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1500 or 1501, Songhay conquers Diala (also known as Dyara) near Kaarta and pillages a royal residence there. Askia
Muhammad then defeats the Malian general Fati Quali in 1502, putting Songhay in possession of Diara in Diafunu province. In 1506, Askia Muhammad raids Galam on the Senegal river, wiping away the last vestiges of Mali's rule in the Sahel. While Songhay does not permanently occupy the Senegal, the raid effectively takes it out of the hands of the mansa. Songhay's hold on the area was still contested by Mali, but it was Tengela who made the most historic challenge to Songhay's control in the area. In 1512, Tengela invaded Diara, which called on the Songhay to defend them. The fact that they called on Songhay instead of Mali says just how much prestige the mansa had lost in the region. Songhay responded with an expedition under Kurmina-fari Umar Komdiagla (also known as Amar Kondjago), a brother of Askia Muhammad. In the ensuing battle, Tengela was defeated and killed bring an end to the Tengela War.
752:, but ran the empire as if he was. According to Ibn Khaldun, Sandaki Mari Djata even tossed Musa II in jail keep him out of the way. During this time, Mali's eastern provinces were in open rebellion. Sandaki Mari Djata mobilized the army on a campaign to restore order. He oversaw the re-subjugation of the Tuareg occupying Takedda, an important copper mining center in the north. The vizier was not entirely successful and was unable to stop re-subjugate the Songhai who were well on their way to their own empire by the end of the 14th century. Attempts to re-conquer the Songhai were likely doomed due to the inhabitants being under Mandinka military influence for so long and being ruled by a dynasty that had its very roots in Mali's imperial court. The Mali Empire also laid siege to the town of
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all the area from the Sahel to Futa Jallon and over the upper
Senegal. They would also take the coveted Bambuk goldfields and the important commercial town of Diakha on the Bafing River. The battle of Jenne put the final nail in the empire's coffin. A victory at Jenne might well have saved the empire, keeping the tribes united under a strong and proven leader. But Mansa Mahmud IV retired to the remains of his kingdom and with his death, the realm was split up among his three sons. A unified Mali simply ceased to exist. The last remnants of Mali were destroyed by the Bambara in the 17th century.
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forces were done three kings were dead, and the Jolof ruler was reduced to a vassal. The new western portion of the empire settlement would become an outpost that encompassed not only northern Guinea-Bissau but the Gambia and the
Casamance region of Senegal (named for the Mandinka province of Casa or Cassa ruled by the Casa-Mansa). It was in this way that the sub-kingdom of Kaabu was established. The Traore clan left a large imprint on Guinea-Bissau and future settlements along the Gambia which trace their noble bloodlines back to him or other Mandekalu warriors.
375:, an elite corps among the military was present at court. These men were an outgrowth of the ton-tigui that had fought alongside Sundjata and his immediate predecessors known as the farari ("braves"). Each farariya ("brave") was a cavalry commander with officers and warriors beneath him. However, the roles of the farariya were not all identical. Farari served as ton-tigi of the Gbara, governors of far off provinces or simply field commanders. Many forms of the farariya titles would be used by Mali's successor states such as Songhay.
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to the ground. Djata's army moved onto Dia or
Diaghan (later the epicenter of Mali's Diafunu province), which was also taken in the morning. The town was spared the torch, but all its young men were forced into the army upon having their heads shaved. The last town to fall to Mari Djata was Kita, which fell without much struggle after an early morning assault. The leader of the town was killed, but no massacre or enslavement followed. Oral historians explain this by citing that the Mandinka clan of Kamara lived in the area.
581:. Both princes were the sons of former generals and would have had sizeable forces under their command. Mansa Ouati died in 1274, and Khalifa promptly marched in to take the throne. Though his ascension meant an end to the destructive civil war, the Mali Empire was weaker than at any time since the rise of Mansa Djata. During the despotic rule of Khalifa, the Songhai residents of Gao province were able to throw off Mandinka rule. After exhibiting cruelty and madness, courtiers had Khalifa assassinated. He was followed by
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askiyas were occupied, Portugal sent another emissary to Mali, this time from their post at El Mina in what is now Ghana. Mansa Mahmud III attempted to gain military assistance as his father had done before him, but to no avail. The
Portuguese were only interested in re-securing trade interests with Mali along the Gambia. That same year, Koli Tengela launched an attack on Bambuk in hopes of gaining the goldfields so coveted by his father and Songhay. Mali defeated him there, driving the Fulbe back into Futa Toro.
501:. These elements were then complemented by Mandinka "smiths", clans which specialized in the production and use of iron weapons such as spears and swords. After Djata's victory at Kirina, the Mandekalu forces quickly moved on to take the rest of the Sosso areas left leaderless upon Soumaoro's disappearance. If the chronicles of the djeli are to be taken seriously (and many modern historians do), this involved a series of sieges against fortified towns throughout the northern half of Manden proper.
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city. Upon the advice of his brother Askiya Ishaq, Dawud did not chase the mansa's smaller force into the mountains and hills and instead bivouacked in the city for some seven days. During this time, Kurminafari Dawud announced to his soldiers that whoever wished to answer a call of nature should do so in the royal palace. By the seventh day, the entire palace was filled with excrement despite its great size. Mali's humiliation was now complete.
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609:. Mansa Sakura then took the army north and captured Takedda, bringing many desert nomads under Mandinka domination. The mansa even brought the Songhai back under control, re-subjugating the kingdom of Gao. Mali's warrior emperor not only restored the state to its former glory but made it more powerful than ever. By the time of his murder in 1300, the Mali Empire already stretched from the Atlantic to the border of the
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chieftain named
Tengela would launch a war against both Mali and Songhay that lasted from 1480 to 1512. Tengela began by setting up a base in Futa Jallon led by his son, Koly Tengela. Meanwhile, the elder Tengela built up an impressive army of dissident Fulbe, which included cavalry. At the same time, Songhay forces had been moving westward in hopes of capturing Mali's Bambuk goldmines.
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necessarily a ton-tigi. He "owned" land and held jonow, which accompanied him to war in much the same fashion as they had his predecessors. In some regions, a farima served as a permanent military governor. A prime examples of this is the Farim-Kabu encountered by the
Portuguese during Mali's decline. However, unlike other Farari who governed lands, a farima had to be of the horon.
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210:. The Mandinka were early adopters of iron in West Africa, and the role of blacksmiths was one of great religious and military prestige among them. Manipulation of iron had allowed the Mandinka to spread out over the borders of modern-day Mali and Guinea by the 11th century. During this time, the Mandinka came into contact with the Soninke of the formidable
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271:", which translates as "the sixteen slaves that carry the bow". These "slaves" were actually high nobles dedicated to serve Mali by bringing the bow or quiver (traditional symbols of military force) to bear against the emperor's enemies. Each member was known as a ton-tigi or ton-tigui ("quiver-master") and was expected to fight as cavalry commanders.
214:. The Soninke formed the first major organized fighting force in West Africa, and the Mandekalu became a major source of slaves for the empire. To combat Wagadou's slave raids, the Mandekalu took refuge in the mountains between Kri and Kri-Koro around Niagassala. There they used the high ground that could provide a better view of arriving armies.
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up levies from conquered peoples on the rare occasion this was needed. All horon were expected to arm themselves. It was a point of honor to appear with your own weapons, some of which might be family heirlooms. Javelins called "tamba" were thrown out ahead of close-combat. The majority of infantry were bowmen who used
Soninke knowledge of
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traditional generals, the Farim-Soura and Sankar-Zouma. This major ally of the mansa abandoned him at the last moment and went over to the
Moroccans and advised them on what to expect from the mansa's army. Despite their amazement at the size of the mansa's force, the Arma won the battle after a violent bombardment.
