473:. Blocking the Mongols' passage south of the Yangtze were the twin fortress cities of Xiangyang and Fancheng. What resulted was one of the longest sieges the world had ever known, lasting from 1268 to 1273. For the first three years the Song defenders had been able to receive supplies and reinforcements by water, but in 1271 the Mongols set up a full blockade with a formidable navy of their own, isolating the two cities. This did not prevent the Song from running the supply route anyway; two men surnamed Zhang did exactly that. The Two Zhangs commanded a hundred paddle wheel boats, travelling by night under the light of lantern fire, but were discovered early on by a Mongol commander. When the Song fleet arrived near the cities, they found the Mongol fleet to have spread themselves out along the entire width of the Yangtze with "vessels spread out, filling the entire surface of the river, and there was no gap for them to enter." Another defensive measure the Mongols had taken was the construction of a chain, which stretched across the water. The two fleets engaged in combat and the Song opened fire with fire-lances, fire-bombs, and crossbows. A large number of men died trying to cut through chains, pull up stakes, and hurl bombs, while Song marines fought hand to hand using large axes, and according to the Mongol record, "on their ships they were up to the ankles in blood." With the rise of dawn, the Song vessels made it to the city walls and the citizens "leapt up a hundred times in joy." In 1273 the Mongols enlisted the expertise of two Muslim engineers, one from Persia and one from Syria, who helped in the construction of counterweight trebuchets. These new siege weapons had the capability of throwing larger missiles further than the previous traction trebuchets. One account records, "when the machinery went off the noise shook heaven and earth; every thing that hit was broken and destroyed." The fortress city of Xiangyang fell in 1273.
280:), the Newly Adhered forces were placed under the command of Mongol or Central Asian officers and sent to fight Kublai's various campaigns throughout Asia. The necessary troop numbers for Kublai Khan's campaigns could only be filled by relying on these vast numbers of Southern Chinese soldiers that submitted in the 1270s, especially for naval expeditions which were composed entirely of Han Chinese and Koreans. Southern Song Chinese troops who defected to the Mongols were granted Korean women as wives, whom the Mongols had earlier taken during their invasion of Korea as war booty. Kublai also granted oxen, clothing and land to the many Song Chinese troops who defected to the Mongols. As prizes for battlefield victories, the Yuan had lands sectioned off as appanages and handed to Chinese military officers who had defected to the Mongol side. The Yuan awarded
502:(~2 mi. or ~3 km) away from the explosion, creating a crater more than ten feet deep. One resident described the noise of the explosion as if it "was like a volcano erupting, a tsunami crashing. The entire population was terrified." According to surviving reports, the incident was caused by inexperienced gunpowder makers hired to replace the previous ones, and had been careless while grinding sulfur. A spark caused by the grinding process came into contact with some fire lances which immediately started spewing flames and jetting around "like frightened snakes." The gunpowder makers did nothing as they found the sight highly amusing, that is until one fire lance burst into a cache of bombs, causing the entire complex to explode. The validity of this report is somewhat questionable, assuming everyone within the immediate vicinity was killed.
972:
703:
meaning that the projectile might have been another co-viative. Ben
Sinvany and Dang Shoushan believe that the ball used to be much larger prior to its highly corroded state at the time of discovery. While large in size, the weapon is noticeably more primitive than later Yuan dynasty guns, and is unevenly cast. A similar weapon was discovered not far from the discovery site in 1997, but much smaller in size at only 1.5 kg. Chen Bingying disputes this however, and argues there were no guns before 1259, while Dang Shoushan believes the Western Xia guns point to the appearance of guns by 1220, and Stephen Haw goes even further by stating that guns were developed as early as 1200. Sinologist
507:
had served them). Unfortunately, these men understood nothing of the handling of chemical substances. Suddenly, one day, while sulphur was being ground fine, it burst into flame, then the (stored) fire-lances caught fire, and flashed hither and thither like frightened snakes. (At first) the workers thought it was funny, laughing and joking, but after a short time the fire got into the bomb store, and then there was a noise like a volcanic eruption and the howling of a storm at sea. The whole city was terrified, thinking that an army was approaching, and panic soon spread among the people, who could not tell whether it was near or far away. Even at a distance of a hundred
589:. The Xanadu Gun is 34.7 cm in length and weighs 6.2 kg. Its dating is based on archaeological context and a straightforward inscription whose era name and year corresponds with the Gregorian Calendar at 1298. Not only does the inscription contain the era name and date, it also includes a serial number and manufacturing information which suggests that gun production had already become systematized, or at least become a somewhat standardized affair by the time of its fabrication. The design of the gun includes axial holes in its rear which some speculate could have been used in a mounting mechanism. Like most early guns with the possible exception of the
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scholar-officials at the time. Military officers were allowed to pass on their positions to their sons or grandsons after death, retirement or sometimes even after a promotion. Due to their Mongol background and unlike the previous
Chinese dynasties, the Yuan granted feudal fief appanages with accompanying serfs throughout North China to military leaders, whether Mongol, Middle Eastern/Central Asian or Han. The conflict between these military nobles with the Imperial government was a persistent feature until the end of the dynasty.
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year
Zhiyuan 8 (直元), ningzi number 2565" (銅匠作頭李六徑,直元捌年造,寧字二仟伍百陸拾伍號). Similar to the Xanadu Gun, it bears a serial number 2565, which suggests it may have been part of a series of guns manufactured. While the era name and date corresponds with the Gregorian Calendar at 1271 CE, putting it earlier than both the Heilongjiang Hand Gun as well as the Xanadu Gun, but one of the characters used in the era name is irregular, causing some doubt among scholars on the exact date of production.
170:
57:
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the city resisted anyway, so the Mongol army bombarded them with fire bombs before storming the walls, after which followed an immense slaughter claiming the lives of a quarter million. The war lasted for only another four years during which some remnants of the Song held up last desperate defenses. In 1277, 250 defenders under Lou
Qianxia conducted a suicide bombing and set off a huge iron bomb when it became clear defeat was imminent. Of this, the
450:
828:
764:(a book that describes military applications of gunpowder in great detail) in the mid 14th century, the explosive potential of gunpowder was perfected, as the level of nitrate in gunpowder formulas had risen from a range of 12% to 91%, with at least 6 different formulas in use that are considered to have maximum explosive potential for gunpowder. By that time, the Chinese had discovered how to create explosive
17:
477:
successfully storm Song city walls, as seen in the 1274 Siege of
Shayang. Thus Bayan waited for the wind to change to a northerly course before ordering his artillerists to begin bombarding the city with molten metal bombs, which caused such a fire that "the buildings were burned up and the smoke and flames rose up to heaven." Shayang was captured and its inhabitants massacred.
107:
600:, discovered in 1970, and named after the province of its discovery, Heilongjiang, in northeastern China. It is small and light like the Xanadu gun, weighing only 3.5 kilograms, 34 cm (Needham says 35 cm), and a bore of approximately 2.5 cm. Based on contextual evidence, historians believe it was used by Yuan forces against a rebellion by Mongol prince
924:. Archaeological evidence of the use of gunpowder was finally confirmed when multiple shells of the explosive bombs were discovered in an underwater shipwreck off the shore of Japan by the Kyushu Okinawa Society for Underwater Archaeology. X-rays by Japanese scientists of the excavated shells provided proof that they contained gunpowder.
269:
positions held by each Han family. Before Kublai, the early Mongol Empire had been accepting of autonomous
Chinese warlord forces as a key element in the Mongol armies, but during the Yuan dynasty, due to considerable Mongol fears of Chinese insurrection, these hereditary commanders were increasingly restricted.
