074:
1069:
1065:
1061:
1057:
1053:
1044:
1042:
1038:
1035:
1033:
1029:
1025:
1021:
1013:
1005:, written as
1001:
997:
992:
985:
980:
975:
969:
963:
957:
951:
946:
942:
938:
935:
931:
927:
923:
922:consonantized
915:
911:
907:
903:
894:
892:
888:
884:
881:
877:
873:
869:
865:
861:
857:
853:
850:, cf English
849:
845:
841:
832:
829:
823:
817:
811:
805:
799:
791:
784:
780:
775:
772:
766:
761:
757:
749:
745:
741:
733:
728:
726:
722:
718:
716:
712:
708:
704:
700:
695:
693:
689:
685:
681:
677:
672:
670:
666:
662:
658:
654:
650:
646:
641:
639:
635:
631:
627:
621:
613:
611:
609:
608:Codex Runicus
605:
601:
597:
592:
590:
586:
582:
574:
572:
570:
566:
562:
558:
557:preaspiration
554:
550:
546:
542:
541:
536:
535:
530:
526:
521:
517:
513:
509:
505:
497:
495:
492:
486:
484:
480:
476:
471:
469:
465:
461:
457:
452:
450:
449:
444:
440:
436:
432:
428:
427:Íslendingabók
423:
421:
417:
413:
409:
408:
399:
394:
390:
382:
379:
364:
361:
353:
342:
339:
335:
332:
328:
325:
321:
318:
314:
311: –
310:
306:
305:Find sources:
299:
295:
289:
285:
284:
278:
274:
269:
268:
259:
256:
248:
237:
234:
230:
227:
223:
220:
216:
213:
209:
206: –
205:
201:
200:Find sources:
194:
190:
184:
183:
178:This article
176:
172:
167:
166:
157:
146:
143:
139:
136:
132:
129:
125:
122:
118:
115: –
114:
110:
109:Find sources:
103:
99:
95:
89:
88:
87:single source
83:This article
81:
77:
72:
71:
66:
64:
57:
56:
51:
50:
45:
40:
31:
30:
27:
19:
4756:
4640:Verner's law
4585:
4580:Gotho-Nordic
4578:
4571:
4492:
4485:
4477:
4471:
4461:
4446:Fårö Gutnish
4408:
4401:
4307:
4300:
4291:
4284:
4265:
4258:
4186:
4181:
4176:
4169:
4162:
4102:
4004:Swiss German
3968:Upper German
3901:Amana German
3875:Volga German
3844:Hunsrückisch
3770:
3724:Unserdeutsch
3719:Berlinerisch
3652:
3645:
3638:
3631:
3591:Cover groups
3547:Mohawk Dutch
3542:Jersey Dutch
3520:East Flemish
3503:West Flemish
3447:Middle Dutch
3401:Low Prussian
3273:
3266:
3232:Terschelling
3216:Clay Frisian
3191:West Frisian
3179:Wiedingharde
3171:
3159:
3119:Heligolandic
3096:
3071:
3064:
3057:
3052:
3035:East Frisian
3022:
3015:
2988:Middle Scots
2986:
2979:
2965:
2958:
2951:
2946:
2935:
2928:
2921:
2914:
2692:Sino–Tibetan
2654:Austronesian
2488:Indo-Iranian
2294:
2110:
2090:Street names
1985:
1975:
1929:
1928:") who play
1922:punk rockers
1917:
1913:
1909:
1901:
1897:
1893:
1889:
1885:
1881:
1877:
1874:Christianity
1871:
1866:
1862:
1858:
1854:
1850:
1846:
1842:
1838:
1832:
1826:
1820:
1810:
1806:
1802:
1798:
1794:
1790:
1786:
1782:
1778:
1774:
1770:
1766:
1762:
1758:
1752:
1742:
1738:
1734:
1730:
1726:
1722:
1718:
1714:
1710:
1706:
1702:
1698:
1694:
1679:
1669:
1665:
1661:
1657:
1653:
1649:
1645:
1625:
1619:
1616:Skagafjörður
1611:
1603:
1595:
1592:Hvíta-Ölfusá
1586:(an area of
1583:
1575:
1567:
1561:
1555:
1549:
1545:Vatna-jökull
1543:
1537:
1531:
1525:
1519:
1504:
1495:
1480:Please help
1468:
1428:
1424:
1420:
1416:
1408:
1400:
1390:
1374:
1370:
1366:
1362:
1358:
1357:rather than
1354:
1344:
1334:
1326:pre-stopping
1255:
1240:
1234:
1230:
1214:
1165:bøkr, lǫndom
1144:short vowels
1077:
1071:
1048:
1039:
1031:
1027:
1023:
1019:
995:
993:
944:
940:
936:
929:
925:
913:
909:
905:
901:
900:: Icelandic
895:
890:
886:
882:
875:
867:
863:
859:
855:
851:
847:
843:
839:
833:
776:
759:
743:
739:
729:
719:
696:
680:Scandinavian
673:
668:
652:
642:
633:
629:
625:
623:
595:
593:
584:
578:
556:
548:
538:
532:
502:Most of the
501:
487:
472:
453:
446:
429:followed by
424:
414:, mostly by
404:
402:
389:
374:
356:
347:
337:
330:
323:
316:
304:
292:Please help
281:
251:
242:
232:
225:
218:
211:
199:
187:Please help
182:verification
179:
151:
141:
134:
127:
120:
108:
84:
60:
53:
47:
46:Please help
43:
26:
4655:Kluge's law
4635:Grimm's law
4418:Dalecarlian
4397:Perkerdansk
4370:East Danish
4188:Old Gutnish
4164:Proto-Norse
4104:Langobardic
4096:Vogtlandian
3924:Upper Saxon
3778:Lachoudisch
3739:Lotegorisch
3617:High German
3363:Westphalian
3358:Eastphalian
3322:Achterhooks
3199:Hindeloopen
3134:Bökingharde
3103:Föhr–Amrum
3017:Old Frisian
2981:Early Scots
2916:Old English
2806:Interlingue
2801:Interlingua
2789:constructed
2704:Gan Chinese
2581:Afroasiatic
2131:Poetic Edda
2050:Orthography
1962:Vowel shift
1865:< Latin
1849:< Latin
1614:(a farm in
1608:Kjósarsýsla
1572:Hvalfjörður
1527:Ísa-fjörður
1341:Rasmus Rask
1335:The modern
1223:prestopping
1219:vocal cords
1130:lost their
1096:Reformation
977:, while in
715:Scandinavia
707:Old English
676:epic poetry
638:manuscripts
630:Old Nordic,
596:dǫnsk tunga
585:dǫnsk tunga
523:from other
448:Poetic Edda
431:Landnámabók
398:Landnámabók
4783:Categories
4487:Burgundian
4403:Old Danish
4392:Gøtudanskt
4375:Bornholmsk
4237:Vestlandsk
4217:Kebabnorsk
3954:Halcnovian
3919:Thuringian
3582:Limburgish
3552:Stadsfries
3525:Brabantian
3252:Low German
3098:Eiderstedt
2953:Fingallian
2645:Vietnamese
2495:Hindustani
2463:in Ukraine
2449:Macedonian
2429:Belarusian
2413:Lithuanian
2382:Portuguese
2121:Literature
2060:Vocabulary
1968:References
1900:"nature",
1861:, Swedish
1845:, English
1703:ge-schehen
1682:Copenhagen
1640:and other
1588:Árnessýsla
1551:Reykja-vík
1498:April 2021
1444:See also:
1397:neologisms
1306:diphthongs
1286:neologisms
1250:See also:
1140:diphthongs
1068:Ivar Aasen
1000:epenthetic
943:, Swedish
862:, Swedish
783:fricatives
779:consonants
732:high vowel
703:morphology
661:linguistic
618:See also:
567:spoken in
540:Þingvellir
510:came from
479:morphology
464:Viking Age
445:, and the
416:Norwegians
320:newspapers
288:notability
215:newspapers
124:newspapers
49:improve it
4799:Old Norse
4767:varieties
4759:indicate
4573:Northwest
4518:Philology
4423:Elfdalian
4358:Jutlandic
4280:Icelandic
4255:(written)
4249:(written)
4227:Trøndersk
4207:Norwegian
4171:Old Norse
3992:Coloniero
3976:Alemannic
3949:Wymysorys
3817:Colognian
3812:Ripuarian
3734:Rotwelsch
3564:Midslands
3515:Zeelandic
3496:Hollandic
3470:Afrikaans
3442:Old Dutch
3268:Old Saxon
3167:Karrharde
3149:Goesharde
3130:Mainland
2863:philology
2796:Esperanto
2752:Iroquoian
2678:Sundanese
2619:Malayalam
2607:Dravidian
2556:Hungarian
2479:Ukrainian
2439:Bulgarian
2300:Norwegian
2295:Icelandic
2270:Afrikaans
2245:Histories
2055:Phonology
1952:Old Norse
1890:prædicare
1691:Reykjavík
1568:Ferstikla
1539:Gull-foss
1469:does not
1377:in 1973.