834:. In 1465, Songhai forces under Sulaiman Dama (also known as Sonni Silman Dandi) attacked the province of Mema, which had seceded from Mali in the first few decades of the 15th century. The Songhai Empire also captured Timbuktu in 1468, which had already fallen out of the Mali Empire's hands. The Songhai also took
1226:"Bilal bin Rabah, sometimes called Ibn Hamama after his mother, is referred to in Mali as Jon Bilali, "Slave Bilali." One of the bards from whom I collected, Ban Sumana Sisoko, explained the jon, "slave," by stating a religious connotation in the same sense as the Arabic name of 'Abd Allah(Slave/servant of God)
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The remaining provinces of Mali freed themselves one by one giving rise to 5 small kingdoms. The most prominent of them were brought together to form the basis of the
Bambara kingdoms of Segu and Kaarta. Mali itself was reduced to a small kingdom around Kaabu and Kita. By 1600 the Denianke controlled
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The accession of Askiya Isma’il in 1537, marked the end of peaceable relations between Songhay and Mali. They renewed attacks on their old rival until they reached central Mali. Finally in 1545, Mansa Mahmud III was forced to flee the capital of Niani as Kurminafari (and later Askia) Dawud sacked the
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severed ties with the Mali Empire to form his own state. This left Mali in control of little more than its own Mandinka heartland. The Kaabu Empire would carry on much of Mali's military tradition, but they would reserve the title of mansa for themselves from now on. By 1578 they had absorbed Mali's
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Mansa Mahmud II, known as Mamadou in Portuguese accounts, sought out Portuguese assistance or at least firearms that same year. The Portuguese responded in 1495 by sending an envoy laden with gifts but no weapons. Firearms in the hands of the Mali Empire might have changed the history of West Africa,
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Mansa Uli II was succeeded by Mansa Mahmud II in 1481. He received an envoy from King John II of Portugal that year, but it resulted in nothing of benefit for the bedeviled emperor. Fearing his situation was untenable, he sought the protection of the Ottoman Turks but was refused. The Mali Empire had
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With the exception of the Mossi states to its south, the Mali Empire faced very few external threats throughout its existence. Even after its glory days had passed, the mansas were generally concerned with holding onto subject peoples rather than outright invasions. That all changed during the reign
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came to power after Maghan III. His reign began with the conquest of Dioma under his given name of Sérébandjougou alongside his brother and heir Gbèré. After conquering Dioma, he was put on the throne as Foamed Musa or Musa III. Despite starting out on a markedly positive note, Musa III's reign would
769:, in 1387. This reign would only last two years due to him being killed by his predecessor's sandaki. This murder was avenged by Maghan III who ruled from 1390 to 1404. In 1400, the Mossi state of Yatenga under emperor Bonga takes advantage of Mandinka disunity yet again and raids the town of Masina.
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Mansa Musa was succeeded by his son in 1337, which marked the beginning of the empire's slide into decline. Mansa Maghan ruled four years before his death, which was probably hastened by Musa's brother Suleyman. Sometime during these four years, Mossi horsemen from the Upper Volta raided Timbuktu and
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After 1510, the Mali Empire received a brief respite from Songhay attacks as their enemy was overcome with a series of typical imperial challenges. The same provincial revolts and dynastic disputes that has troubled Mali left Songhay incapable of raiding into Mali for nearly thirty years. While the
661:. His generals added Walata and the Teghazza salt mines to the empire's already impressive size. In 1325, the Mandinka general Sagmandir put down yet another rebellion by the Songhai in Gao. The Mali Empire was at its largest and wealthiest under Musa I, spanning over 1.29 million square kilometers.
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Tiramakhan, also known as Tiramaghan, of the Traore clan, was ordered by Sonjata to bring an army west after the king of Jolof had allowed horses to be stolen from Mandekalu merchants. The king of Jolof also sent a message to the young emperor referring to him as an upstart. By the time Tiramakhan's
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The first settlement to fall was Soumaoro's capital called Sosso. The Mandekalu attacked at dawn using fire archers from Wagadou as well as ladders shielded by infantry. Once the city gate had fallen, the Sosso forces were massacred and the town's leader, Noumounkeba, enslaved. The town was burnt
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The head of the Kondé clan ruled the Sankarani River region near the imperial capital of Niani. The title of Sankar-Zouma, also known as Sankaran-Zouma, is derived from the region and is unique among the farari. The Sankar-Zouma held command over all forces in the south bordering the coastal jungle.
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Another type of farariya was the Farimba ("great brave man"), also known as the farinba or farba. In contrast to the farima, a farimba could be of the horon (usually a royal relative) or of the jonow. In fact, it was quite common and sometimes prudent for a mansa to appoint a jonow as the farimba of
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The exclusion of jonow from the early imperial army increased pressure on the horon to serve. Each tribe in the empire was expected to furnish a quota of horon to fight for the mansa. The core of the army, which may have reached 90,000 men, was Mandinka. However, the mansa reserved the right to call
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and metallurgy culture of Manden. Both smelting and smithing required large quantities of wood to make charcoal for fuel. The blacksmith's activity helped the warriors by smithing fine weapons made of metals, as well as extending the boundaries of their empire by moving further and further afield in
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Another response to Soninke pressure could have been the formation of hunters associations by the Mandekalu, which doubled as defense associations. The hunters associations formed the basis of the army that were later federated under a "master of the bush" called the Simbo. The power and prestige of
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In 1558, Askiya Dawud launched a raid on the Malian town of Suma. He followed this up that same year by defeating the Malian general Ma Kanti Faran at Dibikarala. Then in 1559, during the last year of Mansa Mahmud III's reign, Koli Tengela in 1559, Koli set up his capital at Anyam-Godo in Futa Toro
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During the early 15th century, Mali suffered a violent revolt in its northern province of Difunu or Diara. At the time, the Niakhate dynasty had run the province in the name of the mansa. Diafunu had long been a part of the Mali Empire and was crucial to the mansa's northbound trade caravans. A new
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The Mali Empire has enjoyed virtually no military reverses in its first century of existence and had grown at a terrific rate in both size and wealth by the time Ibn Battuta arrived there. However this wealth and power may have been the reason behind more aggressive attacks by its neighbors as well
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centuries later. The farimba was present at vassal courts to oversee local rulers and ensure that local policy did not interfere with that of the mansa. The farimba could take over the court if he judged the vassal lord to be out of step with the mansa's wishes, and he kept a small army garrisoned
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The threat from the Songhay Empire became a far graver matter during the reign of Mansa Mahmud III. From 1500 to 1510, Askia Muhammad's forces picked apart Mali's remaining provinces in the Sahel. Around 1499, the Askiya conquered Baghana province from Mali despite the latter's Fulani allies. In
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The Farima-Soura, also documented as the Farim-Soura, Faran-Soura or Sura Farin appears to have been a field commander in charge of the northern border. Soura was likely a province or at minimum a large region if the title of the Farim-Kabu is any evidence. His main responsibility would have been
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command under the Farima-Soura and Sankaran-Zouma, respectively. Both served as ton-tigui on the Gbara, and their influence was immense. In fact, the refusal of both the Farima-Soura and the Sankaran-Zouma to follow Mansa Mamadu to battle at the siege of Jenne in 1599 resulted in Mamadu's failure.