790:
608:
states that a
Jurchen commander known as Li Ting led troops armed with hand cannons into battle against Nayan. It reports that the cannons of Li Ting's soldiers "caused great damage," but also created "such confusion that the enemy soldiers attacked and killed each other." The hand cannons were used
511:
tiles shook and houses trembled. People gave alarms of fire but the troops were held strictly to discipline. The disturbance lasted a whole day and night. After order had been restored an inspection was made, and it was found that a hundred men of the guards had been blown to bits, beams and pillars
395:
Mongols, now living in China, had immense difficulty meeting their military service obligations, as they needed to make a living as farmers and had no pastures to rear horses, having to purchase them at their own expense. By the 1300s many Mongol men could not even foot the cost for travel to enlist
702:
containing no inscription, but has been dated by historians to the late
Western Xia period between 1214 and 1227. The gun contained an iron ball about nine centimeters in diameter, which is smaller than the muzzle diameter at twelve centimeters, and 0.1 kilograms of gunpowder in it when discovered,
686:
Even older, the
Ningxia gun was found in Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region by collector Meng Jianmin (孟建民). This Yuan dynasty firearm is 34.6 cm long, the muzzle 2.6 cm in diameter, and weighs 1.55 kilograms. The firearm contains a transcription reading, "Made by bronzesmith Li Liujing in the
506:
The disaster of the trebuchet bomb arsenal at
Weiyang was still more terrible. Formerly the artisan positions were all held by southerners (i.e. the Chinese). But they engaged in peculation, so they had to be dismissed, and all their jobs were given to northerners (probably Mongols, or Chinese who
480:
Gunpowder bombs were used again in the 1275 Siege of Changzhou in the latter stages of the Mongol-Song Wars. Upon arriving at the city, Bayan gave the inhabitants an ultimatum: "if you ... resist us ... we shall drain your carcasses of blood and use them for pillows." The threat was not heeded and
379:
were still maintained as the Yuan's crucial mobile cavalry force while the rest of the Mongol forces deep in China were increasingly cut off from their horse supply. Despite government seizure of horses, horse supplies were insufficient to meet the demand for horses and even Mongols were sometimes
268:
forces to fight against Li Tan's revolt in 1262 — who was himself a respected commander under Mongke Khan. The New Army and Black Army had hereditary officer posts like the Mongol army itself, but Kublai became distrustful of Han generals after Li Tan's rebellion and limited the number of command
893:. However, none of these invasions were successful. Kublai contemplated launching a third invasion of Japan but was forced to back down due to fierce public disapproval. The Yuan era naval advances has been described as a successor of the Song dynasty achievements and an antecedent of the Ming's
565:
by 1128, after the fall of Kaifeng to the Jin dynasty. If the dating is correct this would push back the appearance of the cannon in China by a hundred years more than previously thought. The bulbous nature of the cannon is congruous with the earliest hand cannons discovered in China and Europe.
420:'s indigenous Cuan-Bo army led by the Duan royal family were the majority of the forces in the Mongol Yuan army in the camapigns against the Song dynasty along the Yangtze river. During a Mongol attack against the Song, there were only 3,000 Mongol cavalry at one point under the Mongol commander
287:
South China's army garrisons reported to individual provincial governments instead of the Bureau of Military Affairs in the capital, to prevent the concentration of authority in any one commander. Local militia generally wore uniforms of yellow or dark blue-green colour. Due to the low status of
485:
writes, "the noise was like a tremendous thunderclap, shaking the walls and ground, and the smoke filled up the heavens outside. Many of the troops were startled to death. When the fire was extinguished they went in to see. There were just ashes, not a trace left." The Mongol-Song Wars saw the
476:
The next major battle to feature gunpowder weapons was during a campaign led by the Mongol general Bayan, who commanded an army of around two hundred thousand, consisting of mostly Chinese soldiers. It was probably the largest army the Mongols had ever utilized. Such an army was still unable to
243:
decimal-based units from Chinese warlord forces. By 1241, the number of military households constituted 1 out of 7 households in North China, and formed an important element of the Mongol army. While most were peasant militia, some were capable of serving as cavalry forces equal to the Mongols,
207:
soldiers were the earliest non-nomadic component in the Mongol military. The Mongols placed Jin defectors and Han Chinese conscripts into new armies formed by the Mongols as they invaded the Jin dynasty, and these forces played a critical role in the defeat of the Jin. For instance, Han Chinese
160:
The guard forces were concentrated around the two capitals Daidu and Shangdu, and were responsible for the protection of the imperial family, the cultivation of military farms, construction and repairs in Daidu, and providing their own equipment, horses and feed — a heavy burden for guardsmen
428:
and suppressing uprisings in Yunnan. This tradition of Duan royals' service to the Yuan was noted by the succeeding Ming dynasty. The Duan family attempted to use their loyal service record to persuade the Ming to accept them as vassals when the Yuan collapsed. Other specialist troops were a
93:
consisted of the North China forces that joined the Mongols before the 1250s while the "Newly Adhered" consisted of the South China forces that joined during the 1270s. Possibly following the "Mouke" practice of the Jin dynasty, households were also organised into a decimal system (groups of
64:
Unlike previous Chinese dynasties that strictly separated military and civilian power, the Yuan administration of military and civil affairs tended to overlap, due to the traditional Mongol favour for the military over civilian affairs. This practice was harshly criticised by the Han Chinese
97:
There were also military artisan households which provided hereditary services for the production of military equipment such as weapons, armour, siege engines. These were under the command of the military registers. Specialist forces included an artillery army and a crossbow army.
48:, a frontier army drawn from all Mongol tribes for conquest of China, which had no central organisation but was rather a loose collection of local warlords and Mongol princely armies. However, the army was gradually reformed by Kublai Khan into a more systematic force.
1762:
3329:
497:
accidentally caught fire, producing such a massive explosion that a team of inspectors at the site a week later deduced that some 100 guards had been killed instantly, with wooden beams and pillars blown sky high and landing at a distance of over 10
707:
and renaissance siege expert Thomas Arnold provide a more conservative estimate of around 1280 for the appearance of the "true" cannon. Whether or not any of these are correct, it seems likely that the gun was born sometime during the 13th century.
955:
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in Chinese society. This was to be accomplished by establishing hereditary military households under the Bureau of Military Affairs that would provide troops for recruitment. Military households were grouped into four segments: Mongolian,
971:
593:, it is small, weighing just over six kilograms and thirty-five centimeters in length. Although the Xanadu Gun is the most precisely dated gun from the 13th century, other extant samples with approximate dating likely predate it.
3278:
516:. The smooth ground was scooped into craters and trenches more than ten feet deep. Above two hundred families living in the neighbourhood were victims of this unexpected disaster. This was indeed an unusual occurrence.
252:黑軍). Under the arrangement of Ogedei Khan, the Han officer Shi Tianze, Han officer Liu Ni and the Khitan officer Xiao Chala, all three of whom had defected to the Mongols from the Jin army, were given command of three
486:
deployment of all the gunpowder weapons available to both sides at the time, mostly gunpowder arrows, bombs, and lances, although it also saw the birth of the gun which later overshadowed the other developments.
161:
escorting the Khan to and from Shangdu. The control of guard garrisons became an important base of power for ambitious government ministers such as Bayan and Toqto'a to influence politics and act as kingmakers.
909:, which ended with the eventual dominance of the Grand Canal in China until modern times. The failed invasions also demonstrated a weakness of the Mongols — the inability to mount naval invasions successfully.
796:
Bronze cannon with inscription dated the 3rd year of the Zhiyuan era (1332) of the Yuan Dynasty (1271–1368); it was discovered at the Yunju Temple of Fangshan District, Beijing in 1935. It is similar to Xanadu
873:
Battles of 1277 involved massive naval forces on both sides. In the last battle near Guangzhou in 1279, which had been the last temporary capital of the Song dynasty, the Yuan captured more than 800 warships.
998:
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on their backs; then by night he crossed the river, moved upstream, and fired off (the weapons). This threw all the enemy's horses and men into great confusion ... and he gained a great victory.
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384:
also included Muslim units from Central Asia, especially the Uyghurs who were given special privileges for being among the earliest to join Genghis Khan. Many of these were stationed in
3349:
3334:
3264:
986:
694:, was discovered in 1980 and may possibly be the oldest as well as largest cannon of the 13th century: a 100 centimeter 108 kilogram bronze cannon discovered in a cellar in
355:, meaning to govern or control, which were meant to be rapid deployment forces stationed in nomadic steppeland but could be quickly mobilised to fight emerging threats. The
803:
264:新軍) was created after the Mongols conscripted 95,000 additional Han soldiers after the 1236 and 1241 censuses, taken after the fall of the Jin. The Mongols deployed Han
94:
thousand, groups of ten thousand) to provide the necessary manpower and equipment for the military units. This household organisation was first introduced by Chinggis.