1298:Hungarian
1282:loanwords
1262:the Bible
1211:aspirated
1100:dichotomy
1088:synthetic
1030:r, þú gef
974:hval-fisk
930:Wal-fisch
872:toponymic
756:mid vowel
748:mid vowel
721:Norwegian
699:phonology
665:Reykjavík
620:Old Norse
529:Norwegian
460:Old Norse
420:Old Norse
94:talk page
55:talk page
4494:Vandalic
4437:Gutnish
4242:Vikværsk
4222:Sognamål
4212:Bergensk
4062:Cimbrian
4030:Bavarian
3987:Alsatian
3934:Lusatian
3870:Palatine
3560:Amelands
3437:Frankish
3327:Sallaans
3309:Gronings
3160:Southern
3153:Northern
3144:Halligen
3093:Insular
2910:dialects
2759:Cherokee
2736:Koreanic
2727:Japanese
2666:Filipino
2546:Estonian
2521:Albanian
2387:Romanian
2367:Galician
2263:Germanic
2033:Features
1936:See also
1918:rokkarar
1914:pönkarar
1906:Etruscan
1894:predigen
1876:include
1807:Kormákur
1803:Triostan
1783:Patrekur
1739:frímerki
1735:fangelsi
1731:blýantur
1711:fordømme
1670:Aðal-ból
1634:Árni Óla
1522:toponyms
1440:Toponyms
1409:elektron
1351:Germanic
1314:sonorant
1310:plosives
1207:unvoiced
1132:rounding
1092:analytic
1090:to more
1073:landsmål
1064:dialects
962:hvalfisk
801:"heavy"
701:and its
692:dialects
606:(except
563:and the
350:May 2024
245:May 2024
154:May 2024
4757:Italics
4380:Scanian
4326:Swedish
4275:Faroese
4253:Nynorsk
4232:Valdris
4067:Mòcheno
4023:Swabian
3889:Hessian
3849:Hunsrik
3761:Western
3756:Eastern
3751:Yiddish
3701:creoles
3598:Bergish
3314:Drèents
3304:Tweants
3156:Central
3138:Mooring
3001:Frisian
2960:Kildare
2905:English
2780:Turkish
2720:Japonic
2699:Chinese
2683:Cebuano
2661:Tagalog
2614:Kannada
2593:Aramaic
2551:Finnish
2505:Persian
2474:Slovene
2459:Russian
2434:Bosnian
2408:Latvian
2392:Spanish
2372:Italian
2352:Catalan
2315:Yiddish
2310:Swedish
2285:English
2247:of the
2111:History
2045:Grammar
2040:Braille
1926:rockers
1902:persóna
1898:náttúra
1886:predika
1863:kejsare
1855:keisari
1851:papyrus
1799:Trostan
1787:Padraig
1779:Caitlín
1719:kannski
1715:kannske
1707:fordæma
1686:Iceland
1626:landnám
1596:Tintron
1533:Flat-ey
1490:removed
1475:sources
1401:rafmagn
1322:liquids
1290:Russian
1278:lexicon
1266:Faroese
1124:/iː,uː/
1120:quality
1079:nynorsk
1026:r, merk
1022:r, gest
979:Nynorsk
941:wal-vis
874:only),
790:dentals
725:Swedish
667:at the
604:papyrus
581:Denmark
569:Finland
565:Swedish
561:Faroese
553:Swedish
549:landnám
534:Alþingi
520:stratum
516:dialect
508:Iceland
483:lexicon
475:archaic
334:scholar
229:scholar
138:scholar
4473:Gothic
4343:Danish
4247:Bokmål
3746:Yenish
3556:Bildts
3339:Veluws
3334:Urkers
3173:Strand
2897:Anglic
2768:Turkic
2743:Korean
2629:Telugu
2598:Hebrew
2588:Arabic
2572:Basque
2539:Uralic
2500:Nepali
2469:Slovak
2454:Polish