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One of the biggest differences between the Mandinka army of Sundjata in the 13th century and that of Sulayman in the 14th century is the division of the entire army between two farari along geographic lines. According to chroniclers of the time, imperial Mali had a northern command and a southern
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Mali was powerless in the north, and its economic, military and political concentration shifted further west in the face of seemingly unstoppable Songhay aggression. For decades, the pastoral Fulbe had been growing in power in and round Mali's remaining provinces. One especially ambitious Fulbe
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out Mali's sphere of influence in 1473. By then the message that Songhai was sending Mali was clear indeed; if the mansa could not hold onto his provinces, Songhai would. The Mossi kingdom of Yatenga felt it could raid the Songhay Empire as it had the Mali Empire in the past. It snatched BaGhana
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The military culture and organization of the Mali Empire grew in power and sophistication until reaching its peak between 1250 and 1450. This period was marked by a firmer, more complex system of military roles in the empire. The reasons for the changes in imperial Mali's army are not known for
327:
The ton-tigi, for all intents and purposes, were feudal lords and the only men in the early empire that could afford horses. Infantry leadership, however, fell to the kèlè -koun ("war-head"). A kèlè-koun commanded a unit of infantry known as a kèlè -bolo ("war-arm"). The men under a kèlè-koun's
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Alongside the ton-tigi were horon cavalrymen. These horon were from elite society and included princes or other kinds of nobility. Because of the high price of Arab horses, Mandekalu horsemen were equipped by the ton-tigi or the mansa with their mount. Cavalry fought with lances, sabers and long
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called on the Moroccan garrison of Arma in Timbuktu for reinforcements. The other obstacle to the mansa's success was his betrayal by a major ally prior to the battle. The reasoning behind this betrayal, according to Mandinka oral traditions was that Mahmud IV did not have the support of Mali's
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The role of the sofa in Malian warfare changed dramatically after the reign of Sundjata from mere baggage handler to full-fledged warriors. A sofa was equipped by the state, whereas the horon brought their weapons. Sofa armies could be used to intimidate unfaithful governors, and they formed a
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All farari, like the ton-tigui of Sundjata's generation, were accompanied by jonow who followed on foot and cared for their master's horses. These jonow were known as sofas, and they would have supplied their ton-tigui with extra javelins in the middle of battle or guarded his getaway horse if
383:
One type of farariya, and likely the most common, was the farima ("brave man"). A farima, also known as a farin or faran, was very similar to the European knight in his function at the Mandinka court. He was foremost a military leader, commanding from horseback a unit of cavalry. The kèlè-koun
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to launch slave raids on coastal inhabitants, the Malian vassal territories were caught off guard by both vessels and the raiders within them. However, the Mali Empire countered the Portuguese raids with fast shallow-draught watercraft. The Mandekalu inflicted a series of defeats against the
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The farimba could also use this force to assist local rulers in defending the province. If actually called to the field, which was not likely, the farimba commanded the cavalry. Directly beneath the farimba was the dùùkùnà si or dougou-kounnasi ("impressive man at the head of the land"), who
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The farima, like all farari, reported directly to the mansa who went out of his way to lavish awards on him in the form of special trousers (the wider the seat, the higher the merit) and gold anklets. A farima was part of Mali's warrior aristocracy. He was always present at court, though not
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was independent of Mali by 1439. The Mali Empire loss almost all access to the Saharan trade routes without which it could not get enough horses to take the centers back or preserve its own precarious position. The mansas were thus forced to look south for their economic security.
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In 1490, Tengela led the Fulbe out of Futa Jallon forcing the Malian forces to retreat to the Gambia. He was now threatening the lines of trade and communication between the Malian heartland and its last remaining economic artery. Tengela continued his advance until he reached
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Portuguese due to the former's expert war archers, and their use of poison arrows. The defeats forced Portugal's king to dispatch his courtier Diogo Gomes in 1456 to secure peace. The effort was a success by 1462, and trade became Portugal's focus along the Senegambia.
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command were all horon ("freemen"), like the ton-tigi and kèlè-koun. At least initially, jonow ("slaves") were barred from military service except as military equipment carriers for the ton-tigi. It was not until after Mali's zenith that jonow battalions were utilized.
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The end of Mansa Ouali's reign signaled a downturn in the fortunes of the Mali Empire. Mansa Ouati, an adopted son of Mansa Djata, ruled from 1270 to 1274. During this period, Manden was racked by civil war between Ouati and another adopted brother by the name of
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as the complacency of some of the mansas in dealing with them. Subject peoples on the fringes of the empire slowly began to shake off the yoke of Mandinka hegemony. This happened slowly at first, but after 1450 the empire would begin to crumble very rapidly.
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province from Songhay occupation in 1477 then raided Tuareg-controlled Walata in 1480. The Songhay proved tougher customers and handed Yatenga's King Nasere a crushing defeat in 1483 effectively ending Mossi incursions in the Niger valley.
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Portugal did far more than hinder Mali's attempts to modernize its army. They also undermined the empire's authority along a coast that was getting farther and farther from the influence of Niani's court thanks to the Tengela incursions.
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to make up for their arrow's lack of force. Stabbing spears and reed shields were also used by horon, while a kélé-koun might be armed with a locally made saber. Leather helmets were manufactured locally for both cavalry and infantry.
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majority of the infantry by the 15th century. So though imperial Mali was initially a horon-run army, its reliance on jonow as administrators (farimba) and officers (dùùkùnà si) gradually transformed the character of its military.
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if their track record with native weapons is anything to go by. However, Mali never became a gunpowder state, and the military Mahmud II passed onto his son in 1496 was virtually the same as the one inherited by Musa I in 1312.
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Mansa Suleyman died in 1360 and was succeeded by his son, Camba, who was quickly overthrown by a son of Maghan I. Despite turmoil within Manden, the empire maintained its other possessions. The throne officially went to Mansa
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While Djata was busy consolidating Mandinka power in the north, two of his generals were busy campaigning elsewhere. Fakoli of the Koroma clan took one-third of the army out to conquer the town of Bambougou within the
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The emperor or mansa was, at least in theory, head of the armed forces. However, Sakura seems to have been the only mansa to take the field other than Sundjata. Even when Sundjata was fighting, his title was that of
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east of Gao but was unable to take the town or force its inhabitants back into submission. The overall success of the campaign appears mixed, but Mali's ability to retain Takedda shows it was far from total collapse.
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His role would have been similar to the Farima-Soura in protecting merchants moving in and out of the empire with valuable goods. He had many goods which he would consistently give out to others.
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The first unfamiliar threat to Mali came not from the jungles or even the desert but the sea. The Portuguese arrived on the Senegambian coast in 1444, and they were not coming in peace. Using
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While the coastal threat had been abated, an even more dangerous problem arrived on the empire's northern and eastern frontier in the form of an imperial Songhai state under the leadership of
970:, the Mali Empire was released from a century's-old pressure on its northern frontier. In place of the Songhai Empire succeeded a much weaker authority on the Niger in the form of the
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near the Senegal River. The empire also conquered the city of Gao, epicenter of the burgeoning Songhai state, and brought Timbuktu and Jenne into its ambit if not its actual control.
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in the mid-15th century. For the next 150 years, the Mali Empire would be locked in a life or death struggle for its very existence amid a barrage of enemies on all sides.
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particularly wealthy province or city. Jonow depended entirely on their master, in this case the mansa, for their position. Thus, their loyalty was hardly ever in question.
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be one of many losses for the Mali Empire. In 1433, the Tuareg launched a major invasion from the north capturing Timbuktu, Arawan and Walata. The important city-state of
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the Simbo, who held both military and religious power, allowed these individuals to become petty kings. After the fall of Wagadou, these petty kings would unite under
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585:, grandson of Sunjata. Mansa Abu Bakr was capable of keeping the rest of Manden together, but either did not attempt or was unable to bring Gao back into the fold.
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translates this title as deputy or governor, but it is more complex than that. The Farimba was a civilian role akin to an imperial resident like those used by the
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search of wood to sustain their industry. The deforestation that resulted from extensive smelting and concentrated smithing has consequently flattened the woodland
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commanded an infantry force. Unlike the regular army, which was led by the farima and kèlè-koun, these garrison forces were mostly and sometimes entirely slaves.
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soils and also inadvertently helped the cavalry soldiers of Manden to move easier in spacious fields, thus creating symbiosis between the cavalry and blacksmiths.
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543:, a region and realm of Senegal that had sided with Soumaoro in Manden's war of independence. However, this too would result in conflict for his fledgling army.
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Mansa Sundjata is credited with organizing the early empire's army into 16 clans whose leaders were to protect the new state. These 16 were known as the "
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or Sabakura in 1285. The Mali Empire expanded under his personal leadership, making him unique among the early mansas. He conquered the ancient state of
564:(also known as Ali, Uli or Wali) proved to be able and energetic leader according to Ibn Khaldun. During his reign, the Mandinka conquered or absorbed
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Barry, B. (1992). "Senegambia from the sixteenth to the eighteenth century: evolution of the Wolof, Sereer and 'Tukuloor'". In Ogot, B. A. (ed.).