367:, of which there were initially 1,000 such units, stationed in the newly conquered North China. With the establishment of the Chinese-style Yuan government, the main
3622:
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cavalrymen. Prior to the reforms of 1235, the Mongols named the initial Han defectors, led by individual officers who had defected, as the "Black Army" (
125:(宿衛), of which half were Han Chinese and the other half ethnically mixed. By the 1300s even the Keshig had become flooded with Han Chinese recruits. The
851:
236:
made up Chalaer's army and Khitans made up Uyar's army. By Muqali's death in 1223, Han troops greatly outnumbered Mongol soldiers under his command.
216:
forces were created in 1216, with Liu Bolin as their leading officer. As Han troops continued defecting from the Jin to the Mongols the size of Han
73:
3512:
3324:
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2835:
220:
forces swelled and they had to be partitioned between different units. In 1217-1218, Khitan commanders Chalaer, Yelu Tuhua and Uyar led three
114:
Yuan Cavalry were mainly Mongols while infantry were mainly Chinese. For his own bodyguards Kublai retained the use of the traditional Mongol
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military professions in China, and exploitation by corrupt administrators, desertion was a massive problem after the death of Kublai Khan.
157:. The Keshig was converted into an administrative organisation instead, as their military discipline declined by the late 13th century.
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839:
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815:
774:
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1332:
1307:
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consisting of a total of 36 u8nits, each comprising 1,000 Han Chinese soldiers. By 1234, there were at least three additional
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defectors led by General Liu Bolin defended Tiancheng from the Jin in 1214 while Genghis Khan was returning north. In 1215,
304:
3304:
3187:
3174:
3045:
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827:
619:) were able to carry the hand cannons "on their backs". The passage on the 1288 battle is also the first to coin the name
41:
3379:
3374:
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3050:
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630:
3597:
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1507:
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1228:
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425:
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The Mongols made heavy use of indigenous ethnic minority soldiers in southern China in lieu of Mongol soldiers. The
85:, and the "Newly Adhered", each with different privileges including grants of stipends, food or tax exemptions. The
3452:
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2786:
2253:
Science and Civilisation in China: Volume 4, Physics and Physical Technology, Part 3, Civil Engineering and Nautics
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1793:"Did Kublai Khan's Conquest of the Dali Kingdom Give Rise to the Mass Migration of the Thai People to the South?"
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mentions a weapon shaped like a bell that made a noise like thunder-clap and shot out thousands of iron balls.
897:. An important function of the Yuan navy was the shipping of grain from the South to the capital of modern-day
597:
129:
were initially 6,500 strong but by the end of the dynasty it had become 100,000 strong. They were divided into
1004:
Mongol ships, from scrolls on the Mongol invasions (Japanese: Mooko shuurai e-kotoba), by Fukuda Taika, 1846.
424:, the majority of his army being native Cuan-Bo with Duan officers. The Duan forces were instrumental in the
3500:
3192:
3060:
2881:
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2842:
886:
577:), have been dated starting from the 13th century. The oldest extant gun whose dating is unequivocal is the
408:
3389:
3160:
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894:
533:
935:(fire tubes) at the Battle of Tsushima in 1274 and the second coastal assault led by Holdon in 1281. The
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601:
549:
Traditionally the first appearance of the hand cannon is dated to the late 13th century, just after the
324:, seem to have served the Yuan as allied forces under their own chiefs. Mongol forces were divided into
2779:
889:(1292, 1000 ships), in 1291 the Yuan attempted but did not ultimately proceed with an invasion of the
553:. However a sculpture depicting a figure carrying a gourd shaped hand cannon was discovered among the
3487:
3457:
3028:
3015:
2033:
Chase, Kenneth Warren (2003). Firearms: A Global History to 1700. Cambridge University Press, p. 32,
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The Encyclopedia Of Military History: From 3500 B.C. to the Present. (2nd Revised Edition 1986)
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under the command of Chang Jung, Yen Shi and Chung Jou. Another new infantry-based "New Army" (
56:
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2638:
2584:
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2535:
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2401:
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2256:
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China's Encounters on the South and Southwest: Reforging the Fiery Frontier Over Two Millennia
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201:). Apart from ethnic Han, Koreans, Khitans and Jurchens were also grouped under the Han Army.
169:
2306:
1685:
1636:(illustrated ed.). Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA: Harvard University Press. p. 52.
1629:
1268:
Dictionary of bureaucratic terminology from Chou to Ch'ing dynasties, 11 22 B.C. to A.D. 1912
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1542:
1394:
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into the Yuan military (albeit with different status and privileges than the earlier-formed
142:
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Between winds and clouds: the making of Yunnan (second century BCE to twentieth century CE)
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The Mongol Empire: A Historical Encyclopedia [2 volumes]: A Historical Encyclopedia
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The Mongol Empire: A Historical Encyclopedia [2 volumes]: A Historical Encyclopedia
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had been deft asunder or carried away by the force of the explosion to a distance over ten
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The Gunpowder Age: China, Military Innovation, and the Rise of the West in World History
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901:. There was fierce 50-year interdepartmental rivalry between the fleets shipping by the
359:
were established in Inner Mongolia in 1217/1218 under their first commander Muqali. The
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The Yuan was unusually sea-minded, attempting numerous maritime expeditions. After the
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40:. The forces of the Yuan were based on the troops that were loyal to Kublai after the
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284:, a type of military farmland, to Song Chinese soldiers who defected to the Mongols.
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29:
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The Cambridge History of China, Volume 6: Alien Regimes and Border States, 907–1368
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The Cambridge History of China, Volume 6: Alien Regimes and Border States, 907–1368
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The Cambridge History of China, Volume 6: Alien Regimes and Border States, 907–1368
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The Cambridge History of China, Volume 6: Alien Regimes and Border States, 907–1368
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The Cambridge History of China, Volume 6: Alien Regimes and Border States, 907–1368
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The Cambridge History of China, Volume 6: Alien Regimes and Border States, 907–1368
1109:
The Cambridge History of China, Volume 6: Alien Regimes and Border States, 907–1368
980:'s 1871 illustration of Yuan dynasty war junk used in the invasion of Java of 1293.
746:. In 1356, one of the Yuan gunners, Yang Paoshou (Yang "Cannon hand"), defected to
695:
69:
25:
388:
to suppress local resistance and campaign against Burma and Vietnam, leading to a
2652:
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Warriors of the Steppe: A Military History of Central Asia, 500 B.C. to A.D. 1700
1511:
1434:
1356:
1232:
1183:
1145:
1107:
711:
A poem written in 1341 by Zhang Xian describes shells being fired from a cannon:
469:. It also fought with gunpowder armed states such as the Song dynasty during the
228:
armies. Han soldiers made up the majority of the Khitan Yelu Tuhua's army, while
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760:
657:
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33:
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The Islamic World in Ascendancy: From the Arab Conquests to the Siege of Vienna
992:
Yuan ships as depicted by Japanese, 1293. Depicting the 1281 invasion of Japan.
3544:
3522:
3495:
916:(1274–1281), the Japanese produced a scroll painting depicting a bomb. Called
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781:
765:
578:
458:
400:, which were Mongols who had fought against the Mongols for the Song dynasty.
20:
Japanese scroll depicting the Yuan forces during the Mongol invasions of Japan
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Chinese Siege Warfare: Mechanical Artillery & Siege Weapons of Antiquity
562:
499:
224:
armies in northern China under the Mongol viceroy Muqali in addition to his
106:
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Exploding caltrops meant to be filled with gunpowder, 13th to 14th century
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574:
494:
438:
389:
239:
In 1232, Ogedei Khan granted permission for field commanders to organize
154:
146:
28:(1271–1368) were the armed forces of the Yuan dynasty, a fragment of the
1713:
The Mongol Empire: A Historical Encyclopedia : A Historical Encyclopedia
3563:
3472:
3240:
3208:
2510:
898:
755:
582:
233:
138:
89:
were Mongols and other steppe tribes on the southern edge of Mongolia.