2422:Slavic
2401:Baltic
2361:Quebec
2357:French
2345:Italic
2324:Celtic
2290:German
2275:Danish
1910:partur
1884:) and
1878:kredda
1867:Caesar
1859:Kaiser
1853:) and
1843:Papier
1839:pappír
1811:Cormac
1795:Conall
1791:Konall
1775:Kaðlín
1767:Brjánn
1755:Gaelic
1721:) and
1618:) and
1557:Blanda
1405:calque
1328:) and
1318:nasals
1294:Polish
1276:and a
1270:German
1231:gef þú
1227:French
1138:. New
1136:/i,iː/
1128:/y,yː/
1060:Norway
1056:Bokmål
916:, the
906:hvalur
880:German
828:smiður
822:þungur
765:bróðir
760:broþer
744:systir
740:systir
645:vellum
466:. The
336:
329:
322:
315:
307:
231:
224:
217:
210:
202:
140:
133:
126:
119:
111:
4587:South
4538:North
4148:North
4132:North
3474:Kaaps
3465:Dutch
3112:Amrum
3053:Weser
2975:Scots
2775:Azeri
2673:Malay
2624:Tamil
2526:Greek
2514:other
2444:Czech
2377:Latin
2336:Welsh
2331:Irish
2305:Scots
2280:Dutch
2126:Sagas
2078:Names
1882:credo
1847:paper
1834:caupō
1828:kaupa
1823:Latin
1771:Brian
1763:Niall
1759:Njáll
1723:máske
1650:kjósa
1621:Hekla
1584:Ölfus
1576:Vigur
1429:völva
1421:tölva
1413:amber
1237:etc.)
1235:gefðu
1233:>
1198:⟨o⟩).
1188:>
934:Dutch
914:whale
856:raven
848:hneta
844:hrafn
840:hljóð
816:smiðr
810:þungr
793:/t,d/
786:/θ,ð/
634:Norse
600:runes
491:sagas
456:sagas
435:Eddas
341:JSTOR
327:books
236:JSTOR
222:books
145:JSTOR
131:books
4548:West
4543:East
4463:East
4319:East
4309:Norn
4200:West
4136:East
4134:and
3699:and
3694:Non-
3124:Sylt
3107:Föhr
3042:Ems
2967:Yola
2876:West
1916:and
1658:Bóla
1654:Kjus
1646:Kjós
1612:Bóla
1604:Kjós
1563:Esja
1473:any
1471:cite
1448:and
1425:tala
1417:sími
1320:and
1316:for
1296:and
1268:and
1158:and
1150:and
968:hvad
956:hvad
910:what
902:hvað
891:Nuss
887:Rabe
883:Laut
868:ramn
864:ljud
852:loud
804:smed
798:tung
771:bror
723:and
709:and
682:and
403:The
313:news
208:news
117:news
2811:Ido
1869:).
1745:).
1705:),
1699:ske
1695:ske
1666:búa
1662:ból
1610:),
1602:),
1594:),
1582:),
1574:),
1484:by
1122:of
1106:to
1003:/ʏ/
984:kva
950:val
945:vad
937:wat
926:was
876:nöt
860:nut
831:).
632:or
506:of
296:by
191:by
100:by
4785::
1920:("
1837:,
1813:.
1809:–
1805:,
1801:–
1797:,
1793:–
1789:,
1785:–
1781:,
1777:–
1773:,
1769:–
1765:,
1761:–
1656:.
1411:("
1371:je
1332:.
1292:,
1182::
1037:.
1018:ak
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971:,
959:,
947:,
939:,
932:,
928:,
912:,
904:,
893:.
889:,
885:,
878:,
866:,
858:,
854:,
846:,
842:,
825:,
813:,
628:,
591:.
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3562:/
3558:/
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2011:t
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1375:z
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