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utilized the infantry resources of his allies within and outside of Manden proper to best the Sosso in several confrontations, culminating in the
2212:"Le Massaya et la société Manding." Essai d'interprétation des lutes socio-politiques qui ont donné naissance à l'empire du Mali au 13ème siècle
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never reached out to any outside power for help before, and 1481 is truly a low-point in Mali's history. Still there was much more to come.
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Historical researchers also claim the technical reason for the empire's rapid expansion was supported by the strong
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may have played a role in Jolof's motives if not the very reason why future mansas could not do anything about it.
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719:. It is unknown exactly why the Wolof broke away, but the destructive reign of Suleyman's predecessor and nephew
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2646:
1088:""Trade, Transport, Temples, and Tribute: The Economics of Power," in In the Balance: Themes in Global History"
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area, which was famous for its goldfields. Meanwhile, Fran of the Kamara clan took one-third of the army into
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Timbuktu & the Songhay Empire: Al-Sa'dis Ta'rikh al-sudan down to 1613 and other Contemporary Documents
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reported directly to him on the battlefield and used infantry forces in concert with the farima's cavalry.
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retreat was necessary. In fact, the word sofa translates as "horse father" meaning guardian of the horse.
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circa 1235. Oral historians recount the use of poison bowmen from the south in Do (along what is now the
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certain, but it is likely that the expanding size of the state had much to do with its transformation.
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740:. However, Musa II, while a good emperor according to written records, was under the control of his
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307:, the Mandekalu were able to build up a standing cavalry of around 10,000 horsemen by the reign of
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from the mid 13th to the late 15th century. The military culture of the empire's driving force,
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Warriors, Merchants, and Slaves: The State and the Economy in the Middle Niger Valley, 1700–1914
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Wondji, C. (1992). "The states and cultures of the Upper Guinean coast". In Ogot, B. A. (ed.).
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Cissoko, S. M. (1984). "The Songhay from the 12th to the 16th century". In Niane, D. T. (ed.).
778:
dynasty under the name Diawara killed the Niakhate vassal and asserted independence from Mali.
2788:
2778:
2617:
2598:
2579:
2556:
2537:
2518:
2499:
2480:
2463:
2429:
2410:
2406:
2399:
2383:
2364:
2360:
2353:
2337:
2309:
2290:
2271:
2252:
2233:
2196:
2174:
2155:
2136:
2117:
2089:
2070:
2066:
2043:
1201:
1174:
1117:
967:
766:
560:
Mansa Djata died in around 1255, and he was succeeded by his son who ruled until 1270. Mansa
3111:
3054:
2768:
2733:
2718:
1601:
Niane, D.T.: "Recherches sur l’Empire du Mali au Moyen Âge". Presence Africaine. Paris, 1975
937:
787:
716:
657:
came to power and brought the empire even more fame and prestige with his legendary Hajj to
372:
162:
152:
641:
reigned in peace and prosperity over a well-guarded realm dotted with garrisons in Walata,
629:
The territorial gains of the Mali Empire were maintained well after Sakura's death. Mansas
3138:
3021:
2748:
977:
733:
494:
490:
473:
256:
223:
183:
2453:
497:), fire archers from Wagadou to the north, and heavy cavalry from the northern state of
125:
3065:
2965:
2853:
2703:
2133:
Mande Music: Traditional and Modern Music of the Maninka and Mandinka of Western Africa
2114:
Gens de la parole: Essai sur la condition et le role des griots dans la société malinké
1011:
981:
806:
720:
696:
594:
582:
565:
486:
482:
404:
187:
144:
136:
2332:
Niane, D. T. (1984). "Mali and the second Mandingo expansion". In Niane, D. T. (ed.).
962:. Malian influence is now represented by the three kingdoms ruled by Mahmud IV's sons.
535:
After the elimination of the Sosso threat and his selection by the Mandekalu clans as
194:
empires. Institutions from the Mali Empire also survived in the 19th century army of
186:, influenced many later states in West Africa including break-away powers such as the
3163:
3026:
3001:
2909:
2848:
2738:
2698:
2688:
2059:
749:
578:
536:
524:
148:
2975:
2970:
2950:
2708:
908:
712:
708:
650:
638:
610:
540:
346:
304:
252:
211:
191:
140:
299:
and iron helmets would also be available to Mali's early cavalry. With control of
2105:"Le Manden des origins Ă Sunjata." MĂ©moire de Fin d'Etudes en Histoire-GĂ©ographie
1195:
456:
monitoring the Saharan border for bandits to keep merchants from being molested.
3087:
2793:
2662:
2061:
In Search of Sunjata: The Mande Oral Epic As History, Literature and Performance
1006:
971:
872:
669:
630:
400:
368:
300:
207:
195:
179:
175:
121:
95:
527:. Many Kamara clans of northern Guinea point to Fran as their common ancestor.
2960:
2904:
2828:
2783:
2763:
2723:
2693:
1170:
African epic series /Thomas A. Hale and John W. Johnson Ă©d African epic series
918:
coastal provinces of Casa and Bati cutting off Mali from trade with Portugal.
857:
654:
616:
606:
308:
230:
206:
The Mandinka military and military culture were crucial to the success of the
2285:
Ly-Tall, M. (1984). "The decline of the Mali Empire". In Niane, D. T. (ed.).
707:
The next vassal kingdom of Mali to break away was the province of Jolof. The
3032:
2899:
2879:
2753:
2467:
1167:
Sisòkò, Fa-Digi; William Johnson, John; Bird, Charles Stephen (1997-01-01).
954:
831:
429:
Captured enemy personnel were sometimes incorporated into the Malian forces.
296:
2884:
2616:. General History of Africa. Vol. 5. Paris: UNESCO. pp. 368–398.
2336:. General History of Africa. Vol. 4. Paris: UNESCO. pp. 117–171.
2289:. General History of Africa. Vol. 4. Paris: UNESCO. pp. 172–186.
2154:. General History of Africa. Vol. 4. Paris: UNESCO. pp. 187–210.
2088:. General History of Africa. Vol. 5. Paris: UNESCO. pp. 262–299.
835:
792:
24:
711:
inhabitants of this kingdom united under their own emperor and formed the
685:
Mossi cavalry of the Yatenga kingdom led by their king, the Yatenga Naaba.
681:
2924:
2919:
2728:
2713:
989:
695:
surrounding cities. But the most important development of the period was
642:
311:. With such a force, the mansa was able to project his power from modern
235:
219:
715:
around 1360 during a succession crisis that followed the death of Mansa
425:
2914:
2894:
2863:
2858:
2758:
2683:
980:
tried to take advantage of the situation with the support of Fulbe and
818:
602:
598:
561:
498:
316:
312:
1194:
Johnson, John William; Sisòkò, Fa-Digi; Bird, Charles Stephen (2003).
2945:
2929:
2773:
2214:. Paris: Université de Paris I Panthéon-Sorbonne. pp. 262 Pages.
2171:
La Compagnie Générale des Oléagineux Tropicaux en Casamance 1948–1962
753:
745:
520:
481:
The first major test of the Mandinka war machine was the war against
2515:
Peoples and Empires of West Africa: West Africa in History 1000–1800
748:). This sandaki, named Mari Djata, had no relation to anyone in the
3104:
3015:
3008:
2955:
2843:
2496:
Warfare & Diplomacy in Pre-Colonial West Africa Second Edition
914:
871:
680:
668:
658:
615:
472:
424:
330:
280:
2595:
Navigating Terrains of War: Youth and Soldiering in Guinea-Bissau
966:
Following Songhai's defeat by a Moroccan invasion in 1591 at the
2809:
2635:
2889:
2631:
2536:. New Delhi: Anmol Publications PVT. LTD. pp. 857 Pages.
2498:. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press. pp. 164 Pages.
1947:
1945:
1775:
1773:
1655:
1653:
1651:
1649:
1556:
1554:
646:
539:
of Manden, Djata sought to re-equip his army with horses from
18:
2382:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 816 Pages.
2534:
Encyclopedic Survey of Islamic Dynasties A Continuing Series
2380:
The Cambridge History of Africa Volume 3 1050 – c. 1600
2232:. Whitefish: Kessinger Publishing, LLC. pp. 664 pages.