2721:
1690:(illustrated, reprint ed.). Oxford University Press. p. 14.
2000:
768:
by packing their hollow shells with this nitrate-enhanced gunpowder.
466:
434:
385:
209:
115:
2654:
Artillery and Warfare During the Thirteenth and Fourteenth Centuries
2502:
927:
The Yuan forces may have also used cannons during the invasion. The
750:'s side. He led a detachment of hand gunners against the forces of
232:
soldiers (Khitans, Tanguts, Ongguds and other vassal tribes) from
719:
And it burst, and a dragon flew out with peals of thunder rolling.
540:
532:
448:
407:
312:
The Mongolian army was under direct command of the Emperor, while
303:
295:
168:
150:
105:
68:
Coming from a fully militarised culture, the Mongol rulers of the
55:
37:
15:
943:"which caused a flash of light and a loud noise when fired." The
561:. The sculptures were completed roughly 250 km northwest of
3182:
3147:
2489:
Lu, Gwei-Djen (1988), "The Oldest Representation of a Bombard",
462:
3260:
2725:
1580:(illustrated, annotated ed.). ABC-CLIO. pp. 81, 213.
396:
in the army. The Yuan army also contained a force known as the
244:
having been drawn from experienced frontier veterans or former
2277:"The Mongols in World History | Asia Topics in World History"
920:
in Japanese, the bomb is speculated to have been the Chinese
2231:
Science & Civilisation in China, V:7: The Gunpowder Epic
2052:
Science & Civilisation in China, V:7: The Gunpowder Epic
1761:
Yang, Bin (2009). "Chapter 4 Rule Based on Native Customs".
609:
again in the beginning of 1288. Li Ting's "gun-soldiers" or
441:
in the 1350s), and other tribal forces from Southern China.
133:
or guards, each recruited from a particular ethnicity. Most
2709:
The Art of Warfare in Western Europe during the Middle Ages
742:(fire tubes) that fired "fire barbs" against the armies of
1819:
In the Shadow of the Mongol Empire: Ming China and Eurasia
965:. From a Chinese Encyclopaedia called San-Thsai-Thou-Hoei.
2353:
2351:
2126:
2124:
2122:
2109:
2107:
2094:
2092:
1607:(illustrated, annotated ed.). ABC-CLIO. p. 82.
2165:
2163:
1943:
1941:
1939:
1878:
1876:
1874:
1872:
1870:
1857:
1855:
1853:
1840:
1838:
961:
Drawing of a Chinese vessel that might have been a Yuan
646:
was used instead of the earlier and more ambiguous term
2387:
Mongols and Mamluks: The Mamluk‐Ilkhanid War, 1260–1281
725:
As if mountains and rivers were all turned upside down.
457:
The Yuan dynasty made use of gunpowder weapons such as
375:
units continued to be a part of the occupation forces.
581:, so called because it was discovered in the ruins of
723:
The first bang was like the dividing of chaos in two,
2233:, Cambridge University Press, p. 264, 293-294, 345,
569:
Archaeological samples of the gun, specifically the
3486:
3425:
3418:
3388:
3295:
3201:
3079:
3038:
2994:
2912:
2760:
2434:
The Devil's Horsemen: The Mongol Invasion of Europe
1634:
Empire's Twilight: Northeast Asia Under the Mongols
721:
In the air it was like a blazing and flashing fire.
363:also had attached units of advance scouts known as
2711:. Boydell Press, Second English translation 1997,
1477:Empire's Twilight Northeast Asia Under the Mongols
187:) out of defected Jin troops and army of defected
2558:, vol. 5 pt. 4, Cambridge University Press,
2547:Science and Civilization in China Volume 4 Part 3
145:, and Central Asians/Middle Easterners including
2467:. Champaign: University of Illinois Press, 1987.
2255:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 477–478.
1821:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 241–244.
715:The black dragon lobbed over an egg-shaped thing
2664:A History of the Late Medieval Siege, 1200–1500
1663:(reprint ed.). Random House. p. 168.
713:
662:
504:
316:were under semi-independent Mongol lords. Five
121:Kublai created a new Imperial guard force, the
118:. The Keshig reported directly to the emperor.
2704:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000.
2389:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995.
1736:Anderson, James A.; Whitmore, John K. (2014).
3272:
2737:
2637:, Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press,
651:
637:
624:
614:
8:
2952:Administrative divisions of the Yuan dynasty
1300:The Mongol Empire: A Historical Encyclopedia
881:(1274, 900 ships, and in 1281, 4400 ships),
292:Mongol, other steppe or Central Asian forces
137:were Han Chinese, while a few were Mongols,
2307:The Mongol Invasions of Japan 1274 and 1281
809:Hand cannon with handle, Yuan dynasty, 1341
212:fell to Liu Bolin's army. The original Han
3422:
3279:
3265:
3257:
2744:
2730:
2722:
2340:(1). Archaeological Institute of America.
1906:
1767:. Columbia University Press. p. 112.
1630:"1. Northeast Asia and the Mongol Empire"
1327:. Harvard University Press. p. 218.
1271:. Stanford University Press. p. 66.
344:ranged from 3,000 to 7,000 in strength.
72:attempted to replicate elements of their
1997:"The World's Earliest Cannon (世界上最早的火炮)"
1498:
1496:
1388:
1386:
1384:
1382:
717:Fully the size of a peck measure it was,
191:troops called the "Newly Adhered Army" (
2524:May, Timothy. "The Mongol Art of War."
2357:
2217:
2205:
2181:
2169:
2154:
2142:
2130:
2113:
2098:
2083:
2071:
2021:
1971:
1959:
1947:
1918:
1894:
1882:
1861:
1844:
1470:
1468:
1466:
1464:
1462:
1460:
1219:
1217:
1215:
1213:
1211:
1209:
1058:
1013:
951:
770:
489:In 1280, a large store of gunpowder at
380:compelled to serve as infantrymen. The
177:The Yuan dynasty created a "Han Army" (
36:established as a Mongol-led dynasty of
2947:Bureau of Buddhist and Tibetan Affairs
2534:. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley-Blackwell, 2007.
2369:
2193:
2054:, Cambridge University Press, p. 293,
1260:
1258:
2634:A History of Greek Fire and Gunpowder
2625:, Cambridge, UK: W. Heffer & Sons
2623:A History of Greek Fire and Gunpowder
2609:The History of the Art of War in the
2450:. Cambridge, MA: Da Capo Press, 2001.
2304:Stephen Turnbull (19 February 2013).
44:in 1260. Initially, this force was a
7:
3623:Military history of the Yuan dynasty
2683:. Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1971.
2527:Westholme Publishing, Yardley. 2007.
845:Cannion with trunnions, Yuan dynasty
2681:The History of the Mongol Conquests
2577:Science & Civilisation in China
2556:Science & Civilisation in China
2549:, Cambridge At The University Press
660:, proto-cannons, or signal flares.
656:), which may refer to the tubes of
551:Mongol conquest of the Song dynasty
537:Replica of a Yuan cannon dated 1332
2460:. New York: Delacorte Press, 2007.
1983:
833:Chinese hand cannon, Yuan dynasty.
14:
3350:Five Dynasties & Ten Kingdoms
1930:
738:In 1353, Yuan Mongol forces used
668:), concealing those who bore the
652:
638:
625:
615:
433:Army (which was used to garrison
3142:The Twenty-four Filial Exemplars
3005:Jade Mirror of the Four Unknowns
2344:from the original on 2013-12-29.
2328:Delgado, James (February 2003).
1043:
1034:
1025:
1016:
997:
985:
970:
954:
931:, written around 1300, mentions
850:
838:
826:
814:
802:
789:
773:
426:Yuan's campaigns against Vietnam
371:became less important while the
2867:Second Mongol invasion of Burma
2465:Art of War in the Western World
2310:. Osprey Publishing. pp 41–42.
2287:from the original on 2007-09-27
1791:Du Yuting; Chen Lufang (1989).