2135:. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. pp. 500 Pages.
2428:. Stanford: Stanford University Press. pp. 293 Pages.
936:
and turned the region into what would later be called the
593:
Mansa Abubakari I was usurped by general and former slave
2017:
2015:
2013:
1871:
1869:
699:'s assertion of independence for good from Mali in 1340.
408:
inside the provincial capital for just such an occasion.
285:
Terracotta Horseman figure from Mali (13th-15th century).
1907:
1905:
1903:
1901:
1899:
1897:
1895:
1893:
1487:
1485:
1397:
1395:
1310:
1308:
1306:
1304:
1302:
1300:
984:
chiefs. In 1599, the mansa led this army in a march on
335:
Terracotta Archer figure from Mali (13th-15th century).
2578:. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. p. 336.
2555:. London and New York: Routledge. pp. 194 Pages.
2107:. Bamako: Ecole Normale Supérieure. pp. 84 Pages.
2597:. New York City: Berghahn Books. pp. 258 Pages.
2308:. Bristol: Multilingual Matters. pp. 160 Pages.
2221:
Armées et Armes dans les empires du Soudan Occidental
2223:. Bamako: l’Université de Bamako. pp. 11 Pages.
1574:
1572:
1570:
1568:
1566:
3126:
3096:
3075:
3042:
2993:
2938:
2872:
2836:
2802:
2676:
2669:
2614:
Africa from the Sixteenth to the Eighteenth Century
2086:
Africa from the Sixteenth to the Eighteenth Century
1985:
1983:
1981:
1923:
1921:
1919:
1917:
1850:
1848:
1846:
1791:
1789:
1787:
1785:
1627:
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1430:
1428:
1072:
1070:
158:
132:
117:
109:
101:
91:
81:
73:
68:
2571:
2405:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp.
2398:
2352:
2065:. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. pp.
2058:
1733:
1731:
1367:
1365:
1263:
1261:
1259:
1086:Goucher; LeGuin; Walton, Candice; Charles; Linda.
1033:
1031:
198:who saw himself as the heir to Old Mali's legacy.
2193:The Negroland of the Arabs Examined and Explained
1237:
1235:
1233:
1051:
1049:
1047:
1045:
1043:
744:(literally "high counselor", often translated as
3144:Atlantic voyage of the predecessor of Mansa Musa
2334:Africa from the Twelfth to the Sixteenth Century
2327:. Paris: Présence Africaine. pp. 112 Pages.
2287:Africa from the Twelfth to the Sixteenth Century
2173:. Paris: Karthala Editions. pp. 519 Pages.
2152:Africa from the Twelfth to the Sixteenth Century
2116:. Paris: KARTHALA Editions. pp. 375 Pages.
1249:
1247:
278:was not necessarily describe as an actual slave
1935:
1933:
1097:. The Annenberg Foundation 2004. Archived from
620:The Mali Empire at its height under Mansa Musa.
259:the only sitting mansas ever to lead an army.
2647:
1597:
1595:
1593:
894:The Songhay respite and the battle for Bambuk
8:
2397:Oliver, Roland & Anthony Atmore (2001).
2359:. Harlow: Longman African Writers. pp.
2325:Recherches sur l'Empire du Mali au Moyen Ă‚ge
2268:Histoire de l'Afrique noire: D'hier a demain
1122:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
974:, separated from Mali by warring chiefdoms.
761:The Sandaki usurpation and second Mossi raid
589:Re-conquest and expansion under Mansa Sakura
371:visited the Mali Empire during the reign of
2869:
2827:
2673:
2654:
2640:
2632:
2479:. London: Routledge. pp. 1912 Pages.
2447:. Bamako: Impr. M.E.N. pp. 100 Pages.
860:, where he set up his base of operations.
274:Another explanation regarding the term of
65:
2517:. Edinburgh: Nelson. pp. 373 Pages.
2195:. London: Routledge. pp. 143 Pages.
2574:Islam in the African-American Experience
953:
690:The secession of Gao and the Mossi raids
673:Mali and surrounding states, circa 1350.
49:of all important aspects of the article.
2477:Encyclopedia of African History, Vol. 1
2021:
1960:
1875:
1224:: New Edition(1960), Vol 6, page 1215:
1027:
876:Mali and surrounding states circa 1530.
868:Collapse of the Mali empire (1500–1600)
800:The empire on the defensive (1440–1490)
477:Mali and surrounding states circa 1225.
1972:
1115:
1017:African military innovation and change
765:Musa II was succeeded by his brother,
45:Please consider expanding the lead to
3180:Warfare in the medieval Islamic world
2270:. Paris: Hatier. pp. 731 Pages.
2251:. Leiden: BRILL. pp. 480 pages.
2042:. Paris: Unesco. pp. 191 Pages.
1755:
1695:
1640:
1491:
1401:
1145:
7:
2553:Warfare in Atlantic Africa 1500–1800
2513:Stride, G.T. & C. Ifeka (1971).
625:The empire at its zenith (1300–1340)
601:, which encompassed parts of modern
531:Early imperial expansion (1235–1300)
2306:Multilingualism and Nation Building
354:Organization after the 14th century
174:is that of the armed forces of the
172:military history of the Mali Empire
3185:Military history by former country
1173:. Indiana University Press, 2003.
665:The fragmenting empire (1340–1440)
14:
2458:. Alger: Maison-Carrée. pp.
2169:CĂ´-Trung, Marina Diallo (2001).
2040:Le Concept de pouvoir en Afrique
653:and many others. In 1312, Mansa
546:
124:
23:
222:and lead him to victory at the
113:capable of 100,000 regular army
77:Farima-Soura and Sankaran-Zouma
37:may be too short to adequately
16:Armed forces of the Mali Empire
2570:Turner, Richard Brent (2004).
2219:Diallo, Boubacar SĂ©ga (2007).
315:to the borders of present-day
47:provide an accessible overview
1:
2355:Sundiata: An Epic of Old Mali
885:Songhay hegemony in the Sahel
556:Expansion under Mansa Ouali I
547:Tiramakhan's western campaign
3118:Sudano-Sahelian architecture
2424:Roberts, Richard L. (1987).
1804:Oliver & Atmore, page 67
1350:Oliver & Atmore, page 62
1200:. Indiana University Press.
843:The start of the Tengela war
514:Campaigns of Fakoli and Fran
2475:Shillington, Kevin (2004).
1951:Stride & Ifeka, page 73
1863:Stride & Ifeka, page 67
1779:Stride & Ifeka, page 55
1746:Stride & Ifeka, page 54
1659:Stride & Ifeka, page 51
1560:Stride & Ifeka, page 49
3201:
3175:Military history of Africa
3134:History of the Mali Empire
2551:Thornton, John K. (1999).
2189:Cooley, William Desborough
947:
906:
2825:
2494:Smith, Robert S. (1989).
2401:Medieval Africa 1250–1800
2266:Ki-Zerbo, Joseph (1978).
2230:Africa, Angry Young Giant
2228:Hempstone, Smith (2007).
2057:Austen, Ralph A. (1999).
2038:Akinjogbin, I.A. (1981).
251:" meaning prince, making
242:13th century organization
2210:Diakité, Drissa (1980).
2131:Charry, Eric S. (2000).
913:In 1537, the farimba of
2532:Taher, Mohamed (1997).
2452:Sauvant, Le P. (1913).
2378:Oliver, Roland (1975).
2304:Mansour, Gerda (1993).
2103:Camara, Seydou (1977).
572:Civil war and rebellion
485:and his Sosso kingdom.
2994:Society and government
2443:Sarr, Mamadou (1991).
2247:Hunwick, John (1988).
1222:Encyclopaedia of Islam
963:
958:West Africa after the
877:
736:in 1374, son of Mansa
686:
674:
621:
478:
469:Pre-imperial expansion
430:
336:
286:
2593:Vigh, Henrik (2006).
2112:Camara, Sory (1992).