857:Stone cannonballs, Yuan dynasty
821:Hand cannon, Yuan dynasty, 1351
272:After the Mongols absorbed the
2892:Red Turban invasions of Goryeo
2697:. Westport, CT: Praeger, 2000.
2583:, Cambridge University Press,
2400:, Princeton University Press,
1549:. Osprey Publishing. pp.
1401:. Osprey Publishing. pp.
1074:. Osprey Publishing. pp.
869:Yuan conquest of Southern Song
585:, the Mongol summer palace in
197:
192:
183:
178:
165:Han Chinese and related forces
1:
3175:The Story of the Western Wing
3046:Cloud Platform at Juyong Pass
2770:Division of the Mongol Empire
2657:, Utah State University Press
2651:Patrick, John Merton (1961),
2475:, Singapore: Leong Kit Meng,
2318:. Retrieved 6 September 2016.
642:) for metal-barrel firearms.
42:Division of the Mongol Empire
3051:Gulou and Zhonglou (Beijing)
2802:conquest of the Song dynasty
2439:Dupuy, R.E. and T.N. Dupuy.
1999:(in Chinese). Archived from
1715:. ABC-CLIO. pp. 97–99.
1687:China's Entrepreneurial Army
1302:. ABC-CLIO. pp. 85–87.
664:Li Ting chose gun-soldiers (
300:Yuan iron sword and stirrups
3598:Self Strengthening Movement
3071:Jinan Great Southern Mosque
2601:. Brockhampton Press, 1998.
2458:Genghis: Birth of an Empire
1800:Journal of the Siam Society
1740:. BRILL. pp. 141–143.
1628:Robinson, David M. (2009).
3649:
3330:Jin & Sixteen Kingdoms
2957:Yuan dynasty in Inner Asia
2836:Battle of Bạch Đằng (1288)
2631:Partington, J. R. (1999),
1817:David M. Robinson (2019).
1711:May, Timothy, ed. (2016).
1601:May, Timothy, ed. (2016).
1574:May, Timothy, ed. (2016).
1518:Cambridge University Press
1475:David M. Robinson (2020).
1441:Cambridge University Press
1363:Cambridge University Press
1323:Frederick W. Mote (1999).
1265:Charles O. Hucker (1985).
1239:Cambridge University Press
1190:Cambridge University Press
1152:Cambridge University Press
1114:Cambridge University Press
866:
412:Yuan period suit of armour
308:Yuan era horseman figurine
2872:Esen Buqa–Ayurbarwada war
2436:. Book Sales Press, 2003.
1684:Cheung, Ming Tai (2001).
1479:. BRILL. pp. 77–80.
1241:. pp. 363, 649–651.
914:Mongol invasions of Japan
883:Mongol invasion of Champa
879:Mongol invasions of Japan
545:Hand cannon, Yuan dynasty
404:South China tribal forces
210:the Jin's Western Capital
3289:Chinese military history
2986:Goryeo under Mongol rule
2792:Mongol conquest of China
2554:Needham, Joseph (1980),
2545:Needham, Joseph (1971),
2330:"Relics of the Kamikaze"
2229:Needham, Joseph (1986),
2050:Needham, Joseph (1986),
1909:, p. 250, 244, 149.
1325:Imperial China, 900-1800
754:in 1363. By the time of
733:(The Iron Cannon Affair)
598:Heilongjiang hand cannon
3335:Northern & Southern
3061:Pagoda of Bailin Temple
2882:1344 Yellow River flood
2877:War of the Two Capitals
2787:Kublai Khan's campaigns
2702:A History of Inner Asia
2471:Liang, Jieming (2006),
2415:Arnold, Thomas (2001),
2385:Amitai-Preiss, Reuven.
2251:Joseph Needham (1971).
887:Mongol invasion of Java
3558:Ming gunpowder weapons
3513:Song gunpowder weapons
3161:The Injustice to Dou E
3066:Temple of Azure Clouds
2996:Science and technology
2853:Battle of Ngasaunggyan
2797:anti-Mongol fortresses
2662:Purton, Peter (2010),
2491:Technology and Culture
2417:The Renaissance at War
2281:afe.easia.columbia.edu
1545:Soldiers of the Dragon
1397:Soldiers of the Dragon
1070:Soldiers of the Dragon
939:of 1360 mentions iron
736:
690:Another specimen, the
684:
546:
538:
526:
454:
413:
309:
301:
174:
111:
61:
21:
3633:14th century in China
3628:13th century in China
3398:Ming treasure voyages
3287:Ancient and dynastic
2897:Battle of Lake Poyang
2887:Red Turban Rebellions
2614:(1898, rev. ed. 1953)
596:One candidate is the
544:
536:
452:
411:
307:
299:
172:
153:and even one unit of
109:
59:
19:
3577:Breechloading musket
2419:, Cassell & Co,
1298:Timothy May (2016).
1116:. pp. 587–588.
905:and shipping by the
351:were organised into
24:The military of the
3080:Society and culture
2807:Battle of Xiangyang
2700:Souček, Svatopluk.
2599:The Mongol Warlords
1933:, pp. 209–210.
692:Wuwei Bronze Cannon
390:Muslim influx there
3518:Thunder crash bomb
3463:Repeating crossbow
3168:The Orphan of Zhao
2937:Imperial Preceptor
2581:The Gunpowder Epic
1962:, p. 209-210.
1657:Man, John (2012).
1541:Peers, CJ (2006).
1393:Peers, CJ (2006).
1066:Peers, CJ (2006).
922:thunder crash bomb
912:Shortly after the
555:Dazu Rock Carvings
547:
539:
471:Siege of Xiangyang
455:
414:
340:, but in practice
328:of 10,000 under a
310:
302:
274:Newly Adhered Army
175:
112:
62:
22:
3610:
3609:
3606:
3605:
3254:
3253:
2707:Verbruggen, J.F.
2673:978-1-84383-449-6
2666:, Boydell Press,
2644:978-0-8018-5954-0
2619:Partington, J. R.
2590:978-0-521-30358-3
2579:, vol. V:7:
2565:978-0-521-08573-1
2482:978-981-05-5380-7
2446:Hildinger, Erik.
2432:Chambers, James,
2426:978-0-304-35270-8
2407:978-0-691-13597-7
2316:978-1-4728-0045-9
2039:978-0-521-82274-9
1747:978-90-04-28248-3
1722:978-1-61069-340-0
1614:978-1-61069-340-0
1587:978-1-61069-340-0
1527:978-0-521-24331-5
1504:Twitchett, Dennis
1450:978-0-521-24331-5
1427:Twitchett, Dennis
1372:978-0-521-24331-5
1349:Twitchett, Dennis
1248:978-0-521-24331-5
1225:Twitchett, Dennis
1199:978-0-521-24331-5
1176:Twitchett, Dennis
1161:978-0-521-24331-5
1138:Twitchett, Dennis
1123:978-0-521-24331-5
1100:Twitchett, Dennis
1010:Flags and banners
937:Hachiman Gudoukun
929:Nihon Kokujokushi
629:) with the metal
559:Robin D. S. Yates
445:Gunpowder weapons
336:of 1,000 under a
52:Army Organisation
3640:
3423:
3281:
3274:
3267:
3258:
3224:ʼPhags-pa script
3154:The Chalk Circle
3135:Zhongyuan Yinyun
3022:Shiyi Dexiaofang
2780:Kaidu–Kublai war
2775:Toluid Civil War
2746:
2739:
2732:
2723:
2693:Sicker, Martin.
2676:
2658:
2647:
2626:
2597:Nicolle, David.
2593:
2568:
2550:
2521:
2485:
2429:
2410:
2373:
2367:
2361:
2355:
2346:
2345:
2325:
2319:
2302:
2296:
2295:
2293:
2292:
2273:
2267:
2266:
2248:
2242:
2227:
2221:
2215:
2209:
2203:
2197:
2191:
2185:
2179:
2173:
2167:
2158:
2152:
2146:
2145:, p. 53-54.
2140:
2134:
2128:
2117:
2111:
2102:
2096:
2087:
2086:, p. 293-4.
2081:
2075:
2069:
2063:
2048:
2042:
2031:
2025:
2024:, p. 52-53.
2019:
2013:
2012:
2010:
2008:
2003:on July 23, 2011
1993:
1987:
1981:
1975:
1969:
1963:
1957:
1951:
1945:
1934:
1928:
1922:
1916:
1910:
1904:
1898:
1897:, p. 50-51.
1892:
1886:
1880:
1865:
1859:
1848:
1842:
1833:
1832:
1814:
1808:
1807:
1797:
1788:
1782:
1778:
1758:
1752:
1751:
1733:
1727:
1726:
1708:
1702:
1701:
1681:
1675:
1674:
1654:
1648:
1647:
1625:
1619:
1618:
1598:
1592:
1591:
1571:
1565:
1564:
1548:
1538:
1532:
1531:
1500:
1491:
1490:
1472:
1455:
1454:
1423:
1417:
1416:
1400:
1390:
1377:
1376:
1345:
1339:
1338:
1320:
1314:
1313:
1295:
1289:
1288:
1286:
1285:
1262:
1253:
1252:
1221:
1204:
1203:
1172:
1166:
1165:
1134:
1128:
1127:
1096:
1090:
1089:
1073:
1063:
1047:
1038:
1029:
1020:
1001:
989:
974:
958:
854:
842:
830:
818:
806:
793:
777:
734:
682:
655:
654:
641:
640:
628:
627:
618:
617:
524:
199:
194:
185:
180:
143:Tungusic peoples
3648:
3647:
3643:
3642:
3641:
3639:
3638:
3637:
3613:
3612:
3611:
3602:
3482:
3468:Siege equipment
3414:
3384:
3291:
3285:
3255:
3250:
3230:History of Yuan
3197:
3128:Wenxian Tongkao
3093:History of Liao
3075:
3056:Miaoying Temple
3034:
2990:
2908:
2904:Ispah rebellion
2756:
2750:
2679:Saunders, J.J.
2674:
2661:
2650:
2645:
2630:
2617:
2591:
2573:Needham, Joseph
2571:
2566:
2553:
2544:
2530:Morgan, David.
2503:10.2307/3105275
2488:
2483:
2470:
2463:Jones, Archer.
2427:
2414:
2408:
2392:
2382:
2377:
2376:
2368:
2364:
2356:
2349:
2327:
2326:
2322:
2303:
2299:
2290:
2288:
2275:
2274:
2270:
2263:
2250:
2249:
2245:
2228:
2224:
2216:
2212:
2204:
2200:
2192:
2188:
2180:
2176:
2168:
2161:
2153:
2149:
2141:
2137:
2129:
2120:
2112:
2105:
2097:
2090:
2082:
2078:
2070:
2066:
2049:
2045:
2032:
2028:
2020:
2016:
2006:
2004:
1995:
1994:
1990:
1982:
1978:
1970:
1966:
1958:
1954:
1946:
1937:
1929:
1925:
1917:
1913:
1907:Partington 1960
1905:
1901:
1893:
1889:
1881:
1868:
1860:
1851:
1843:
1836:
1829:
1816:
1815:
1811:
1795:
1790:
1789:
1785:
1775:
1760:
1759:
1755:
1748:
1735:
1734:
1730:
1723:
1710:
1709:
1705:
1698:
1683:
1682:
1678:
1671:
1656:
1655:
1651:
1644:
1627:
1626:
1622:
1615:
1600:
1599:
1595:
1588:
1573:
1572:
1568:
1561:
1540:
1539:
1535:
1528:
1520:. p. 601.
1510:, eds. (1994).
1508:Franke, Herbert
1502:
1501:
1494:
1487:
1474:
1473:
1458:
1451:
1443:. p. 452.
1433:, eds. (1994).
1431:Franke, Herbert
1425:
1424:
1420:
1413:
1392:
1391:
1380:
1373:
1365:. p. 654.
1355:, eds. (1994).
1353:Franke, Herbert
1347:
1346:
1342:
1335:
1322:
1321:
1317:
1310:
1297:
1296:
1292:
1283:
1281:
1279:
1264:
1263:
1256:
1249:
1231:, eds. (1994).
1229:Franke, Herbert
1223:
1222:
1207:
1200:
1192:. p. 662.
1182:, eds. (1994).
1180:Franke, Herbert
1174:
1173:
1169:
1162:
1154:. p. 602.
1144:, eds. (1994).
1142:Franke, Herbert
1136:
1135:
1131:
1124:
1106:, eds. (1994).
1104:Franke, Herbert
1098:
1097:
1093:
1086:
1065:
1064:
1060:
1055:
1048:
1039:
1030:
1021:
1012:
1005:
1002:
993:
990:
981:
975:
966:
959:
895:treasure fleets
871:
865:
858:
855:
846:
843:
834:
831:
822:
819:
810:
807:
798:
794:
785:
778:
735:
729:
724:
722:
720:
718:
716:
683:
679:History of Yuan
676:
606:History of Yuan
591:Western Xia gun
531:
525:
520:
483:History of Song
447:
418:Kingdom of Dali
406:
332:, divided into
294:
167:
104:
60:Yuan era helmet
54:
12:
11:
5:
3646:
3644:
3636:
3635:
3630:
3625:
3615:
3614:
3608:
3607:
3604:
3603:
3601:
3600:
3595:
3594:
3593:
3586:
3579:
3574:
3567:
3555:
3552:Huolongchushui
3548:
3541:
3540:
3539:
3527:
3526:
3525:
3520:
3510:
3509:
3508:
3498:
3492:
3490:
3484:
3483:
3481:
3480:
3475:
3470:
3465:
3460:
3455:
3450:
3445:
3440:
3435:
3429:
3427:
3420:
3416:
3415:
3413:
3412:
3410:Late Qing Navy
3407:
3406:
3405:
3403:treasure ships
3394:
3392:
3386:
3385:
3383:
3382:
3377:
3372:
3367:
3362:
3357:
3352:
3347:
3342:
3337:
3332:
3327:
3325:Three Kingdoms
3322:
3317:
3314:Warring States
3307:
3301:
3299:
3293:
3292:
3286:
3284:
3283:
3276:
3269:
3261:
3252:
3251:
3249:
3248:
3243:
3238:
3233:
3226:
3221:
3216:
3211:
3205:
3203:
3199:
3198:
3196:
3195:
3190:
3185:
3180:
3179:
3178:
3171:
3164:
3157:
3145:
3138:
3131:
3124:
3117:
3114:Shilin Guangji
3110:
3103:
3096:
3089:
3083:
3081:
3077:
3076:
3074:
3073:
3068:
3063:
3058:
3053:
3048:
3042:
3040:
3036:
3035:
3033:
3032:
3025:
3018:
3013:
3008:
3000:
2998:
2992:
2991:
2989:
2988:
2983:
2982:
2981:
2980:
2979:
2969:
2964:
2954:
2949:
2944:
2942:Zhongshu Sheng
2939:
2934:
2929:
2928:
2927:
2916:
2914:
2910:
2909:
2907:
2906:
2901:
2900:
2899:
2894:
2884:
2879:
2874:
2869:
2864:
2863:
2862:
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2855:
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2828:
2823:
2818:
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2814:
2809:
2799:
2784:
2783:
2782:
2777:
2766:
2764:
2758:
2757:
2751:
2749:
2748:
2741:
2734:
2726:
2720:
2719:
2705:
2698:
2691:
2677:
2672:
2659:
2648:
2643:
2628:
2615:
2602:
2595:
2589:
2569:
2564:
2551:
2542:
2540:978-1405135399
2528:
2522:
2497:(3): 594–605,
2486:
2481:
2468:
2461:
2454:Iggulden, Conn
2451:
2444:
2437:
2430:
2425:
2412:
2406:
2394:Andrade, Tonio
2390:
2381:
2378:
2375:
2374:
2372:, p. 109.
2362:
2360:, p. 295.
2347:
2320:
2297:
2268:
2261:
2243:
2222:
2220:, p. 306.
2210:
2208:, p. 270.
2198:
2186:
2174:
2159:
2157:, p. 330.
2147:
2135:
2133:, p. 329.