1911:Shillington, page 922
1831:Shillington, page 921
957:
875:
684:
672:
619:
476:
428:
334:
303:from the Savannah to
284:
269:ton-ta-jon-ta-ni-woro
3149:Twelve Doors of Mali
2981:Empire of Great Fulo
2351:Niane, D.T. (1994).
2323:Niane, D.T. (1975).
1314:Camara 1992, page 69
1157:Akinjogbin, page 133
1064:Camara 1977, page 15
3083:Trans-Saharan trade
2815:Abu Ishaq al-Sahili
1767:Hunwick, page xxxvi
1677:Hempstone, page 312
782:The Tuareg invasion
442:Command of the army
102:Active regions
1521:CĂ´-Trung, page 130
1413:Hunwick, page xxix
1276:Ki-Zerbo, page 133
964:
878:
773:The Diawara revolt
727:The eastern revolt
687:
675:
622:
479:
431:
340:Mandekalu infantry
337:
290:Mandekalu horsemen
287:
178:, which dominated
83:Dates of operation
3157:
3156:
2989:
2988:
2939:Associated states
2823:
2822:
2455:Grammaire Bambara
2239:978-0-548-44300-2
2007:Hunwick, page 148
1998:Hunwick, page 140
1840:Thornton, page 23
1578:Houtsma, page 241
1452:Roberts, page 222
1341:Thornton, page 25
1332:Thornton, page 27
1323:Thornton, page 26
1180:978-0-85255-094-6
1095:ANNENBERG LEARNER
1076:Diakité, page 209
968:Battle of Tondibi
922:The sack of Niani
903:The rise of Kaabu
505:Djata’s conquests
295:swords. Imported
168:
167:
64:
63:
3192:
3112:Epic of Sundiata
3055:Battle of Kirina
3050:Military history
2870:
2831:
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2608:
2589:
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2471:
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2445:L'empire du Mali
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2019:
2008:
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1999:
1996:
1990:
1989:Oliver, page 455
1987:
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1937:
1928:
1927:Oliver, page 458
1925:
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1854:Oliver, page 420
1852:
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1822:Mansour, page 33
1820:
1814:
1813:Oliver, page 439
1811:
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1795:Oliver, page 431
1793:
1780:
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1686:Haskins, page 46
1684:
1678:
1675:
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1660:
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1644:
1638:
1632:
1631:Oliver, page 380
1629:
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1617:
1611:
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1602:
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1548:Oliver, page 456
1546:
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1513:
1510:
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1501:
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1479:Hunwick, page 16
1477:
1471:
1470:Roberts, page 37
1468:
1462:
1459:
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1450:
1444:
1443:Oliver, page 387
1441:
1435:
1434:Mansour, page 38
1432:
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1405:
1399:
1390:
1389:Charry, page 358
1387:
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1359:Charry, page 357
1357:
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1038:
1037:Hunwick, page 15
1035:
988:. The rulers of
938:Denianke Kingdom
826:Songhai hegemony
703:The Jolof empire
635:Mohammed ibn Gao
224:Battle of Kirina
159:Battles and wars
128:
84:
66:
59:
56:
50:
27:
19:
3200:
3199:
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3139:Soninke Wangara
3122:
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3071:
3060:Battle of Jenné
3038:
3022:Kouroukan Fouga
2985:
2934:
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2803:Other residents
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1737:Taher, page 826
1736:
1729:
1725:Cooley, page 65
1724:
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1716:Cooley, page 69
1715:
1711:
1707:Cooley, page 66
1706:
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1668:Taher, page 812
1667:
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1635:
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1623:
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1610:Taher, page 808
1609:
1605:
1600:
1591:
1587:Turner, page 19
1586:
1582:
1577:
1564:
1559:
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1547:
1543:
1538:
1534:
1530:Austen, page 93
1529:
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1503:Taher, page 811
1502:
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1442:
1438:
1433:
1426:
1421:
1417:
1412:
1408:
1400:
1393:
1388:
1384:
1380:Cooley, page 75
1379:
1375:
1371:Cooley, page 77
1370:
1363:
1358:
1354:
1349:
1345:
1340:
1336:
1331:
1327:
1322:
1318:
1313:
1298:
1294:Taher, page 813
1293:
1289:
1285:Taher, page 818
1284:
1280:
1275:
1271:
1267:Taher, page 828
1266:
1257:
1252:
1245:
1240:
1231:
1219:
1215:
1208:
1193:
1192:
1188:
1181:
1166:
1165:
1161:
1156:
1152:
1144:
1140:
1136:Cooley, page 62
1135:
1131:
1114:
1107:
1105:
1101:
1090:
1085:
1084:
1080:
1075:
1068:
1063:
1059:
1055:Taher, page 815
1054:
1041:
1036:
1029:
1025:
1003:
986:Battle of Jenné
978:Mansa Mahmud IV
960:Battle of Jenné
952:
950:Battle of Jenné
946:
944:Battle of Jenné
933:
924:
911:
905:
896:
887:
870:
845:
828:
815:
802:
784:
775:
763:
729:
705:
692:
667:
627:
591:
574:
558:
549:
533:
516:
507:
495:Sankarani River
491:Battle of Krina
471:
462:
453:
444:
423:
414:
394:
381:
365:
356:
342:
325:
292:
265:
257:Mansa Mahmud IV
244:
204:
184:Mandinka people
82:
60:
54:
51:
44:
32:This article's
28:
17:
12:
11:
5:
3198:
3196:
3188:
3187:
3182:
3177:
3172:
3162:
3161:
3155:
3154:
3152:
3151:
3146:
3141:
3136:
3130:
3128:
3124:
3123:
3121:
3120:
3115:
3108:
3100:
3098:
3094:
3093:
3091:
3090:
3085:
3079:
3077:
3073:
3072:
3070:
3069:
3062:
3057:
3052:
3046:
3044:
3040:
3039:
3037:
3036:
3029:
3024:
3019:
3012:
3005:
2997:
2995:
2991:
2990:
2987:
2986:
2984:
2983:
2978:
2973:
2968:
2966:Songhai Empire
2963:
2958:
2953:
2948:
2942:
2940:
2936:
2935:
2933:
2932:
2927:
2922:
2917:
2912:
2907:
2902:
2897:
2892:
2887:
2882:
2876:
2874:
2867:
2866:
2861:
2856:
2854:Manding region
2851:
2846:
2840:
2838:
2834:
2833:
2826:
2824:
2821:
2820:
2818:
2817:
2812:
2806:
2804:
2800:
2799:
2797:
2796:
2791:
2786:
2781:
2776:
2771:
2766:
2761:
2756:
2751:
2746:
2741:
2736:
2731:
2726:
2721:
2716:
2711:
2706:
2701:
2696:
2691:
2686:
2680:
2678:
2671:
2667:
2666:
2661:
2659:
2658:
2651:
2644:
2636:
2629:
2628:
2622:
2609:
2603:
2590:
2584:
2567:
2561:
2548:
2542:
2529:
2523:
2510:
2504:
2491:
2485:
2472:
2449:
2440:
2434:
2421:
2415:
2394:
2388:
2375:
2369:
2348:
2343:92-3-101-710-1
2342:
2329:
2320:
2314:
2301:
2296:92-3-101-710-1
2295:
2282:
2276:
2263:
2257:
2244:
2238:
2225:
2216:
2207:
2201:
2185:
2179:
2166:
2161:92-3-101-710-1
2160:
2147:
2141:
2128:
2122:
2109:
2100:
2094:
2081:
2075:
2054:
2048:
2034:
2032:
2029:
2027:
2026:
2024:, p. 184.
2009:
2000:
1991:
1977:
1975:, p. 389.
1965:
1963:, p. 183.
1953:
1941:
1929:
1913:
1889:
1887:Laude, page 64
1880:
1878:, p. 191.
1865:
1856:
1842:
1833:
1824:
1815:
1806:
1797:
1781:
1769:
1760:
1758:, p. 150.
1748:
1739:
1727:
1718:
1709:
1700:
1698:, p. 263.
1688:
1679:
1670:
1661:
1645:
1643:, p. 147.