2118:
2116:, p. 304.
2103:
2101:, p. 294.
2088:
2076:
2064:
2043:
2026:
2014:
1988:
1976:
1964:
1952:
1935:
1923:
1911:
1899:
1887:
1866:
1849:
1834:
1827:
1809:
1783:
1774:978-0231142540
1773:
1753:
1746:
1728:
1721:
1703:
1696:
1676:
1670:978-1446486153
1669:
1649:
1643:978-0674036086
1642:
1620:
1613:
1593:
1586:
1566:
1559:
1533:
1526:
1492:
1485:
1456:
1449:
1418:
1411:
1378:
1371:
1340:
1333:
1315:
1308:
1290:
1277:
1254:
1247:
1205:
1198:
1167:
1160:
1129:
1122:
1091:
1084:
1057:
1056:
1054:
1051:
1050:
1049:
1042:
1040:
1033:
1031:
1024:
1022:
1015:
1011:
1008:
1007:
1006:
1003:
996:
994:
991:
984:
982:
978:Sir Henry Yule
976:
969:
967:
960:
953:
891:Ryukyu Islands
864:
861:
860:
859:
856:
849:
847:
844:
837:
835:
832:
825:
823:
820:
813:
811:
808:
801:
799:
795:
788:
786:
779:
772:
744:Zhang Shicheng
727:
705:Joseph Needham
700:Gansu Province
674:
587:Inner Mongolia
530:
527:
518:
446:
443:
405:
402:
293:
290:
173:Yuan arrow bag
166:
163:
103:
100:
53:
50:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3645:
3634:
3631:
3629:
3626:
3624:
3621:
3620:
3618:
3599:
3596:
3592:
3591:
3587:
3585:
3584:
3583:Xun Lei Chong
3580:
3578:
3575:
3573:
3572:
3571:San yan chong
3568:
3566:
3565:
3561:
3560:
3559:
3556:
3554:
3553:
3549:
3547:
3546:
3542:
3538:
3537:
3533:
3532:
3531:
3528:
3524:
3521:
3519:
3516:
3515:
3514:
3511:
3507:
3504:
3503:
3502:
3499:
3497:
3494:
3493:
3491:
3489:
3485:
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3461:
3459:
3456:
3454:
3451:
3449:
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3441:
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3434:
3431:
3430:
3428:
3424:
3421:
3417:
3411:
3408:
3404:
3401:
3400:
3399:
3396:
3395:
3393:
3391:
3387:
3381:
3378:
3376:
3373:
3371:
3368:
3366:
3363:
3361:
3358:
3356:
3353:
3351:
3348:
3346:
3343:
3341:
3338:
3336:
3333:
3331:
3328:
3326:
3323:
3321:
3318:
3315:
3311:
3308:
3306:
3303:
3302:
3300:
3298:
3294:
3290:
3282:
3277:
3275:
3270:
3268:
3263:
3262:
3259:
3247:
3246:Northern Yuan
3244:
3242:
3239:
3237:
3234:
3232:
3231:
3227:
3225:
3222:
3220:
3217:
3215:
3214:Mongol Empire
3212:
3210:
3207:
3206:
3204:
3200:
3194:
3191:
3189:
3186:
3184:
3181:
3177:
3176:
3172:
3170:
3169:
3165:
3163:
3162:
3158:
3156:
3155:
3151:
3150:
3149:
3146:
3144:
3143:
3139:
3137:
3136:
3132:
3130:
3129:
3125:
3123:
3122:
3118:
3116:
3115:
3111:
3109:
3108:
3104:
3102:
3101:
3097:
3095:
3094:
3090:
3088:
3085:
3084:
3082:
3078:
3072:
3069:
3067:
3064:
3062:
3059:
3057:
3054:
3052:
3049:
3047:
3044:
3043:
3041:
3037:
3031:
3030:
3026:
3024:
3023:
3019:
3017:
3014:
3012:
3009:
3007:
3006:
3002:
3001:
2999:
2997:
2993:
2987:
2984:
2978:
2975:
2974:
2973:
2970:
2968:
2965:
2963:
2960:
2959:
2958:
2955:
2953:
2950:
2948:
2945:
2943:
2940:
2938:
2935:
2933:
2930:
2926:
2923:
2922:
2921:
2918:
2917:
2915:
2911:
2905:
2902:
2898:
2895:
2893:
2890:
2889:
2888:
2885:
2883:
2880:
2878:
2875:
2873:
2870:
2868:
2865:
2859:
2856:
2854:
2851:
2850:
2849:
2846:
2844:
2843:Java invasion
2841:
2837:
2834:
2833:
2832:
2829:
2827:
2824:
2822:
2819:
2813:
2810:
2808:
2805:
2804:
2803:
2800:
2798:
2795:
2794:
2793:
2790:
2789:
2788:
2785:
2781:
2778:
2776:
2773:
2772:
2771:
2768:
2767:
2765:
2763:
2759:
2754:
2747:
2742:
2740:
2735:
2733:
2728:
2727:
2724:
2718:
2717:0-85115-570-7
2714:
2710:
2706:
2703:
2699:
2696:
2692:
2690:
2689:0-8122-1766-7
2686:
2682:
2678:
2675:
2669:
2665:
2660:
2656:
2655:
2649:
2646:
2640:
2636:
2635:
2629:
2624:
2620:
2616:
2613:
2612:
2606:
2603:
2600:
2596:
2592:
2586:
2582:
2578:
2574:
2570:
2567:
2561:
2557:
2552:
2548:
2543:
2541:
2537:
2533:
2529:
2526:
2523:
2520:
2516:
2512:
2508:
2504:
2500:
2496:
2492:
2487:
2484:
2478:
2474:
2469:
2466:
2462:
2459:
2455:
2452:
2449:
2445:
2442:
2438:
2435:
2431:
2428:
2422:
2418:
2413:
2409:
2403:
2399:
2395:
2391:
2388:
2384:
2383:
2379:
2371:
2366:
2363:
2359:
2354:
2352:
2348:
2343:
2339:
2335:
2331:
2324:
2321:
2317:
2313:
2309:
2308:
2301:
2298:
2286:
2282:
2278:
2272:
2269:
2264:
2258:
2254:
2247:
2244:
2240:
2239:0-521-30358-3
2236:
2232:
2226:
2223:
2219:
2214:
2211:
2207:
2202:
2199:
2196:, p. 18.
2195:
2190:
2187:
2184:, p. 10.
2183:
2178:
2175:
2172:, p. 54.
2171:
2166:
2164:
2160:
2156:
2151:
2148:
2144:
2139:
2136:
2132:
2127:
2125:
2123:
2119:
2115:
2110:
2108:
2104:
2100:
2095:
2093:
2089:
2085:
2080:
2077:
2074:, p. 53.
2073:
2068:
2065:
2061:
2060:0-521-30358-3
2057:
2053:
2047:
2044:
2040:
2036:
2030:
2027:
2023:
2018:
2015:
2002:
1998:
1992:
1989:
1985:
1980:
1977:
1973:
1968:
1965:
1961:
1956:
1953:
1950:, p. 15.
1949:
1944:
1942:
1940:
1936:
1932:
1927:
1924:
1921:, p. 51.
1920:
1915:
1912:
1908:
1903:
1900:
1896:
1891:
1888:
1885:, p. 50.
1884:
1879:
1877:
1875:
1873:
1871:
1867:
1864:, p. 49.
1863:
1858:
1856:
1854:
1850:
1847:, p. 48.
1846:
1841:
1839:
1835:
1830:
1828:9781108482448
1824:
1820:
1813:
1810:
1805:
1801:
1794:
1787:
1784:
1781:
1776:
1770:
1766:
1765:
1757:
1754:
1749:
1743:
1739:
1732:
1729:
1724:
1718:
1714:
1707:
1704:
1699:
1693:
1689:
1688:
1680:
1677:
1672:
1666:
1662:
1661:
1653:
1650:
1645:
1639:
1635:
1631:
1624:
1621:
1616:
1610:
1606:
1605:
1597:
1594:
1589:
1583:
1579:
1578:
1570:
1567:
1562:
1556:
1552:
1547:
1546:
1537:
1534:
1529:
1523:
1519:
1516:. Cambridge:
1515:
1514:
1509:
1505:
1499:
1497:
1493:
1488:
1486:9781684170524
1482:
1478:
1471:
1469:
1467:
1465:
1463:
1461:
1457:
1452:
1446:
1442:
1439:. Cambridge:
1438:
1437:
1432:
1428:
1422:
1419:
1414:
1408:
1404:
1399:
1398:
1389:
1387:
1385:
1383:
1379:
1374:
1368:
1364:
1361:. Cambridge:
1360:
1359:
1354:
1350:
1344:
1341:
1336:
1334:9780674012127
1330:
1326:
1319:
1316:
1311:
1309:9781610693400
1305:
1301:
1294:
1291:
1280:
1278:9780804711937
1274:
1270:
1269:
1261:
1259:
1255:
1250:
1244:
1240:
1237:. Cambridge:
1236:
1235:
1230:
1226:
1220:
1218:
1216:
1214:
1212:
1210:
1206:
1201:
1195:
1191:
1188:. Cambridge:
1187:
1186:
1181:
1177:
1171:
1168:
1163:
1157:
1153:
1150:. Cambridge:
1149:
1148:
1143:
1139:
1133:
1130:
1125:
1119:
1115:
1112:. Cambridge:
1111:
1110:
1105:
1101:
1095:
1092:
1087:
1081:
1077:
1072:
1071:
1062:
1059:
1052:
1046:
1041:
1037:
1032:
1028:
1023:
1019:
1014:
1009:
1000:
995:
988:
983:
979:
973:
968:
964:
957:
952:
950:
948:
947:
942:
938:
934:
930:
925:
923:
919:
915:
910:
908:
904:
900:
896:
892:
888:
884:
880:
875:
870:
862:
853:
848:
841:
836:
829:
824:
817:
812:
805:
800:
792:
787:
783:
776:
771:
769:
767:
763:
762:
757:
753:
752:Chen Youliang
749:
748:Zhu Yuanzhang
745:
741:
732:
726:
712:
709:
706:
701:
697:
693:
688:
681:
680:
673:
671:
667:
661:
659:
649:
645:
635:
632:
622:
612:
607:
604:in 1287. The
603:
599:
594:
592:
588:
584:
580:
576:
572:
567:
564:
560:
556:
552:
543:
535:
528:
523:
517:
515:
510:
503:
501:
496:
492:
487:
484:
478:
474:
472:
468:
464:
460:
451:
444:
442:
440:
436:
432:
427:
423:
422:Uriyangkhadai
419:
410:
403:
401:
399:
393:
391:
387:
383:
378:
374:
370:
366:
362:
358:
354:
350:
345:
343:
339:
335:
331:
327:
323:
319:
315:
306:
298:
291:
289:
285:
283:
279:
275:
270:
267:
263:
259:
255:
251:
247:
242:
237:
235:
231:
227:
223:
219:
215:
211:
206:
202:
200:
190:
189:Southern Song
186:
171:
164:
162:
158:
156:
152:
148:
144:
140:
136:
132:
128:
124:
119:
117:
110:Yuan horseman
108:
101:
99:
95:
92:
88:
84:
80:
75:
71:
66:
58:
51:
49:
47:
43:
39:
35:
31:
30:Mongol Empire
27:
18:
3588:
3581:
3569:
3562:
3550:
3543:
3534:
3501:Flamethrower
3369:
3228:
3202:Other topics
3173:
3166:
3159:
3152:
3140:
3133:
3126:
3121:Menggu Ziyun
3119:
3112:
3105:
3098:
3091:
3039:Architecture
3027:
3020:
3003:
2753:Yuan dynasty
2708:
2701:
2694:
2680:
2663:
2653:
2633:
2622:
2608:
2605:Charles Oman
2598:
2580:
2576:
2555:
2546:
2531:
2494:
2490:
2472:
2464:
2457:
2447:
2440:
2433:
2416:
2397:
2386:
2380:Bibliography
2365:
2358:Needham 1986
2337:
2333:
2323:
2305:
2300:
2289:. Retrieved
2280:
2271:
2252:
2246:
2230:
2225:
2218:Needham 1986
2213:
2206:Needham 1986
2201:
2189:
2182:Needham 1986
2177:
2170:Andrade 2016
2155:Andrade 2016
2150:
2143:Andrade 2016
2138:
2131:Andrade 2016
2114:Needham 1986
2099:Needham 1986
2084:Needham 1986
2079:
2072:Andrade 2016
2067:
2051:
2046:
2029:
2022:Andrade 2016
2017:
2007:November 18,
2005:. Retrieved
2001:the original
1991:
1979:
1974:, p. 6.
1972:Patrick 1961
1967:
1960:Needham 1986
1955:
1948:Andrade 2016
1931:Needham, V 7
1926:
1919:Andrade 2016
1914:
1902:
1895:Andrade 2016
1890:
1883:Andrade 2016
1862:Andrade 2016
1845:Andrade 2016
1818:
1812:
1803:
1799:
1786:
1763:
1756:
1737:
1731:
1712:
1706:
1686:
1679:
1659:
1652:
1633:
1623:
1603:
1596:
1576:
1569:
1544:
1536:
1512:
1476:
1435:
1421:
1396:
1357:
1343:
1324:
1318:
1299:
1293:
1282:. Retrieved
1267:
1233:
1184:
1170:
1146:
1132:
1108:
1094:
1069:
1061:
944:
940:
936:
932:
928:
926:
917:
911:
876:
872:
759:
739:
737:
731:Tie Pao Xing
730:
714:
710:
689:
685:
677:
669:
665:
663:
650:(fire tube;
647:
643:
633:
620:
610:
595:
568:
548:
522:Guixin Zazhi
521:
513:
508:
505:
488:
482:
479:
475:
456:
415:
397:
394:
381:
376:
372:
368:
364:
360:
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3365:Jurchen Jin
3087:Yuan poetry
2925:family tree
2611:Middle Ages
2532:The Mongols
2370:Purton 2010
2334:Archaeology
2194:Arnold 2001
1806:(1): 33–41.
1660:Kublai Khan
903:Grand Canal
761:Huolongjing
658:fire lances
571:hand cannon
557:in 1985 by
529:Hand cannon
459:fire arrows
398:Tongshi Jun
320:clans, the
246:Jin dynasty
34:Kublai Khan
3617:Categories
3545:Hu dun pao
3523:Fire lance
3496:Fire arrow
2913:Government
2291:2018-04-05
2262:0521070600
1697:0199246904
1560:1846030986
1412:1846030986
1284:2016-05-27
1085:1846030986
1053:References
907:Yellow Sea
867:See also:
782:Xanadu Gun
766:round shot
579:Xanadu Gun
3590:Hongyipao
3506:Petroleum
3488:Gunpowder
3419:Equipment
3236:Khanbaliq
2977:Dpon-chen
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2932:Empresses
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3458:Crossbow
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2621:(1960),
2575:(1986),
2396:(2016),
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933:huo tong
918:tetsuhau
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758:and his
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648:huo tong
575:huochong
519:—
495:Yangzhou
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377:Alginchi
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349:Tammachi
334:minghans
318:Tammachi
314:Tammachi
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155:Russians
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87:Tammachi
79:Tammachi
3564:Huo Che
3473:Stirrup
3433:Chariot
3241:Shangdu
3209:Mongols
3193:Fashion
3016:Coinage
2831:Vietnam
2762:History
2511:3105275
1984:Lu 1988
1780:Alt URL
899:Beijing
756:Jiao Yu
740:huotong
670:huo pao
631:radical
611:chongzu
491:Weiyang
467:cannons
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102:Guards
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3188:Islam
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2858:Pagan
2848:Burma
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2812:Yamen
2515:S2CID
2507:JSTOR
1796:(PDF)
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621:chong
602:Nayan
463:bombs
369:Tamma
361:Tamma
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151:Alans
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3370:Yuan
3360:Song
3355:Liao
3345:Tang
3310:Zhou
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3148:Zaju
3107:Song
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2009:2010
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