1633:
1621:
1612:
1603:
1589:
1580:
1562:
1550:
1541:
1532:
1523:
1514:
1512:Niane, page 70
1505:
1496:
1494:, p. 133.
1481:
1472:
1463:
1461:Smith, page 50
1454:
1445:
1436:
1424:
1422:Niane, page 85
1415:
1406:
1404:, p. 135.
1391:
1382:
1373:
1361:
1352:
1343:
1334:
1325:
1316:
1296:
1287:
1278:
1269:
1255:
1243:
1241:Diallo, page 6
1229:
1213:
1206:
1186:
1179:
1159:
1150:
1148:, p. 134.
1138:
1129:
1104:on 29 May 2016
1078:
1066:
1057:
1039:
1026:
1024:
1021:
1020:
1019:
1014:
1012:Sofa (warrior)
1009:
1002:
999:
948:Main article:
945:
942:
932:
931:Further losses
929:
923:
920:
907:Main article:
904:
901:
895:
892:
886:
883:
869:
866:
844:
841:
827:
824:
814:
813:The Portuguese
811:
801:
798:
783:
780:
774:
771:
762:
759:
728:
725:
704:
701:
691:
688:
666:
663:
626:
623:
590:
587:
583:Mansa Abu Bakr
573:
570:
557:
554:
548:
545:
532:
529:
515:
512:
506:
503:
483:Soumaoro Kante
470:
467:
461:
458:
452:
449:
443:
440:
422:
419:
413:
410:
405:British Empire
393:
390:
380:
377:
373:Mansa Suleyman
364:
361:
355:
352:
341:
338:
324:
321:
291:
288:
264:
261:
243:
240:
212:Wagadou Empire
203:
200:
180:Western Africa
166:
165:
160:
156:
155:
134:
130:
129:
119:
115:
114:
111:
107:
106:
103:
99:
98:
93:
89:
88:
85:
79:
78:
75:
71:
70:
69:Mandekalu army
62:
61:
41:the key points
31:
29:
22:
15:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3197:
3186:
3183:
3181:
3178:
3176:
3173:
3171:
3168:
3167:
3165:
3150:
3147:
3145:
3142:
3140:
3137:
3135:
3132:
3131:
3129:
3125:
3119:
3116:
3114:
3113:
3109:
3107:
3106:
3102:
3101:
3099:
3095:
3089:
3086:
3084:
3081:
3080:
3078:
3074:
3068:
3067:
3063:
3061:
3058:
3056:
3053:
3051:
3048:
3047:
3045:
3041:
3035:
3034:
3030:
3028:
3027:Keita dynasty
3025:
3023:
3020:
3018:
3017:
3013:
3011:
3010:
3006:
3004:
3003:
2999:
2998:
2996:
2992:
2982:
2979:
2977:
2974:
2972:
2969:
2967:
2964:
2962:
2959:
2957:
2954:
2952:
2949:
2947:
2944:
2943:
2941:
2937:
2931:
2928:
2926:
2923:
2921:
2918:
2916:
2913:
2911:
2908:
2906:
2903:
2901:
2898:
2896:
2893:
2891:
2888:
2886:
2883:
2881:
2878:
2877:
2875:
2871:
2865:
2862:
2860:
2857:
2855:
2852:
2850:
2849:Western Sudan
2847:
2845:
2842:
2841:
2839:
2835:
2830:
2816:
2813:
2811:
2808:
2807:
2805:
2801:
2795:
2792:
2790:
2787:
2785:
2782:
2780:
2777:
2775:
2772:
2770:
2767:
2765:
2762:
2760:
2757:
2755:
2752:
2750:
2747:
2745:
2742:
2740:
2737:
2735:
2732:
2730:
2727:
2725:
2722:
2720:
2717:
2715:
2712:
2710:
2707:
2705:
2702:
2700:
2697:
2695:
2692:
2690:
2687:
2685:
2682:
2681:
2679:
2675:
2672:
2668:
2664:
2657:
2652:
2650:
2645:
2643:
2638:
2637:
2634:
2625:
2623:92-3-101711-X
2619:
2615:
2610:
2606:
2604:1-84545-149-X
2600:
2596:
2591:
2587:
2585:0-253-34323-2
2581:
2576:
2575:
2568:
2564:
2562:1-85728-393-7
2558:
2554:
2549:
2545:
2543:81-261-0403-1
2539:
2535:
2530:
2526:
2524:0-17-511448-X
2520:
2516:
2511:
2507:
2505:0-299-12334-0
2501:
2497:
2492:
2488:
2486:1-57958-245-1
2482:
2478:
2473:
2469:
2465:
2461:
2457:
2456:
2450:
2446:
2441:
2437:
2435:0-8047-1378-2
2431:
2427:
2422:
2418:
2416:0-521-79372-6
2412:
2408:
2403:
2402:
2395:
2391:
2389:0-521-20981-1
2385:
2381:
2376:
2372:
2370:0-582-26475-8
2366:
2362:
2357:
2356:
2349:
2345:
2339:
2335:
2330:
2326:
2321:
2317:
2315:1-85359-174-2
2311:
2307:
2302:
2298:
2292:
2288:
2283:
2279:
2277:2-218-04176-6
2273:
2269:
2264:
2260:
2258:90-04-12822-0
2254:
2250:
2245:
2241:
2235:
2231:
2226:
2222:
2217:
2213:
2208:
2204:
2202:0-7146-1799-7
2198:
2194:
2190:
2186:
2182:
2180:2-86537-785-7
2176:
2172:
2167:
2163:
2157:
2153:
2148:
2144:
2142:0-226-10161-4
2138:
2134:
2129:
2125:
2123:2-86537-354-1
2119:
2115:
2110:
2106:
2101:
2097:
2095:92-3-101711-X
2091:
2087:
2082:
2078:
2076:0-253-21248-0
2072:
2068:
2063:
2062:
2055:
2051:
2049:92-3-201887-X
2045:
2041:
2036:
2035:
2030:
2023:
2018:
2016:
2014:
2010:
2004:
2001:
1995:
1992:
1986:
1984:
1982:
1978:
1974:
1969:
1966:
1962:
1957:
1954:
1948:
1946:
1942:
1936:
1934:
1930:
1924:
1922:
1920:
1918:
1914:
1908:
1906:
1904:
1902:
1900:
1898:
1896:
1894:
1890:
1884:
1881:
1877:
1872:
1870:
1866:
1860:
1857:
1851:
1849:
1847:
1843:
1837:
1834:
1828:
1825:
1819:
1816:
1810:
1807:
1801:
1798:
1792:
1790:
1788:
1786:
1782:
1776:
1774:
1770:
1764:
1761:
1757:
1752:
1749:
1743:
1740:
1734:
1732:
1728:
1722:
1719:
1713:
1710:
1704:
1701:
1697:
1692:
1689:
1683:
1680:
1674:
1671:
1665:
1662:
1656:
1654:
1652:
1650:
1646:
1642:
1637:
1634:
1628:
1626:
1622:
1616:
1613:
1607:
1604:
1598:
1596:
1594:
1590:
1584:
1581:
1575:
1573:
1571:
1569:
1567:
1563:
1557:
1555:
1551:
1545:
1542:
1539:Vigh, page 40
1536:
1533:
1527:
1524:
1518:
1515:
1509:
1506:
1500:
1497:
1493:
1488:
1486:
1482:
1476:
1473:
1467:
1464:
1458:
1455:
1449:
1446:
1440:
1437:
1431:
1429:
1425:
1419:
1416:
1410:
1407:
1403:
1398:
1396:
1392:
1386:
1383:
1377:
1374:
1368:
1366:
1362:
1356:
1353:
1347:
1344:
1338:
1335:
1329:
1326:
1320:
1317:
1311:
1309:
1307:
1305:
1303:
1301:
1297:
1291:
1288:
1282:
1279:
1273:
1270:
1264:
1262:
1260:
1256:
1253:Sarr, page 92
1250:
1248:
1244:
1238:
1236:
1234:
1230:
1227:
1223:
1220:Quotation of
1217:
1214:
1209:
1207:0-253-34337-2
1203:
1199:
1198:
1190:
1187:
1182:
1176:
1172:
1171:
1163:
1160:
1154:
1151:
1147:
1142:
1139:
1133:
1130:
1125:
1119:
1100:
1096:
1089:
1082:
1079:
1073:
1071:
1067:
1061:
1058:
1052:
1050:
1048:
1046:
1044:
1040:
1034:
1032:
1028:
1022:
1018:
1015:
1013:
1010:
1008:
1005:
1004:
1000:
998:
994:
991:
987:
983:
979:
975:
973:
969:
961:
956:
951:
943:
941:
939:
930:
928:
921:
919:
916:
910:
902:
900:
893:
891:
884:
882:
874:
867:
865:
861:
859:
853:
849:
842:
840:
837:
833:
825:
823:
820:
812:
810:
808:
799:
797:
794:
789:
781:
779:
772:
770:
768:
760:
758:
755:
751:
750:Keita dynasty
747:
743:
739:
738:Mari Djata II
735:
726:
724:
722:
718:
714:
710:
702:
700:
698:
689:
683:
679:
671:
664:
662:
660:
656:
652:
648:
644:
640:
636:
632:
624:
618:
614:
612:
608:
604:
600:
596:
588:
586:
584:
580:
579:Mansa Khalifa
571:
569:
567:
563:
555:
553:
544:
542:
538:
530:
528:
526:
525:Fouta Djallon
522:
513:
511:
504:
502:
500:
496:
492:
488:
484:
475:
468:
466:
459:
457:
450:
448:
441:
439:
435:
427:
420:
418:
411:
409:
406:
402:
398:
391:
389:
385:
378:
376:
374:
370:
362:
360:
353:
351:
348:
339:
333:
329:
322:
320:
318:
314:
310:
306:
302:
298:
289:
283:
279:
277:
272:
270:
262:
260:
258:
254:
250:
241:
239:
237:
232:
227:
225:
221:
215:
213:
209:
201:
199:
197:
193:
189:
185:
181:
177:
173:
164:
161:
157:
154:
150:
146:
142:
138:
135:
131:
127:
123:
120:
116:
112:
108:
104:
100:
97:
94:
90:
86:
80:
76:
72:
67:
58:
55:February 2010
48:
42:
40:
35:
30:
26:
21:
20:
3127:Other topics
3110:
3103:
3064:
3049:
3031:
3014:
3007:
3000:
2976:Jolof Empire
2971:Ghana Empire
2951:Sosso Empire
2744:Mari Jata II
2613:
2594:
2573:
2552:
2533:
2514:
2495:
2476:
2454:
2444:
2425:
2400:
2379:
2354:
2333:
2324:
2305:
2286:
2267:
2248:
2229:
2220:
2211:
2192:
2170:
2151:
2132:
2113:
2104:
2085:
2060:
2039:
2022:Ly-Tall 1984
2003:
1994:
1968:
1961:Ly-Tall 1984
1956:
1939:Jam, page 70
1883:
1876:Cissoko 1984
1859:
1836:
1827:
1818:
1809:
1800:
1763:
1751:
1742:
1721:
1712:
1703:
1691:
1682:
1673:
1664:
1636:
1615:
1606:
1583:
1544:
1535:
1526:
1517:
1508:
1499:
1475:
1466:
1457:
1448:
1439:
1418:
1409:
1385:
1376:
1355:
1346:
1337:
1328:
1319:
1290:
1281:
1272:
1225:
1216:
1196:
1189:
1169:
1162:
1153:
1141:
1132:
1106:. Retrieved
1099:the original
1094:
1081:
1060:
995:
976:
965:
934:
925:
912:
909:Kaabu Empire
897:
888:
879:
862:
854:
850:
846:
829:
816:
803:
785:
776:
764:
741:
730:
713:Jolof Empire
706:
693:
676:
651:Koumbi-Saleh
639:Abubakari II
628:
611:Kanem Empire
592:
575:
559:
550:
534:
517:
508:
480:
463:
460:Sankar-Zouma
454:
451:Farima-Soura
445:
436:
432:
415:
399:
395:
386:
382:
367:By the time
366:
357:
343:
326:
305:North Africa
301:trade routes
293:
275:
273:
268:
266:
253:Mansa Sakura
248:
245:
228:
216:
205:
171:
169:
92:Headquarters
52:
36:
34:lead section
3170:Mali Empire
3088:Shell money
2873:Settlements
2794:Mama Maghan
2663:Mali Empire
2031:Works cited
1973:Wondji 1992
1007:Mali Empire
401:Ibn Khaldun
369:Ibn Battuta
208:Mali Empire
196:Samory Ture
176:Mali Empire
122:Mali Empire
105:West Africa
3164:Categories
2961:Gao Empire
2905:Niagassola
2784:Mahmud III
1756:Niane 1984
1696:Barry 1992
1641:Niane 1984
1492:Niane 1984
1402:Niane 1984
1146:Niane 1984
1108:2 November
1023:References
858:Futa Tooro
607:Mauritania
487:Mari Djata
309:Mansa Musa
297:chain mail
231:blacksmith
3033:Nyamakala
2900:Kouroussa
2837:Geography
2789:Mahmud IV
2779:Mahmud II
2764:Magha III
2407:251 Pages
2361:101 Pages
832:Sonni Ali
805:of Mansa
767:Maghan II
412:Duukunasi
323:Kèlè-Koun
133:Opponents
87:1230–1610
39:summarize
3043:Military
2925:Tadmekka
2920:Timbuktu
2769:Musa III
2754:Magha II
2734:Sulayman
2719:Muhammad
2704:Abu Bakr
2468:26020803
2191:(1966).
1197:Son-Jara
1118:cite web
1001:See also
819:caravels
788:Musa III
754:Tadmekka
721:Maghan I
717:Suleyman
643:Timbuktu
263:Ton-Tigi
236:savannah
220:Sundjata
3097:Culture
3076:Economy
2915:Siguiri
2895:Kangaba
2859:Bambouk
2759:Sandaki
2749:Musa II
2729:Magha I
2699:Khalifa
2684:Sunjata
2462:Pages.
2069:Pages.
982:Bambara
742:sandaki
734:Musa II
697:Songhai
603:Senegal
599:Tekrour
562:Ouali I
521:Bambouk
392:Farimba
347:poisons
317:Nigeria
313:Senegal
188:Songhay
137:Songhai
118:Part of
74:Leaders
2946:Takrur
2930:Walata
2885:Djenné
2774:Uli II
2724:Musa I
2709:Sakura
2677:Mansas
2670:People
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807:Uli II
786:Mansa
746:vizier
655:Musa I
595:Sakura
379:Farima
363:Farari
202:Origin
151:&
149:Tuareg
3016:Gbara
3009:Faama
3002:Mansa
2956:Kaabu
2910:Niani
2844:Sahel
2739:Qanba
2689:Uli I
1102:(PDF)
1091:(PDF)
990:Jenné
915:Kaabu
836:Jenne
793:Jenne
709:Wolof
659:Mecca
566:Bundu
541:Jolof
537:mansa
192:Jolof
163:Krina
145:Mossi
141:Jolof
96:Niani
3105:Jeli
3066:Sofa
2864:MĂ©ma
2810:Qasa
2694:Wati
2618:ISBN
2599:ISBN
2580:ISBN
2557:ISBN
2538:ISBN
2519:ISBN
2500:ISBN
2481:ISBN
2464:OCLC
2430:ISBN
2411:ISBN
2384:ISBN
2365:ISBN
2338:ISBN
2310:ISBN
2291:ISBN
2272:ISBN
2253:ISBN
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2197:ISBN
2175:ISBN
2156:ISBN
2137:ISBN
2118:ISBN
2090:ISBN
2071:ISBN
2044:ISBN
1202:ISBN
1175:ISBN
1124:link
1110:2015
972:Arma
637:and
605:and
499:Mema
421:Sofa
255:and
249:mari
190:and
170:The
153:Fula
110:Size
2890:Gao
2880:Dia
2460:239
2067:352
647:Gao
631:Gao
276:Ton
3166::
2714:Qu
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